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MODELING AND
ANALYSIS OF
PASSIVE VIBRATION
ISOLATION SYSTEMS
MODELING AND
ANALYSIS OF
PASSIVE VIBRATION
ISOLATION SYSTEMS
SUDHIR KAUL
Associate Professor, School of Engineering and Technology,
Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, NC, USA
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices,
or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety
and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter
of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-0-12-819420-1
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Typeset by Aptara, New Delhi, India

Contents
Preface vii
Dedication ix
Acknowledgment xi
1. Vibration isolation—background 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Isolator materials 1
1.3 Common elastomeric isolator designs 4
1.4 Stiffness and damping 4
1.5 Single-degree-of-freedom system 9
1.6 Multiple-degree-of-freedom system 16
Review exercises 24
References 25
2. Viscoelastic modeling—passive vibration isolators 27

2.1 Viscoelasticity 27
2.2 Voigt or Kelvin–Voigt model 28
2.3 Zener model 30
2.4 Maxwell–Voigt model 33
2.5 Generalized Maxwell or Maxwell Ladder model 37
2.6 Voigt fractional model 40
2.7 MV fractional model 42
2.8 Hysteresis model 44
Review exercises 58
References 60
3. Vibration isolation system modeling 61

3.1 Planar isolation systems (three degrees-of-freedom) 61
3.2 Spatial isolation systems (six DOFs) 67
3.3 Vibration isolation system with displacement limiting design 70
3.4 Vibration isolation system with hysteresis 73
Review exercises 88
References 89
v
vi Contents
4. Vibration isolation systems—nonlinear models 91

4.1 Single degree-of-freedom isolator with stiffness nonlinearity 91
4.2 Single-DOF isolator with stiffness and damping nonlinearity 99
4.3 Planar isolation system with stiffness and damping nonlinearity 104
4.4 Other nonlinear models 107
Review exercises 116
References 117
5. Modeling elastomer characteristics 119

5.1 Mullins effect 119
5.2 Payne effect 124
5.3 Aging 128
5.4 Creep 131
5.5 Hyperelastic model 135
References 141
6. Modeling inertia effect 143

6.1 Inertia effect 143
6.2 Inertia effect—single-degree-of-freedom model 145
6.3 Inertia effect—two-degree-of-freedom model 153
6.4 Inertia effect—three-degree-of-freedom model 162
References 169
7. Elastomeric vibration isolator design 171

7.1 Example—single-degree-of-freedom isolator design 171
7.2 Example—planar isolation system design 178
7.3 Example—spatial isolation system design 184
7.4 Case studies 190
References 207
Appendix A 209
Appendix B 215
Index 219
Preface
Passive vibration isolators are widely used in areas such as automotive,

aerospace, manufacturing, heavy machinery, and civil structures. On the one
hand, the design and development of passive vibration isolators is a mature
technology. On the other hand, analytical modeling of such isolation systems
is still evolving due to the multifaceted intersection of different disciplines.
The aim of this book is to serve as a reference for engineers and researchers
involved in the design,development,modeling,analysis,and testing of passive
vibration isolation systems.
This book has been divided into seven chapters.Chapter 1 presents a brief
review of vibration analysis and terminology. The aim of this chapter is to
serve as a refresher; this chapter can be used in conjunction with Appendix
A and Appendix B to recapitulate the content from an introductory course
in vibration analysis. Chapter 2 presents several linear viscoelastic rheological
models that can be used for a single-degree-of-freedom analysis of vibration
isolation systems. The main attributes of each model are discussed in this
chapter along with the governing relationships between critical model and
design parameters. Chapter 3 presents linear viscoelastic models for planar
(two- and three-degree-of-freedom) and spatial (six-degree-of-freedom)
vibration isolation systems. Additional models for piecewise behavior and
hysteretic systems are also presented in this chapter. Chapter 4 presents
nonlinear models for single-degree-of-freedom systems as well as multiple-
degree-of-freedom systems that can be used for the analysis of passive
vibration isolation. Although nonlinearities can be attributed to multiple
sources, this chapter primarily focuses on analytical models for a few specific
nonlinearities associated with stiffness and damping characteristics. Chapter
5 presents models that are typically used for the analysis of elastomeric
vibration isolators. Models that can be used to represent such phenomena
as Mullins effect, Payne effect, hyperelasticity, aging, and creep have been
discussed in this chapter. Chapter 6 presents models that can be used to
account for the inertia effect that is typically observed in vibration isolation
systems that need to withstand very high excitation frequencies. These
models allow an evaluation of vibroacoustic characteristics well above 1
kHz while capturing internal resonance and wave effects. Chapter 7 presents
examples and case studies that integrate concepts from the models presented
in the previous chapters of the book while demonstrating the influence of
vii
viii Preface
the vibration isolation system on overall system dynamics. There are two
brief appendices that may be used as a refresher on ordinary differential
equations and matrix algebra. Each chapter has a few exercise problems that
can be solved to test the understanding of the content presented in the
chapter.
The models discussed in this book encompass a wide range that can
be useful for the analysis of passive vibration isolation systems. While some
of the models presented in this book have been used for quite some time,
others are relatively new and offer useful options for gaining an analytical
insight that can be used for design. Furthermore, some of the models are
phenomenological, while others are semi-empirical; therefore allowing a
design or analysis engineer to customize the models during the product
development process. Some of the models for elastomeric materials and
nonlinear behavior that have been discussed in this book are active areas
of research and continue to be discussed and investigated in the existing
literature. A surge in the use of electric powertrains has resulted in new
requirements for passive vibration isolation systems, a few models presented
in this book are possible options for the analysis of internal resonance in
such systems. I hope that the variety of models discussed in this book is
useful in the design and development of passive vibration isolation systems
by holistically accounting for vibration response, system dynamics, design
parameters, and isolator design.
Dedication
Dedicated to my mother, whose life was a beacon of perseverance, resilience,

humility, and kindness.
Dedicated to my father, whose life continues to inspire me with an insatiable
love for learning.
ix
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge the help received from the entire publishing
team at Elsevier. I also want to acknowledge the support received from
Western Carolina University and all my colleagues, students, peers, and
collaborators over the years. While many individuals have helped in shaping
my understanding of the content of this book, two individuals merit
special mention. I want to express my gratitude to my graduate advisor
at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Dr. Anoop Dhingra, and my
supervisor at Harley Davidson Motor Company, Dr. Tim Hunter, for
introducing me to different aspects of passive vibration isolation. Finally, I
want to thank my wife for her love, patience, and understanding during this
endeavor.
I would be remiss in failing to acknowledge the contribution of many
individuals who have shaped my academic journey, this includes many
teachers from my school and professors from the universities I attended.
I also want to thank my sister for being my very first teacher and mentor.
xi
CHAPTER 1
Vibration isolation—
background
Contents
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Isolator materials 2
1.3 Common elastomeric isolator designs 4
1.4 Stiffness and damping 6
1.5 Single-degree-of-freedom system 9
1.6 Multiple-degree-of-freedom system 17
Review exercises 24
References 25
1.1 Introduction
The use of vibration isolators and vibration isolation systems is widely
prevalent in multiple applications such as automotive, railroad, aerospace,
heavy machinery, civil structures, etc. Some of the main reasons for using
a vibration isolator include mitigation of resonance peaks, reduction of
transmissibility, enhancement of fatigue life, improvement in ergonomics,
etc. in the presence of external or internal sources of dynamic excitation.
The design of a vibration isolator requires a close examination of multiple
considerations such as the source of dynamic excitation, range of excitation
frequency, excitation amplitude, allowable displacement, acceleration limits
of the isolated system, available design envelope, etc. Additionally, consider-
ations of environmental conditions, manufacturability, and material choice
are also important. All these considerations accentuate the importance of
a theoretical model that can reasonably predict the performance of the
isolation system before finalizing the design and before manufacturing
prototypes that can be used for testing. Therefore, it is critical to select a
suitable model that can be correlated to test results and eventually used to
finalize design details.
Modeling and Analysis of Passive Vibration Isolation Systems. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc.
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-819420-1.00007-8 All rights reserved. 1
2 Modeling and analysis of passive vibration isolation systems
1.2 Isolator materials

Vibration isolation can be achieved by using materials capable of providing
a combination of highly elastic behavior in conjunction with damping
properties. Pneumatic, hydraulic, elastic metal, and elastomeric designs are
commonly used in commercial vibration isolation applications. Elastomeric
materials are arguably most common and are extensively used in the industry
with a very commonly used design consisting of elastomeric material
bonded to metal plates or a metal core. Such isolators are typically called
elastomeric mounts. Natural rubber, neoprene, and butyl rubber are some of
the commonly used elastomers in commercial vibration isolators. Elastomers
provide a designer with a range of stiffness and damping characteristics
as well as an ability to withstand different environmental conditions. This
ability to satisfy performance requirements over a wide range of rugged
conditions along with the ease of manufacturing through a molding process
make elastomers a common choice for isolators during the design process.
Table 1.1 lists some of the commonly used elastomers for manufacturing
passive vibration isolators with a listing of some of their characteristics
that can be considered during design. In addition to the commonly used
elastomers, manufacturers often develop proprietary elastomeric recipes
to serve the needs of a specific design that may require a combination
of properties from different materials. Properties of elastomeric materials
can be changed significantly by changing their composition or by using
different blends.A typical manufacturing process of the raw material involves
vulcanization by adding sulfur and by the addition of accelerators, fillers, and
plasticizers (Mark, Erman, & Roland, 2013). The raw material is then used
in a molding process to produce a vibration isolator of the designed shape
and size to deliver the necessary stiffness and damping properties. While
there are many characteristics that are sought from the design of a vibration
isolator, some of the common technical properties that a designer seeks to
comprehend are damping, dynamic stiffness, environmental resistance, and
some of the inherent nonlinearities.
Metal springs have been commonly used for vibration isolation ap-
plications as they can be designed to offer a range of stiffness properties
in heavy machinery applications. Most of these designs do not allow
much flexibility with damping as most metal springs offer relatively low
material damping. Coil springs, disc springs, slotted springs, etc. are some
examples of metal springs commonly used in vibration isolation applications
(Rivin, 2003).
Vibration isolation—background 3
Table 1.1 Commonly used elastomeric materials.

Material Key characteristics
Natural rubber or Good processability, high elongation, high
polyisoprene (NR) tensile strength, relatively low damping
ratio, good bonding to metals,
moderate-to-low oil resistance,
moderate-to-low chemical resistance,
operating temperature: −30 to 160 °F.
Neoprene or Good abrasion resistance, good tear strength,
polychloroprene mechanical properties similar to NR,
moderate oil resistance, moderate chemical
resistance, flame retarding, operating
temperature: −20 to 180 °F.
Nitrile or acrylonitrile Good abrasion resistance, high oil resistance,
butadiene resistance to swelling, conductor of
electricity, operating temperature: −30 to
250 °F
Styrene butadiene High abrasion resistance, moderate-to-high
oil resistance, moderate-to-high chemical
resistance, good electrical insulator,
operating temperature: −20 to 210 °F
Ethylene-propylene-diene High abrasion resistance, relatively higher
terpolymer damping ratio, moderate tear resistance,
low oil resistance, low chemical resistance,
operating temperature −40 to 300 °F
In some cases, it is common to use a separate damper to augment

damping of the vibration isolation system. Viscous dampers are designed
to offer resistance to relative motion between two surfaces that are typically
separated through a fluid film. Some of these dampers can exhibit nonlinear
behavior due to strong temperature dependence. Since the early 1990s,
magnetorheological (MR) dampers have been developed by researchers and
manufacturers to provide smart damping properties that can be controlled
through input current to an electromagnet that in turn governs the behavior
of the damper. MR fluids consist of micron-sized particles in a carrier
fluid, an MR damper allows control over the apparent viscosity of the
fluid by controlling the magnetic flux of the electromagnet. Such a damper
is considered to be a semi-active system that can be used for vibration
isolation and control (Choi & Wereley, 2008; Dominguez, Sedaghati, &
Stiharu, 2004). Friction dampers and electromagnetic dampers are other
examples of dampers that have been used in some vibration isolation

applications.
A hydraulic mount, also called a hydromount, is another vibration isola-
tor that has been used in automotive applications. Such an isolator provides
properties that are amplitude dependent as well as frequency dependent. The
isolator typically consists of two chambers connected through a channel that
allows fluid passage from one chamber to the other. This design allows the
vibration isolator to exhibit low stiffness and high damping for dynamic
excitations with large amplitude and low frequency while demonstrating
low damping at small amplitude and high frequency vibrations (Truong
& Ahn, 2010). Different designs of hydromounts have been used in some
automotive applications to provide dynamic characteristics that can be tuned
to provide a frequency-dependent behavior.
1.3 Common elastomeric isolator designs

Some of the common designs of passive vibration isolators involve elas-
tomeric material bonded to metal plates or a metal core with a static member
that is assembled to a rigid frame and a dynamic member that separates
the isolated components from the source of dynamic excitation. There are
some designs that consist of elastomeric materials without being bonded to a
metal plate or a metal core, such designs typically do not need to withstand
high static loads. Passive elastomeric isolators are generally designed to be
under compression loading or shear loading with circular or rectangular
cross sections being the most commonly used. Grommets, bushings, etc.
are also common examples of passive elastomeric isolators. Some of the
commonly used design configurations of elastomeric isolators are shown in
Table 1.2.
Most elastomeric isolators exhibit varying amounts of creep. Creep is ex-
hibited in the form of an increasing deformation even when the load is static.
Creep behavior is exponential and time dependent. Upon removal of the
static load, creep is mostly reversible but leaves some residual strain or per-
manent set in the elastomer. Dynamic loads can also result in an increasing
deformation in elastomeric isolators with every loading cycle,this property is
often referred to as the dynamic set. In elastomeric isolator design, it is com-
mon to allow for 10% deflection to account for creep and dynamic set. Some
specific characteristics of elastomeric isolators will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 5.
Table 1.2 Examples of passive elastomeric isolator designs.

1.4 Stiffness and damping

Stiffness and damping are two main characteristics sought from a vibration
isolator and are used for characterizing a dynamic model. Stiffness identifies
the ability of a material to withstand applied force. The stiffness constant
or the spring constant (k) of an isolator is defined as the force per unit
deflection, expressed as follows:
F
k= (1.1)
x
In Eq. (1.1), F is the force and x is the corresponding deflection. A
relatively higher stiffness indicates a higher value of k, in turn implying that a
higher force is necessary to obtain the same amount of deflection. For linear
elastic behavior, the stiffness constant is directly related to the modulus of
elasticity of the material. The modulus of elasticity of elastomeric materials
is significantly lower, and the material regains its original shape and size very
quickly after undergoing significant deformation. Eq. (1.1) identifies a linear
relationship, some of the passive isolator designs may not be represented by
this stiffness model. Such cases will be discussed in the chapter on nonlinear
vibration isolators. Often, an equivalent stiffness is computed for developing
a dynamic model when multiple isolators (or spring elements) are connected
together. An example of calculating the equivalent stiffness is presented in
Example 1.1.
Example 1.1: Find the equivalent stiffness for the system of springs in (A)
parallel and (B) series shown in Fig. 1.1.
For the two springs in parallel F = (k1 + k2 )x, this can be identified
from the free-body diagram as an external force causes the same deflection
in both the springs. This relationship can be used to write the ratio of force
A B
Figure 1.1 Springs in parallel and springs in series.
and deflection as Fx = k1 + k2 . Therefore, for the two springs in parallel,

the equivalent spring constant can be expressed as the sum of the spring
constants: keq = k1 + k2 , thereby expressing the force-deflection ratio as
F
x
= keq . It can be seen that the equivalent spring constant (keq ) of the
springs in parallel is higher than the spring constant of each spring.In general,
the equivalent spring constant for any number of springs in parallel can be
calculated as keq = ki .For the two springs in series,F = k1 x1 = k2 x2 = keq x
i
as the force in both the springs remains the same. The overall deflection, x,
is the sum of the individual deflection x1 and x2 of each spring, x1 + x2 = x.
Substitution from the force equation results in the following: kF1 + kF2 = kFeq .
These two equations can be used to calculate the equivalent spring constant
of the two springs in series as keq = 1 +1 1 . The overall equivalent spring
k1 k2
constant keq of the springs in series is lesser than the spring constant of each
spring. In general, the equivalent spring constant for any number of springs
in series can be calculated as keq = 1 1 . It may be noted that spring
ki
elements may be connected through a combination of series and parallel
configurations. However, the equivalent spring constant of the system can
be calculated by using a term-by-term reduction of the series and parallel
configurations.
As vibration isolation systems can be subject to a wide range of excitation
frequencies, it is common to represent the force-deflection relationship in
terms of complex stiffness. For an input displacement of x = Xejωt and an
output force of f = Fej(ωt + ϕ ) , complex stiffness is the ratio between the force
and the corresponding displacement and is expressed as

f F F F k
k∗ = = e jϕ = cos(ϕ) + j sin(ϕ) = k + jk = k 1 + j
x X X X k
(1.2)
In Eq. (1.2), k∗ is complex stiffness that is often expressed in terms of the
magnitude and phase from Eq. (1.2) as

|k∗ | = k 2 + k 2 (1.3)

η= k
k
= tan(ϕ) (1.4)
In Eq. (1.3), |k∗ | is the magnitude of complex stiffness, often called

dynamic stiffness, and η is called the loss factor that is directly related to
the phase angle, ϕ, as seen in Eq. (1.4). This form of stiffness is commonly
used in case of hysteretic damping, with a lag between the applied force and
the resulting deformation.
Damping is a complex phenomenon that can be used to indirectly
represent the energy dissipated by the vibration isolation system during
repeated or cyclic loading. Viscous damping is commonly used to model
the damping of many vibration isolators. In some cases, hysteretic damping is
more suitable to represent the damping of a vibration isolator, which will be
discussed further in subsequent chapters.Three variables used to characterize
viscous damping are the damping constant, the critical damping constant,
and the damping ratio (also called the damping factor). The damping
constant (c) is defined as applied force per unit relative velocity
F
c= (1.5)
v
In Eq. (1.5), v is the relative velocity corresponding to the applied force, F.

Critical damping is defined to identify the limiting case between oscillatory
and nonoscillatory motion, and the critical damping constant is defined
as
√
cc = 2 km (1.6)
In Eq. (1.6), k is the stiffness constant and m is the mass of the system.
The damping ratio is defined as the unitless ratio between the damping
constant and the critical damping constant.
c
ξ= (1.7)
cc
In Eq. (1.7), ξ is the damping ratio. A system is said to be undamped

when the damping ratio is zero, this is an idealization that is sometimes
used in preliminary modeling of an isolation system. A system is said to be
underdamped when the damping ratio is between zero and one, this is the
most common case in vibration isolation modeling. A system is said to be
overdamped when the damping ratio is above one. If the damping ratio is
equal to one, the system is said to be critically damped. Vibration isolators are
most commonly modeled as spring-damper units with stiffness and damping
characteristics that are used to isolate a system from an excitation source or
to isolate one subsystem from another.
For hysteretic damping, an equivalent damping ratio, ξ eq , and an equiva-

lent damping constant, ceq , are defined as
η
ξeq = (1.8)
2
k √
ceq = = η mk (1.9)
ω
In Eqs. (1.8) and (1.9), η is the loss factor defined in Eq. (1.4). It may
be noted that the equivalent damping ratio and the equivalent damping
constant assume a harmonic response, with frequency ω, to a harmonic

excitation. The variables k and k are the variables associated with complex
stiffness, as seen in Eqs. (1.2) and (1.3). It may be noted that some systems may
exhibit friction damping,details about such damping can be found in various
studies (Balachandran & Magrab, 2019; Inman, 2014; Thomson & Dahleh,
1998; Inman, 2014; Meirovitch, 1997; Rao, 2007 2017; Tongue, 2002).
1.5 Single-degree-of-freedom system

Degree of freedom (DOF) is defined as the minimum number of inde-
pendent parameters needed to locate a rigid body in space. A single DOF
(SDOF) system is the simplest form of a vibrating system often used as a
preliminary model for vibration isolation. Such a model consists of a rigid
body connected to one or multiple springs or a spring-damper unit. The
system is said to be undamped if it is modeled without damping. This section
presents the solution of an SDOF system that will be used in subsequent
chapters. The equation of motion (EOM) for an undamped SDOF system
without any external excitation, shown in Fig. 1.2, can be expressed as
..
m x +kx = 0 (1.10)
In Eq. (1.10), m is the mass of the system and k is the stiffness constant,
while x is the deflection due to any external perturbation that the sys-
tem may be subject to (from its state of static equilibrium). Eq. (1.10) is
a homogeneous second-order differential equation with the following
solution:
x(t ) = c1 cos(ωnt ) + c2 sin(ωnt ) (1.11)
In Eq. (1.11), c1 and c2 are two constants that
can be determined from
the initial conditions of the system, and ωn = mk is the natural frequency
Figure 1.2 Undamped SDOF system-free vibration.
of the system. Eq. (1.11) provides the time (t) history of displacement for
the undamped system when it is perturbed from its static equilibrium. The
steps in the development of the solution in Eq. (1.11) are not presented here.
Appendix A provides a brief introduction to the solution of the second-
order differential equations.
The EOM for an undamped SDOF system in the presence of an
excitation input can be expressed as
..
m x +kx = f (1.12)
In Eq. (1.12), f is the excitation force. The solution to the EOM in
Eq. (1.12) is a combination of the homogeneous and the particular solution
for a general excitation force, f = f0 ejωt , with an excitation frequency of ω,
and can be written as
f0 /k
x(t ) = c1 cos(ωnt ) + c2 sin(ωnt ) + 2
(1.13)
1 − ωωn
The solution in Eq. (1.13) can be expressed in different forms depending

on the ratio between the excitation frequency and the natural frequency of
the system.
The EOM for a damped SDOF system with viscous damping and
without any external excitation, shown in Fig. 1.3, can be expressed as
.. .
m x +c x +kx = 0 (1.14)
The solution for the EOM of the damped system in Eq. (1.14) is
x(t ) = c1 eλ1t + c2 eλ2t (1.15)
Figure 1.3 Damped SDOF system—free vibration.
In Eq. (1.15), c1 and c2 are two constants that can be determined from
Also, the solution varies with the nature of λ1 and
the initial conditions.
2
λ2 , λ1,2 = − 2m c
± c
2m
− mk , to determine whether the system is
underdamped, overdamped, or critically damped. The steps needed for
solving the governing differential equation in Eq. (1.14) are provided in
Appendix A.
For vibration isolation, underdamping is the specific case of interest. For
underdamping, 0 < ξ < 1 and the solution in Eq. (1.15) can be modified as
follows:

x(t ) = e−ξ ωnt c1 cos(ωd t ) + c2 sin(ωd t ) (1.16)
In Eq. (1.16), c1 and c2 are two

constants that can be determined from
the initial conditions, and ωd = ωn 1 − ξ 2 is the damped frequency, while
ωn is the undamped natural frequency. It may be noted that for ξ = 0, the
solution in Eq. (1.16) becomes identical to the solution of the undamped
system in Eq. (1.11).
The EOM for a damped SDOF system in the presence of an excitation
input can be expressed as
..
m x +cx + kx = f (1.17)
In Eq. (1.17), f is the excitation force. The solution to the EOM in

Eq. (1.17) is a combination of the homogeneous and the particular solution
for a general excitation force, f = f0 ejωt , with an excitation frequency of ω,
and can be expressed as

f0
x(t ) = e−ξ ωnt c1 cos(ωd t ) + c2 sin(ωd t ) + e j(ωt−ϕ)
2 1/2
(k − mω2 )2 + (ωc)
(1.18)
In Eq. (1.18), ϕ is the phase angle between excitation force and the
resulting displacement and can be found as

−1 ωc
ϕ = tan (1.19)
k − mω2
Examples of the response of undamped and damped SDOF systems are
presented in Example 1.2.
Although the closed-form solution of Eq. (1.17) is readily available, it is
common to express the second-order equation as a system of the first-order
equations as follows:
.
x1 = x2 (1.20)
. c k f
x2 = − x2 − x1 + (1.21)
m m m
.
In Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21), x1 = x and x2 = x The system in Eqs. (1.20) and
(1.21) is equivalent to Eq. (1.17). The main advantage of expressing the
second-order differential equation as a system of the first-order differential
equations is the use of numerical methods. This is particularly beneficial for
a nonlinear system as a closed-form solution may not be readily available for
such a system. The system in Eqs. (1.20) and (1.21) can also be expressed in
a matrix form as
.
x1 0 1 x1 0
. = + 1 f (1.22)
x2 − mk − mc x2 m
The formulation in Eq. (1.22) is commonly called the state-space form

of the system.
The solution in this section is limited to harmonic excitation. The
excitation force may not always be harmonic. In such cases, alternative
methods are used to solve the governing EOM. Methods such as Fourier
series, convolution, Laplace transform, etc. can be found in introductory text
books such as (Rao, 2017) (Thomson & Dahleh, 1998). A brief review of
some of the properties of the Laplace transform and the Fourier transform
is provided in Appendix A.
Figure 1.4 Undamped SDOF—free vibration response.
Example 1.2a: For an undamped SDOF system, as shown in Figure 1.2,

with a mass (m) of 1 kg, a stiffness constant (k) of 10,000 N/m, and the
given initial conditions, plot the free vibration response. The given initial
.
conditions are as follows: x(0) = 0.01 m and x(0) = 0.1 m/s. Using the
solution from Eq. (1.11) and applying the initial conditions, the two constants
can be found as c1 = 0.01 and c2 = 0.001. Free vibration response can be
expressed as
x(t ) = 0.01 cos(100t ) + 0.001 sin(100t ) (E1.2.1)
The natural frequency of the system is 100 rad/s or 15.9155 Hz and the
natural time-period is the reciprocal of the natural frequency, 0.0628 s. The
first few cycles of free vibration response are shown in Fig. 1.4 by plotting
the response, x(t).
Example 1.2b: For a damped SDOF system, as shown in Fig. 1.3, with
a mass of 1 kg, a stiffness of 10,000 N/m, a viscous damping constant of
50 N-s/m, and the given initial conditions, plot the free vibration response.
.
The given initial conditions are as follows: x(0) = 0.01 m and x(0) =
0.1 m/s. The critical damping constant for the system is 200 N-s/m. This
Figure 1.5 Damped SDOF—free vibration response.
can be used to calculate the damping ratio of 0.25. As the damping ratio is
less than one, the solution for an underdamped system in Eq. (1.16) can be
used. The natural frequency of the system is 100 rad/s. Applying the initial
conditions, the free vibration response can be expressed as
x(t ) = e−25t [0.01 cos(96.82t ) + 0.0036 sin(96.82t )] (E1.2.2)
The undamped natural frequency of the system is 100 rad/s and the
undamped natural time-period is 0.0628 s. However, the damped natural
frequency is 96.82 rad/s and the corresponding time-period is 0.0649 s.
The free vibration response of the viscous damped system is shown in
Fig. 1.5.
In addition to using the time domain, it is often beneficial to use the
frequency domain for vibration analysis. Applying Fourier transform to the
EOM in Eq. (1.17) with zero initial conditions yields the following:
−mω2 X (ω) + jcωX (ω) + kX (ω) = F (ω) (1.23)
In Eq. (1.23), X(ω) and F(ω) are the Fourier transforms for x(t) and f(t),
respectively. The transformed equation in Eq. (1.23) is often expressed in
the form of the ratio between X(ω) and F(ω), called the frequency response
function (FRF), and is expressed as
X (ω) 1
= (1.24)
F (ω) (k − mω2 + jcω)
The ratio in Eq.(1.24) is commonly used to plot the magnitude and phase
of the frequency response at varying frequencies of the excitation force. It
may be noted that the frequency response is plotted in multiple formats,
typically in semi-log or log-log format. Also, it is common to plot velocity
or acceleration response instead of the displacement response shown in
Eq. (1.24).
Impulse response is another commonly used means of calculating the
response of an SDOF system. This can be computed by writing the transfer
function for the system using the EOM in Eq. (1.17). Using the Laplace
transform and zero initial conditions yields the transfer function, H(s), of
this system as
X (s) 1
H (s) = = (1.25)
F (s) (ms + cs + k)
2
In Eq. (1.25), X(s) and F(s) are the Laplace transformations for x(t) and f(t),
respectively. This form is typically called the displacement transfer function.
Eq. (1.25) can be alternately expressed as
X (s) 1/m
H (s) = = 2 (1.26)
F (s) s + 2ξ ωn s + ωn2
All variables in Eq. (1.26) are already defined earlier in this section. For
an impulse input force, F(s) = 1, and the inverse Laplace of the transfer
function in Eq. (1.26) is called the impulse response of the system and is
often useful in experimental characterization. The impulse response for the
transfer function in Eq. (1.26) can be expressed as

−1 −1 1/m
h(t ) = L [H (s)] = L (1.27)
s2 + 2ξ ωn s + ωn2
In Eq. (1.27), L−1 is the inverse Laplace transform and h(t) is the impulse
response in time domain. Example 1.3 provides an example of the frequency
response of a damped SDOF system.
Example 1.3: For a damped SDOF system, as shown in Figure 1.3, with a
mass of 1 kg, a stiffness of 10,000 N/m, and a viscous damping constant of
50 N-s/m, plot the magnitude and phase of the frequency response.
Figure 1.6 Magnitude response.
Using the form expressed in Eq. (1.24), the frequency response for the
given system can be expressed as
X (ω) 1
= (E1.3.1)
F (ω) 10,000 − ω2 + j50ω
It may be noted that the units of the frequency response in eq. (E1.3.1) are
m/N. The magnitude and phase for the frequency response can be expressed
as

X (ω) 1

F (ω) = (E1.3.1a)
(10,000 − ω2 )2 + (50ω)2

X (ω) −1 50ω
∠ = −tan (E1.3.1b)
F (ω) 10,000 − ω2
The magnitude and phase response is plotted in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7,
respectively.
Figure 1.7 Phase response.
1.6 Multiple-degree-of-freedom system

Most systems often consist of multiple DOF with different forms of coupling
between the rigid bodies whose motion is intertwined. This implies that
two or more independent parameters are needed to locate such a rigid
body in space. This section summarizes the general solution for a multi-
DOF (MDOF) system that is often expressed in a matrix form. A brief
introduction to matrix algebra is provided in Appendix B. The EOM
of an undamped MDOF system without any external excitation can be
formulated by combining the individual EOM as follows:
..
M X + KX = 0 (1.28)
In Eq. (1.28), M and K are the n × n mass and stiffness matrices, while
X is n × 1 for an MDOF system with n DOF. For a general solution of
X = X0 eλt , Eq. (1.28) can be written as
(λ2 I + M −1 K )X0 = 0 (1.29)
In Eq. (1.29), I is an identity matrix. A nontrivial solution of the system
in Eq. (1.29) can be obtained by solving for the values of λ, also called
the eigenvalues of the system. These eigenvalues can be found from the
determinant (det) of the matrix as
det(λ2 I + M −1 K ) = 0 (1.30)
The values of λ from the solution of Eq. (1.30) are the undamped natural
frequencies of the system. For each eigenvalue, λi , a corresponding vector of
size n × 1, ψ i , can be computed from Eq. (1.29), these are the corresponding
mode shapes or eigenvectors of the system. Some critical properties of mode
shapes are as follows:
• Mode shapes (ψ) can be scaled arbitrarily.
• Mode shapes have a weighted orthogonality property. This implies that
for two different mode shapes, ψ r and ψ s (where, r = s), ψrT Mψs = 0
and ψrT Kψs = 0.
• For r = s, ψrT Mψs = Mr and ψrT Kψs = Kr , where Mr and Kr are
diagonal matrices. The values of Mr and Kr are called the modal mass
and the modal stiffness, respectively.
• As mode shapes can be scaled arbitrarily, values of modal mass and modal
stiffness are not unique or well-defined numbers for a system.
• Specific scaling of mode shapes can be performed to obtain the modal
mass matrix as an identity matrix. This is often useful as the inverse
of an identity matrix is the identity matrix itself and its use will be
demonstrated in the subsequent part of this section.
The general EOM for a damped MDOF system with an external
excitation can be expressed as
.. .
M X + C X + KX = F (1.31)
In Eq. (1.31), M, C, and K are the mass, damping, and stiffness matrices,
respectively, each system matrix is n × n, where n is the number of DOF
of the MDOF system. Also, X, is an n × 1 matrix and F is the n × 1
external force or moment matrix. The nature of the system matrices can
vary significantly from one system to another. However, regardless of the
nature of the system matrices, the EOMs can be diagonalized and solved in
terms of modal coordinates, using some of the properties of mode shapes
discussed earlier in this section. For proportional damping, the damping
matrix can be expressed as a linear combination of the mass and stiffness
matrices, with C = aM + bK, where a and b are real constants. Using a
coordinate transformation of X = ψq, where ψ is the mode shape matrix,
and premultiplying Eq. (1.31) by ψ T , the following diagonalized system is
obtained:
.. .
ψ T Mψ q +ψ T Cψ q +ψ T Kψq = ψ T F (1.32)
It may be noted that ψ consists of all the mode shapes. The EOM yield
a system of equations that are uncoupled and can be solved individually
to solve for the values of q, these values can then be combined as per the
coordinate transformation to find the actual solution.The EOM in Eq.(1.31),
using the formulation in Eq. (1.32), can be expressed as
.. .
Mr q +Cr q +Kr q = F (1.33)
In Eq. (1.33), Mr , Cr , and Kr are diagonal matrices, each matrix is n × n,
while F = ψ T F is n × 1. The masses in Mr are called the modal masses
and the stiffness values in Kr are called modal stiffnesses. However, as mode
shapes are scaled arbitrarily, the modal mass and modal stiffness may not be
unique or well defined. This can be resolved by scaling such that all modal
mass values are 1, thereby yielding a modal mass matrix, Mr , that is an identity
matrix.
In case of nonproportional damping, it is not possible to decouple the
damping matrix. This is called general damping. In such cases, it is common
to convert the EOM of the system to a state-space formulation and solve the
eigenvalue problem. For general damping, the EOM for a damped MDOF
system, as shown in Eq. (1.31), is equivalently expressed as
.
C M X.. K 0n×n X. F
+ = (1.34)
M 0n×n X 0n×n −M X 0n×1
In Eq. (1.34), 0n × n is the n×n zero matrix and 0n × 1 is the n × 1 zero
matrix. Eq. (1.34) can be written as a first-order system as follows:
.
AZ +BZ = F (1.35)

C M
In Eq. (1.35), Z = [X Ẋ ]T , F = [F 0n×1 ]T , A = and
M 0n×n

K 0n×n
B= . The eigenvalue problem for Eq. (1.35) can be solved to
0n×n −M
find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors by solving the following:
(A−1 B − λI )ψ = 0 (1.36)
In Eq. (1.36), λi are the eigenvalues and the corresponding ψ i are the
eigenvectors. An example of a proportionally damped and a nonpropor-
tionally damped two-DOF system is provided in Example 1.4.
Example 1.4: For a proportionally damped two-DOF system shown in

Fig. 1.8, find the undamped and damped natural frequencies and mode
shapes. Diagonalize the EOMs by using modal coordinates. The following
data are provided: m1 = 2 kg, m2 = 5 kg, k1 = k2 = k3 = 104 N/m. Use
proportional damping with a = 0.133 s−1 and b = 6.7 × 10−4 s.
How would the governing EOM be solved if the system is nonpro-
portionally
damped with the following general damping: matrix: C =
17 −1
N-s/m?
−1 27
The EOM of the system in Fig. 1.8 can be identified from the free-body
diagrams of the two masses as
.. . . .
m1 x1 = −k1 x1 − k2 (x1 − x2 ) − c1 x1 − c2 (x1 − x2 ) (E1.4.1)
.. . . .
m2 x2 = k2 (x1 − x2 ) − k3 x2 + c2 (x1 − x2 ) − c3 x2 (E1.4.2)
These EOM can be rewritten as follows:
.. . .
m1 x1 + (k1 + k2 )x1 − k2 x2 + (c1 + c2 )x1 − c2 x2 = 0 (E1.4.3)
.. . .
m2 x2 − k2 x1 + (k2 + k3 )x2 − c2 x1 + (c2 + c3 )x2 = 0 (E1.4.4)
Using the governing EOM in Eqs. (E1.4.3)
and (E1.4.4), the mass matrix
2 0
of the system can be expressed as M = , and the stiffness matrix
0 5

2 × 104 −1 × 104
of the system can be expressed as K = . Using
−1 × 104 2 × 104
the given constants
for proportional damping, the damping matrix can be
13.66 −6.7
written as C =
−6.7 14.065
As seen in Eq. (1.30), evaluating M−1 K will assist in the identification of
the natural frequencies and mode shapes, this matrix is as follows:

−1 10000 −5000
M K=
−2000 4000
Figure 1.8 Two degree-of-freedom system - proportional damping.

The eigenvalues of this matrix yield the following: λ21 = 2641 and
λ22= 11,359.The eigenvectors corresponding to λ1 and λ2 are ψ 1 = [0.5620
0.8271]T and ψ 2 = [0.9650 − 0.2623]T. The eigenvectors are combined
0.5620 0.9650
to form the mode shape matrix as ψ = . The mode
0.8271 −0.2623
shape matrix can be used for the transformation of X = ψq to diagonalize
the mass, damping, and stiffness matrices. For this system, X = [x1 x2 ]T and
q = [q1 q2 ]T . The transformed matrices are as follows:

4.0522 0
Mr =
0 2.2065

1.0702 × 104 0
Kr =
0 2.5063 × 104

7.7075 0
Cr =
0 17.08
The diagonalized elements of Mr and Kr can be used to find the natural
frequencies as

k1r
ω1 = = 51.39 rad/s = 8.18 Hz
m1r

k2r
ω2 = = 106.58 rad/s = 16.96 Hz
m2r
The damping ratios can also be computed from the diagonalized ele-
ments of Mr , Cr , and Kr as
c1r
ξ1 = √ = 0.0185
2 m1r k1r
c2r
ξ2 = √ = 0.0363
2 m2r k2r
The damped natural frequencies of the system are ωd1 = 8.17 Hz and
ωd2 = 16.95 Hz. The transformed EOM can be expressed as
.. .
m1r q1 + c1r q1 + k1r q1 = 0 (E1.4.5)
.. .
m2r q2 + c2r q2 + k2r q2 = 0 (E1.4.6)
Each transformed EOM can be solved independently by using the
solution for an SDOF system, one at a time. These solutions can then be
combined by using the transformation equation to provide the solution for

x1 and x2 .
If the system is nonproportionally damped, the EOM can be expressed
as
.. .
m1 0 x1 c1 + c2 −c2 x1 k 1 + k2 −k2 x1 0
.. + . + =
0 m2 x2 −c2 c2 + c3 x2 −k2 k 2 + k3 x 2 0
(E1.4.7)
For ⎡this system,
⎤ the state vectors are combined in the following form:
x1 (t )
⎢x2 (t )⎥
y(t ) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣x. 1 (t )⎦
.
x2 (t )
The system matrices can be combined as follows:

C M
A= (E1.4.8)
M 02×2

K 02×2
B= (E.1.4.9)
02×2 −M
.
The system can now be expressed as A y +By = 0. The eigenvalue
problem for this system can now be expressed as follows: (A−1 B − λI)
ϕ= 0, where λ represents the eigenvalues and ϕ represents the eigenvectors.
For this nonproportionally damped system, using the general damping
matrix yields the following eigenvalues: −4.12 ± j106.49 and −2.83 ±
j51.32. It may be noted that these eigenvalues are in the form of −ξ i ωi ±
jωdi . The corresponding mode shapes for the general damped system with
nonproportional damping are:
[−0.0004 ± j0.009 0.0002 ± j.00025 0.9649 −0.2623 ± j0.008]T
and
[− 0.0008 ± j0.0109 −0.009 ± j0.0161 0.5621 ± j0.0083 0.8268]T
For the system in Eq. (1.31), transformation into the frequency domain
by using the Fourier transform will result in the following:
−ω2 MX (ω) + jωCX (ω) + KX (ω) = F (ω) (1.37)
It may be noted that X(ω) and F(ω) are n × 1, where n is the number
of DOF of the system. The transformed system in Eq. (1.37) consists of a
system of equations corresponding to the DOF of the MDOF system, this
can be used to express the frequency response as

−1
X (ω) = (−ω2 M ) + ( jωC) + K F (ω) (1.38)
For the frequency response in Eq. (1.38), the output is typically obtained
by exciting one DOF at a time to determine the response of all the DOF
across a frequency sweep. An example of the frequency response of an
MDOF system is provided in Example 1.5.
Example 1.5: For the proportionally damped two-DOF system shown in
Fig. 1.8, plot the frequency response. Use the following data: m1 = 2 kg,
m2 = 5 kg, k1 = k2 = k3 = 104 N/m, C = 0.133M + 6.7 × 10−4 K.

2 0
The system matrices for this system are as follows: M = ,K =
0 5

2 × 104 −1 × 104 13.66 −6.7
,C = . Using the formulation
−1 × 104 2 × 104 −6.7 14.065
in the frequency domain, as shown in Eq. (1.38), with a unit excitation
amplitude of 1 N at each DOF, the magnitude of the frequency response
is plotted in Fig. 1.9.
Figure 1.9 Frequency response magnitude.

It may be noted that it is common to express the frequency response in

alternative forms such as the velocity frequency response or the acceleration
frequency response. These forms are particularly useful for experimental
characterization. Furthermore, it may be noted that the frequency response
is used in conjunction with modal decomposition properties to express
the response in terms of modal superposition. This has not been discussed
in this chapter but can be found in any introductory text on vibration
analysis. A few such books are listed in the references of this chapter
(Balachandran & Magrab, 2019; Inman, 2014; Meirovitch, 1997; Rao, 2007;
Rao, 2017; Rivin, 2003; Thomson & Dahleh, 1998; Tongue, 2002).
Review exercises
1. For an SDOF system attached to a spring-damper unit, as shown in
Fig. 1.3, find the undamped and damped natural frequency as well as the
damping ratio. Also, write the EOM and the transfer function for this system.
The following data can be used: m = 1 kg, c = 100 Ns/m, k = 106 N/m.
2. For the proportionally damped system with two-DOF system shown in
Fig. 1.10, find the natural frequencies (damped and undamped) and mode
shapes. Use the following data: m1 = 2 kg, m2 = 5 kg, k1 =k2 =k3 = 104 N/m.
Use proportional damping with C = 5M+0.0001 K. Use the mode shape
matrix to perform coordinate transformation and decouple the EOMs. Use
the decoupled EOMs to determine the natural frequencies and damping
ratios.
3. Plot the magnitude and phase of the frequency response for the SDOF
system from review exercise 1. Justify the response and discuss the results.
4. Plot the magnitude and phase of the frequency response for the two-
DOF system from review exercise 2 (refer to Fig. 1.10). Discuss the results in
the context of the results from review exercise 2.
Figure 1.10 Two degree-of-freedom system.

References
Balachandran, B., Magrab, E.B., 2019. Vibrations, third ed. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK.
Choi, Y.-T., Wereley, N.M., 2008. Shock isolation systems using magnetorheological dampers.
J. Vib. Acoust., 130, 024503-1–6.
Dominguez, A., Sedaghati, R., Stiharu, I., 2004. Modelling the hysteresis phenomenon of
magnetorheological dampers. Smart Mater. Struct., 13, 1351–1361.
Inman, D.J., 2014. Engineering Vibration, fourth ed. Pearson, Hoboken, NJ, USA.
Mark, J., Erman, B., Roland, M., 2013. The Science and Technology of Rubber, fourth ed.
Academic Press, Waltham, MA, USA.
Meirovitch, L., 1997. Principles and Techniques of Vibrations. Pearson, Hoboken, NJ, USA.
Rao, S.S., 2007. Vibration of Continuous Systems. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, USA.
Rao, S.S., 2017. Mechanical Vibrations, sixth ed. Pearson, Hoboken, NJ, USA.
Rivin, E.I., 2003. Passive Vibration Isolation. ASME Press, New York, NY, USA.
Thomson, W.T., Dahleh, M.D., 1998. Theory of Vibration with Applications, fifth ed. Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA.
Tongue, B.H., 2002. Principles of Vibration, second ed. Oxford University Press, New York,
NY, USA.
Truong, T.Q., Ahn, K.K., 2010. A new type of semi-active hydraulic engine mount using
controllable area of inertia track. J. Sound Vib., 329, 247–260.
CHAPTER 2
Viscoelastic modeling—
passive vibration isolators
Contents
2.1 Viscoelasticity 27
2.2 Voigt or Kelvin–Voigt model 28
2.3 Zener model 30
2.4 Maxwell–Voigt model 33
2.5 Generalized Maxwell or Maxwell Ladder model 37
2.6 Voigt fractional model 40
2.7 MV fractional model 42
2.8 Hysteresis model 44
Review exercises 58
References 60
2.1 Viscoelasticity
The exhibition of a combination of viscous and elastic behavior is defined
as viscoelasticity. Viscoelastic behavior is often modeled as a combination
of linear behavior of elastic solids as per Hooke’s law and linear behav-
ior of viscous fluids as per Newton’s law. The theory of viscoelasticity
allows accommodating material behavior that involves storage of mechanical
energy as well as dissipation of energy (Christensen, 2003). Most of the
passive vibration isolators exhibit viscoelastic behavior as they are designed
to provide stiffness and damping characteristics to isolate a system from
dynamic forces while allowing for a means of dissipating energy. The nature
of viscoelasticity can vary significantly from one vibration isolator to another
as the behavior can depend on the design, material selection, geometrical
attributes, environmental conditions, etc. As a result, an appropriate model
that represents key characteristics of the isolator needs to be judiciously
selected. For isotropic materials, it is common to represent the constituent
stress–strain relationship of viscoelastic materials in the form of a governing
differential equation. Such a constituent relationship can be adjusted to allow
incorporating a varying number of spring-damper elements and model any
time lag in resistance to deformation upon the application of a load while
also modeling some aspects of time-dependent behavior. Furthermore, these
Modeling and Analysis of Passive Vibration Isolation Systems. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc.
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-819420-1.00003-0 All rights reserved. 27
constituent relationships can be directly linked to mechanical models to

identify critical characteristics of the vibration isolator design through testing
and model validation. Many viscoelastic materials exhibit strong influence
of temperature and frequency on their dynamic properties. While the extent
of this influence varies from one material to another, it is generally observed
that the influence of these two variables can be divided into three regimes
called the glassy (at a relatively low temperature), transition, and rubbery
(at a relatively high temperature) regions due to molecular mobility at
the microscopic level. While the storage modulus of viscoelastic materials
reduces with increasing temperature (going from glassy to rubbery region),
the loss factor typically increases as the temperature increases from the glassy
region to the transition region and then reduces as the temperature further
increases from the transition region to the rubbery region. An increase in
excitation frequency generally results in an increase in the storage modulus
of viscoelastic materials. Some of these characteristics can be described by
some of the models discussed in this chapter and the subsequent chapters.
2.2 Voigt or Kelvin–Voigt model

The Voigt or Kelvin–Voigt model is the simplest viscoelastic model that is
very commonly used to model a vibration isolator. This model consists of a
spring element and a damping element that are parallel to each other. This
model superposes the elastic behavior and the viscous behavior of an isolator,
a representation of this model is shown in Fig. 2.1.
As can be seen from Fig. 2.1, this model is the same as the general spring-
damper system discussed in Chapter 1. Therefore, the governing equation
of motion (EOM) of this system is the differential equation in Eq. (1.17)
Figure 2.1 Voigt or Kelvin–Voigt model.

Viscoelastic modeling—passive vibration isolators 29
in Chapter 1. For an isolator designed to be under shear, the stress–strain

relationship for the Voigt model of the isolator can be expressed as
dγ
τ (t ) = G0 γ + G1 (2.1)
dt
In Eq. (2.1), τ is the shear stress and γ is the shear strain, and G0 and
G1 are positive coefficients that can be defined in terms of geometrical and
other related parameters of the isolator. The reaction force of the spring-
damper element as a result of any perturbation from static equilibrium can
be expressed as
.
f (t ) = c y + ky (2.2)
In Eq. (2.2), f(t) is the time history of the reaction force in the loading
direction, while y is the corresponding displacement about static equi-
librium. Using zero initial conditions and applying Laplace transform to
Eq. (2.2) results in the following:
F (s) = (k + cs)(s) (2.3)
In Eq. (2.3), F(s) is the Laplace transform of f(t), (s) is the Laplace
transform of y(t), and s is the Laplace operator.
For an isolator under double shear, τ = 2A f
and γ = δh , where δ is the
deflection in the isolator corresponding to the applied force, f. The isolator
under double shear has a thickness h with the area A being subject to shear.
It may be noted that δ and yare being used interchangeably, that is, δ = y,
and (s) represents the Laplace transform of both the variables. Substitution
of these variables in Eq. (2.1) yields the following results:
f δ 1 dδ
= G0 + G1 (2.4)
2A h h dt
Applying Laplace transform to Eq. (2.4) with zero initial conditions
results in the force-displacement relationship in the Laplace domain as
2A
F (s) = (G0 + G1 s)(s) (2.5)
h
Comparison of the results of Eqs. (2.3) and (2.5) provides the coefficients
in Eq. (2.1) in terms of design variables of the isolator as G0 = 2A h
k and
G1 = 2A c. Also, Eq. (2.5) can be used to write the stress-strain transfer
h
function of the isolator as

F (s)/2A
= (G0 + G1 s) = G(s) (2.6)
(s)/h
In Eq. (2.6), G(s) is called the complex modulus. The complex modulus
is defined as the ratio between stress and strain. In the frequency domain,
the complex modulus can be expressed as

G(ω) = (G0 + jωG1 ) = G + jG (2.7)

In Eq. (2.7), G and G are the real and imaginary components of
the complex modulus, called the storage modulus and the loss modulus,

respectively. For the complex modulus in Eq. (2.7), G = G0 and G = ωG1 .
These moduli can be determined from experimental characterization of a
vibration isolator. Furthermore, the coefficients of the complex modulus
can be directly related to the design characteristics of the isolator such as its
geometry, stiffness constant, and damping constant. The ratio between the

loss modulus, G , and the storage modulus, G , is called the loss factor, and
is also commonly referred to as the loss tangent.
The governing EOM of a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system
supported by an isolator with a Voigt model, as shown in Fig. 2.1, can be
expressed as
mÿ + c ẏ + ky = f (t ). (2.8)
In Eq. (2.8), m is the mass of the system supported by the vibration
isolator and f(t) is the external dynamic force. The EOM is written about
the state of static equilibrium, this implies that the EOM does not account
for the static deflection due to the weight of the isolated system.
It may be noted that the governing equations have been derived for
the Voigt model in this section with the isolator designed to be under
double shear. A similar sequence of steps can be carried out for any other
configuration.Furthermore,the viscoelastic model assumes that the behavior
of the isolator exhibits a lag between the applied force and the resulting
deformation. This assumption is typically valid for many vibration isolator
designs due to inherent damping.
2.3 Zener model

The Zener model is a modified form of the Voigt model that introduces
a Maxwell element that is parallel to the spring element, instead of the
damping element in the Voigt model.A Maxwell element consists of a spring
element and a damper in series. This model is shown in Fig. 2.2.
For an isolator under shear, the stress–strain relationship for the Zener
model of the isolator can be expressed as
dτ dγ
τ (t ) + D1 = G0 γ + G1 . (2.9)
dt dt
Viscoelastic modeling—passive vibration isolators 31
Figure 2.2 Zener model.
In Eq. (2.9), D1 , G0 , and G1 are the coefficients of the Zener model. For
an isolator under double shear, Eq. (2.9) can be expressed as
f D1 df δ 1 dδ
+ = G0 + G1 . (2.10)
2A 2A dt h h dt
Applying Laplace transform to Eq. (2.10) with zero initial conditions
results in the following:
2A
F (s)(1 + D1 s) = (G0 + G1 s)(s). (2.11)
h
The variables in Eq. (2.11) are similar to the variables defined in the
previous section for the Voigt model.
The reaction force of the isolator using the Zener model can be expressed
as
f (t ) = ky + c1 (ẏ − ẏ1 ). (2.12)
As there is an additional nodal degree-of-freedom (DOF) due to the
node in the Maxwell element between the spring and the damper, the
equilibrium equation at the node is
c1 (ẏ − ẏ1 ) = k1 y1 . (2.13)
In Eqs. (2.12) and (2.13), y1 is the displacement at the node between
the spring and the damper. Applying Laplace transform with zero initial
conditions to Eq. (2.12) results in the following:
F (s) = (k + c1 s)(s) − c1 sY1 (s). (2.14)
In Eq.(2.14), Y1 (s) is the Laplace transform of y1 (t).Application of Laplace
transform with zero initial conditions to Eq. (2.13) is used to determine Y1 (s)
in terms of (s) as
c1 s
Y1 (s) = (s). (2.15)
k1 + c1 s
Y1 (s) from Eq. (2.15) is substituted in Eq. (2.14) to eliminate Y1 (s) and
express the governing relationship between F(s) and (s) as

c1 kc1
1 + s F (s) = k + s + c1 s (s). (2.16)
k1 k1
The polynomial coefficients of Eq. (2.16) can be directly compared to
Eq. (2.11) to determine the coefficients of the Zener model as D1 = kc11 ,
G0 = 2A h
k,G1 = 2A ( k1 +c1 ).Furthermore,the stress–strain transfer function
h kc1
for the isolator can be expressed in the following form:

F (s)/2A G0 + G1 s
= . (2.17)
(s)/h 1 + D1 s
The force-displacement transfer function for the Zener model can be
expressed as

F (s) k + kc1
k1
+ c1 s
= . (2.18)
(s) 1 + kc11 s
It may be noted that Eq. (2.17) is written in the form of a ratio between
stress and strain to express the ratio as the complex modulus for the Zener
model. Furthermore, it may be noted that the force-displacement ratio in
frequency domain is often referred to as dynamic stiffness in the literature.
The governing EOM of an SDOF system supported by an isolator with
a Zener model, as shown in Fig. 2.2, can be expressed as
mÿ + c1 (ẏ − ẏ1 ) = f (t ). (2.19)
In Eq. (2.19), m is the mass of the system supported by the vibration

isolator.Also,the EOM in Eq.(2.19) will need to be used in conjunction with
the nodal equation in Eq. (2.13) to determine the system response in time
domain. It may be noted that although the Zener model has been developed
for an SDOF isolator in this section, the entire model consists of two DOFs
due to the node in the Maxwell element. The frequency response for the
Zener model can be derived by using Fourier transform for Eq. (2.19) and
eliminating nodal deflection by using the equilibrium equation at the node.
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— Je ne pouvais me faire à voir Georges comme il était. Et
quand tu y es entré, j’ai eu peur. Peur qu’on te tue. Peur qu’on fasse
de toi ce qu’on avait fait de lui. Peur de tout. Mais tu as vaincu ma
peur. Tu m’as vaincue. Je dois tout cela à la guerre.
— Elle n’est pas finie. Je puis mourir.
— Non, tu es plus fort que ma peur, plus fort que la guerre. Tu
traînes dans ta force avec moi ce pauvre Georges lui-même. Tu es
vivant. Plus que tu ne crois. Tu es vivant comme Richard. L’esprit de
vie, dans cette guerre, t’a traversé comme les autres, et comme tu
es plus noble que les autres, tu as fait plus que les autres, contre tes
idées, contre tes goûts, contre ta foi. Je t’aime.
Précisément, l’infirme entrait, avec sa mère. Elle avait une main
posée sur son épaule, pour le guider. Il marchait comme marchent
les aveugles, le front levé, plongeant sur son pilon, à chaque pas, le
buste roide, parce qu’il n’avait plus le balancier de ses deux bras. Il
s’arrêta à trois pas d’eux, paraissant attendre qu’ils parlent. Ils
s’étaient tus. Pierre le regardait avec une douleur furieuse, Élisabeth
avec une tendresse exaltée, mais aucun d’eux n’osait parler. Il était
le remords vivant et le témoignage mystique. Il dit :
— Pierre, Lise, vous êtes là ?
— Oui, mon Georges.
— Je suis content que vous vous mariiez demain. Vous savez
que c’est un peu ma faute. Maman voulait attendre la fin de la
guerre.
Il eut un sourire pâle, et attendit. Il semblait toujours attendre
quelque chose qui ne viendrait plus. Cependant, aidé par sa mère, il
s’assit, et Élisabeth se mit à genoux devant lui.
— Comment te sens-tu aujourd’hui, mon Georges.
— Très bien. Il fait moins froid. Mes moignons ne me font pas
mal.
Il se pencha, baisa les cheveux de sa sœur.
— Très bien, je bénis Dieu de ce qu’il a fait pour moi. On ne m’a
jamais tant aimé, maman, toi, Clotilde, Pierre… Richard est bon.
Papa… Il ne faut pas vous inquiéter de moi. J’ai le cœur en paix.
— Mon pauvre petit, dit Pierre ! Si tu savais combien, à propos de
toi, j’ai maudit la guerre, surtout quand je l’ai connue comme toi,
d’aussi près que toi.
— Il ne faut pas maudire la guerre. Elle a fini de me révéler Dieu.
Et la patrie, à qui je suis reconnaissant de m’avoir donné l’occasion
de lui témoigner mon amour. Et toi. Et moi-même. Et les miens.
Pierre eût voulu se taire. Il ne put pas. Il haït l’infirme. Il le prit à
partie, cruellement. Il se battit contre l’infirme.
— Mais tu as été, comme moi, dans la boue glacée jusqu’au
ventre, des semaines, des mois entiers ! Nous avons traversé le feu.
Nous avons vu tuer des hommes. Nous en avons tué. Nous avons
vu des têtes écrasées, des membres arrachés. Nous avons vu des
enfants porter leurs tripes. Nous avons marché dans la cervelle.
Pourquoi, pourquoi cela ? Pourquoi n’as-tu plus de bras ? Pourquoi
n’as-tu plus d’yeux ? Pourquoi ne peux-tu plus prendre les choses,
voir la lumière, les fleurs, les femmes, plus rien, plus rien ?
Élisabeth, éperdue, lui faisait des signes. Mme Chambrun le
regardait avec mépris.
— Pourquoi ? pour mieux comprendre, disait Georges. J’ai oublié
ces souffrances que tu rappelles. Je marche environné d’amour.
Mon ennui, c’est d’être obligé de demander tant de services, de ne
pouvoir rien faire seul, ni manger, ni m’habiller. Mais j’ai maman,
Élisabeth. Je sens le bien que je leur fais. Si je souffre parfois aux
souvenirs dont tu parles, ou d’être fait comme je suis, c’est d’avoir
maudit mes souffrances.
Et Mme Chambrun le regardait avec orgueil.
Pierre se tut, navré. Élisabeth parut gênée. Mais elle n’en voulait
déjà plus à Pierre. Et elle le vit, grand, sombre et beau dans sa
sévère tenue noire rehaussée d’argent. Le brusque orgueil de vivre
à ses côtés monta de ses genoux tremblants.
— Mon Pierre, dit-elle à voix basse, regarde-le. Sans bras, sans
yeux, il est aussi beau que toi. Là où vous êtes passés, vous avez
ramassé l’esprit. Il a pris la résignation, toi la révolte. Mais peu
importe vos idées. Vous êtes tous les deux plus forts qu’avant. Vous
obéissez mieux qu’avant. Vous savez plus de vous-même.
— Sais-je donc plus, se dit Pierre ? » Il s’assit, la tête inclinée, les
deux coudes aux genoux. Savoir, savoir. Un écho lointain, dans ce
mot, chuchotait des choses tragiques. Il revit Bologne, la Sixtine,
l’homme et la femme cachant leur giron des deux mains. Le spectre
de Clotilde nue renversée entre ses bras lui apparut à ce moment
avec une netteté telle qu’il faillit crier. Il se leva, marcha à grands pas
dans la pièce, le cœur sanglant. Pour la première fois, une idée
germait dans son crâne, claire, brutale, et si obsédante qu’il sut
qu’elle deviendrait très vite intolérable, s’il ne s’en délivrait pas. Il ne
pourrait pas posséder Élisabeth, s’il ne lui avouait qu’il avait possédé
sa sœur. Ce fut si net, ce fut si fort qu’il vit d’abord l’aveu facile et
n’aperçut pas les conséquences effroyables qu’il entraînerait
certainement. Il serait libéré par là du remords et de la luxure. Et
voilà tout. Il saisit sa fiancée au poing, pour lui ordonner de le suivre.
Et comme ils franchissaient le seuil, ils aperçurent, dans le grand
salon qui faisait suite, Clotilde et Richard qui passaient.
Ils venaient au-devant d’eux. Mais ils ne les avaient pas vus. Ils
passèrent, les laissant entre la porte et la fenêtre, dans le crépuscule
du soir. Ils allaient côte à côte. Ils ne se donnaient pas la main, mais
les regards de l’un étaient dans les regards de l’autre. Pierre n’avait
pas revu Clotilde depuis Rome. C’était encore une nouvelle femme,
le miracle multiplié. Elle illuminait la pénombre. Richard allait, de son
pas de conquête, calme et sûr. Clotilde, en avançant de sa grande
démarche, avait des torsions lentes et des redressements soudains
du buste qui proclamaient la certitude et la tranquille attente d’un
inépuisable bonheur. Ils avaient un sourire grave, le même. Ils se
regardaient, chacun accueillait de tout l’autre les promesses et les
souvenirs. Profondément, sans voir ailleurs. Regard commun, qui
réunissait leur chair spirituelle commune sur le chemin au-devant
d’eux. La gloire marchait sur leurs pas. Et la liberté. Et la justice. Et
la bonté envers les créatures. Et l’obéissance glorieuse à la force du
créateur.
Et voici : Si Pierre avait rencontré Clotilde seule, tout peut-être
eût été changé de son destin et du destin d’Élisabeth. Mais l’esprit
qui passait remit leur vie sur sa vraie route. Tout d’abord, il ne
comprit pas. Il ne comprit pas pourquoi cette paix soudaine en son
cœur, cette vive aurore éclairant tout à coup les ombres louches de
son être, les ombres où se distille le poison du doute et du chagrin. Il
comprit si peu qu’il trouva de vertueux prétextes à la décision qu’il
prit tout d’un coup, dix secondes à peine après avoir pris la contraire.
« Je ne dirai rien. Pourquoi tuer en ma fiancée une illusion de plus,
la plus ardente, la seule même en ce moment ? Pourquoi risquer
d’éclabousser de soupçon et de tristesse ces deux êtres
admirables ? Il faut résister à la conscience, quand la somme de
tragédie qu’on a vécue est déjà assez lourde pour satisfaire à son
avidité. C’est être courageux que de cacher aux autres, à certaines
heures, des vérités qui peuvent diminuer la confiance humaine qu’ils
ont. Je ne dirai rien, même si je souffre. On peut jouir de tordre sa
conscience, si les autres en sont heureux. »
Comme il ne souffrait pas, comme sa conscience était calme, il
se donnait la comédie. L’homme est plus simple qu’il ne croit. Il se
dit grand. Il joue de son héroïsme verbal avec un orgueil enfantin.
Mais son esprit de sacrifice et de devoir est une soumission à une
force où il cherche une volupté. La vie venait de passer devant celui-
là, sous sa forme la plus grandiose. Et elle emportait la morale et le
remords, et la loi. Et comme il aimait une femme, comme le souvenir
d’une autre femme n’était entre la femme qu’il aimait et lui qu’un
obstacle fantomatique, une image qui grandissait et devenait plus
obsédante à mesure que la réalité même s’éloignait, tout fut balayé
à l’instant, parce qu’il avait vu cette autre femme entraînée par une
puissance devant laquelle sa conscience n’était rien. Il fut sûr que,
dans son souvenir à elle, il ne l’avait jamais eue. Devant un train
lancé, l’homme s’efface et ne souffre pas de s’effacer. Il s’effaça.
Tout d’un coup, il ne souffrit plus. Il sut qu’il ne souffrirait plus. Et sa
« conscience » s’éteignit.
Il n’avait pas quitté le poing d’Élisabeth, debout à ses côtés et
comme lui saisie par la force mystérieuse qui était passée devant
eux. Il la regarda.
— Que me voulais-tu, mon Pierre ?
— Rien, je t’aime.
Il la serra violemment contre lui, prit ses lèvres, les quitta pour
ses yeux fermés. Elle défaillait. Non. Il n’avait pas eu Clotilde. Il prit
sa fiancée à la taille, rentra dans le petit salon. Et comme Clotilde
venait au-devant d’eux avec une exclamation de plaisir, il l’embrassa
sur les deux joues, avec une joie simple qu’elle partagea
visiblement. Sans gêne, elle lui parlait de sa conduite à la guerre, du
mariage du lendemain, de leurs souvenirs d’Italie, en le regardant
dans les yeux, en sœur, comme s’il n’y avait rien eu. Il n’y avait rien
eu. Il rit en dedans de la vanité des mobiles qu’il invoquait tout à
l’heure pour conserver son secret. Ce secret n’existait plus, ni en lui,
ni en Clotilde. Richard les délivrait tous deux.
Ainsi, la guerre avait passé sur ceux qui étaient dans cette pièce,
la guerre, qui n’est qu’un paroxysme de la vie. Et tous ceux qui
étaient dans cette pièce se retrouvaient ce qu’ils étaient avant que la
guerre apparût. Deux époux amoureux, deux fiancés avides, une
mère chrétienne, un jeune homme mystique et doux. Tous avaient
exploré des contrées inconnues où poussaient des fruits et des
ronces. La tragédie les avait atteints tous, labourant leurs chairs,
avivant leurs nerfs, tordant leurs cœurs. Mais ils revenaient tous à
leur point de départ. Aucune orientation nouvelle, rien qu’un drame
intérieur de plus, mais commun, et laissant sur eux une énorme
alluvion que n’apercevait personne. Ils avaient multiplié leur être.
Mais dans le sens même de leur être. Qui le saurait, même parmi
eux ? Il y avait bien un crucifié, rançon visible que la famille plus
puissante dans ses mouvements secrets allait porter dans sa
procession par la vie, comme pour payer sa joie accrue, sa force
accrue, sa faculté de lutter et de souffrir accrue et aussi les
turpitudes qui se cachent sous tout cela. Chambrun, à son tour,
venait d’entrer. Et il était plus lui qu’avant, comme les autres, dans
son propre sens à lui :
— Mes enfants, je viens de gagner deux cent mille francs en dix
minutes. Et il y a des gens qui se plaignent de la guerre !
Alors ?
Alors ? Ils avaient touché le feu, et comme le feu calcine, ils
rétractaient leur chair pour la soustraire à sa brûlure mais portaient
au-dedans d’eux-mêmes cette brûlure comme un vin. Ils se
réfugiaient passionnément dans leur nécessaire égoïsme, ceux qui
jouissaient, ceux qui agissaient, ceux qui doutaient, ceux qui
souffraient, tous face à face avec l’idole spirituelle qui leur marquait
leur destin.
— Deux cent mille francs en dix minutes ! répétait M. Chambrun.
Georges avait un rire très simple :
— Papa, nous sommes assez riches. Moi du moins. Pour ce que
je ferai de cet argent !
Et Mme Chambrun :
— J’espère bien, Adolphe, que tu vas m’en donner une grosse
part pour mes œuvres.
Pierre murmurait ardemment :
— Tu penseras ce que je pense, sur les lèvres d’Élisabeth.
Clotilde, appesantie, s’appuyait au bras de son mâle et le
regardait gravement. Richard riait :
— Beau-père, vous êtes épatant ! Nous nous associons après la
guerre. Je commence à en avoir assez. Et mon vieux métier
m’attend.
Chacun suivait sa propre pente. L’un ne songeait qu’à s’enrichir.
Cet autre, ayant la paix du cœur, eût bien voulu prendre seul son
mouchoir de poche. Cette autre conduire, pour son salut, derrière
son enfant mutilé, toute sa famille à Dieu. Ce conquérant du ciel
pensait à conquérir de la mélasse. Ceux-ci souhaitaient approfondir
un peu plus leur mystère. Ceux-là le déchirer.
L’homme n’est pas cruel. Ce qui l’est, c’est la force qui le
traverse. Pour grandir et se maintenir, elle prend ce qu’elle peut,
l’alcool et l’eau, le sang, le sel, le fer, la viande, les larmes, les
intelligences, les cœurs. Et ça n’est pas sa faute si tout cela est en
chacun de nous, ni notre faute si nous nourrissons tous ainsi, sans
le savoir, la forme qu’elle précipite sur les routes de l’avenir.
XII
Élisabeth, toute vêtue de noir, était très belle. Le buste et les bras
s’étaient remplis. Le cou charnu émergeait de la robe un peu
échancrée. La tête, devenue mate et pâle, se couronnait d’or
assombri. Pour la millième fois, elle relisait la dernière phrase de la
dernière lettre que Pierre avait écrite de l’ambulance, une heure
avant de mourir. Il y répétait pour son fils, qui venait alors de naître,
le même mot qu’il lui avait dit un jour où elle lui prenait la main pour
l’appuyer sur sa taille où rampaient, par saccades, à travers la robe,
de dures ondulations. Elle se souvenait… « Tu lui enseigneras la
haine de la guerre… » Et comme, sans mot dire, et souriant un peu,
elle embrassait les rubans qu’il portait sur son cœur, celui qui est
rouge, celui qui est jaune et vert, celui qui est vert et rouge, il les
avait ramassés violemment, d’un geste, et jetés dans le feu.
Le feu brûlait aussi ce jour-là. Le feu, qu’on dit gai, est sinistre. Il
est éternel. La forme fond en lui, y laisse une poussière grise,
pareille à des cheveux morts. Il rit sans se lasser, comme un
squelette. La nuit est dehors, ou le froid. On est seul près de lui,
dans le crépuscule des chambres. On le regarde fixement.
Élisabeth, un genou entre ses mains jointes, arracha son regard
du feu. A trois pas, sur sa petite chaise, le fils de Pierre embrassait
son pantin en balbutiant des mots sans suite. Élisabeth frémit. Au
sein de la pénombre où éclataient les bosses, où les creux se
comblaient de noir, il avait le masque de Pierre, si profondément
accentué qu’elle crut voir la face du cadavre éclatante de vie dans
cette ébauche puissante où l’avenir du monde tremble sous la
brume charnelle des traits encore indistincts. Il ne baisait plus la
figure de carton rose dont les boucles blondes volaient. Le pantin
qu’il tenait aux pieds sautait de bas en haut, tournait, virait, ondulait,
dansait dans l’illumination rougeâtre projetée par la flamme brusque
dont les reflets multicolores promenaient sur sa face des rires, des
moues, des sourires, une fantastique animation. Par les poings de
l’enfant, l’homme dieu jouait à la vie. Sur son tablier blanc, Élisabeth
voyait, à chaque secousse, grandir une tache de sang. Elle avança
la main, épouvantée. Le foyer teignait en rouge le son qui
s’épanchait d’une entaille qu’il avait faite dans le ventre du pantin.
MAYENNE, IMPRIMERIE CHARLES COLIN

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Modeling and Analysis of Passive

Vibration Isolation Systems 1st Edition

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2. Viscoelastic modeling—passive vibration isolators 27

3. Vibration isolation system modeling 61

4. Vibration isolation systems—nonlinear models 91

5. Modeling elastomer characteristics 119

6. Modeling inertia effect 143

7. Elastomeric vibration isolator design 171

Passive vibration isolators are widely used in areas such as automotive,

Dedicated to my mother, whose life was a beacon of perseverance, resilience,

1.2 Isolator materials

Table 1.1 Commonly used elastomeric materials.

In some cases, it is common to use a separate damper to augment

examples of dampers that have been used in some vibration isolation

1.3 Common elastomeric isolator designs

Table 1.2 Examples of passive elastomeric isolator designs.

1.4 Stiffness and damping

and deflection as Fx = k1 + k2 . Therefore, for the two springs in parallel,

In Eq. (1.3), |k∗ | is the magnitude of complex stiffness, often called

In Eq. (1.5), v is the relative velocity corresponding to the applied force, F.

In Eq. (1.7), ξ is the damping ratio. A system is said to be undamped

For hysteretic damping, an equivalent damping ratio, ξ eq , and an equiva-

1.5 Single-degree-of-freedom system

Figure 1.2 Undamped SDOF system-free vibration.

The solution in Eq. (1.13) can be expressed in different forms depending

Figure 1.3 Damped SDOF system—free vibration.

In Eq. (1.16), c1 and c2 are two 

In Eq. (1.17), f is the excitation force. The solution to the EOM in

and can be expressed as

The formulation in Eq. (1.22) is commonly called the state-space form

Figure 1.4 Undamped SDOF—free vibration response.

Example 1.2a: For an undamped SDOF system, as shown in Figure 1.2,

Figure 1.5 Damped SDOF—free vibration response.

Figure 1.6 Magnitude response.

Figure 1.7 Phase response.

1.6 Multiple-degree-of-freedom system

Example 1.4: For a proportionally damped two-DOF system shown in

Figure 1.8 Two degree-of-freedom system - proportional damping.

combined by using the transformation equation to provide the solution for

−ω2 MX (ω) + jωCX (ω) + KX (ω) = F (ω) (1.37)

can be used to express the frequency response as

Figure 1.9 Frequency response magnitude.

It may be noted that it is common to express the frequency response in

Figure 1.10 Two degree-of-freedom system.

constituent relationships can be directly linked to mechanical models to

2.2 Voigt or Kelvin–Voigt model

Figure 2.1 Voigt or Kelvin–Voigt model.

in Chapter 1. For an isolator designed to be under shear, the stress–strain

function of the isolator as

the complex modulus can be expressed as

2.3 Zener model

In Eq. (1.16), c1 and c2 are two