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Table of Contents vii
Preface xviii
CHAPTER 1
Social Psychology Roots and Concepts
1.1 WHAT IS SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY? 4
1.1 a Social Psychologists Study How We Are
Influenced by Others. 5
1.1 b Social Psychology Is More Than Common
Sense. 6
1.1 c Social Psychologists Study How Social Reality
Is Created (and Re-created). 6
1.1 d Social Psychology Is Studied in Both
Psychology and Sociology. 10
1.1 e Social Psychology Has Both European and
American Roots. 11
CHAPTER 2
Research Methods
2.1 THE GOALS AND PROCESS OF RESEARCH 37
2.1a Two Research Goals Focus on Acquiring and Applying
Knowledge. 37
2.1b The Research Process Involves a Series of Steps. 38
2.1c Meta-Analysis Examines the Outcomes of Many Studies. 45
2.1d The Scientific Method Is Self-Correcting. 46
CHAPTER 3
Social Cognition and Perception
3.1 HOW DOESAUTOMATICTHINKING HELP US MAKE SENSE
OF SOCIAL INFORMATION? 67
3.1a We Are Categorizing Creatures. 67
3.1b Schemas Affect What Information We Notice and Later
Remember. 68
3.1c Schemas Can Be Situationally or Chronically Activated . 70
3.1d Heuristics Are Timesaving Mental Shortcuts. 73
CHAPTER 4
Attitudes and Persuasion
4.1 THE NATURE OF ATTITUDES 110
4.1 a Attitudes Are Positive or Negative Evaluations of Objects. 111
4.1 b Implicit Attitudes May Underlie Explicit Attitudes. 112
CHAPTER 5
Prejudice and Discrimination
5.1 WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF INTERGROUP CONFLICT? 157
5.1a Stereotypes Are Beliefs About Social Groups. 158
5.1b Prejudice Is an Attitude and Discrimination Is an Action. 162
5.1 c There Are Three Basic Forms of Prejudice. 164
Websites 209
CHAPTER 6
Interpersonal Attraction
6.1 BELONGINGNESS NEEDS 213
6.1 a Two Reasons for Affiliation Are Comparison and Exchange. 213
6.1 b Our Evolutionary Heritage and Biology Influence Our
Belongingness Needs. 215
6.1 c Socialization Shapes Our Belongingness Needs. (Nurture) 216
Websites 247
xii Table of Contents
CHAPTER 7
Intimate Relationships
7.1 WHAT IS INTIMACY? 250
7.1 a Intimacy Involves Including Another in Your Self-Concept. 251
CHAPTER S
Social Influence
8.1 WHAT IS SOCIAL INFLUENCE? 286
8.1a Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience Are Different Types
of Social Influence. 287
8.1 b People with Social Power Are More Likely to Initiate Action. 288
Websites 334
CHAPTER 9
Prosocial and Helping Behavior
9.1 WHY DOWE HELP? 339
9.1 a There Are Two Basic Forms of Helping. 339
9.1 b Helping Is Consistent with EvolutionaryTheory. 340
9.1 c Social Norms Define the Rules of Helping Others. 341
9.1 d Political and Social Class Differences Shape Willingness to
Help. 342
9.1 e Individualists and Collectivists Differ in Their Helping
Tendencies. 344
xiv Table of Contents
Websites 376
CHAPTER 10
Aggression
CHAPTER 11
Behavior in Groups
11.1 THE NATURE OF GROUPS 428
11.1 a Groups Accomplish Instrumental Tasks and Satisfy
Socio-emotional Needs. 428
11.1 b There Are Five Phases to Group Membership. 429
11.1c Group Structure Develops Quickly and Changes Slowly. 432
11.1 d Group Success Fosters Social Identification. 433
xvi Table of Contents
CHAPTER 12
The Self
12.1 THE SELF AS BOTH ACTIVE AGENT AND OBJECT OF
ATTENTION 473
12.1 a James and Mead Shaped Contemporary SelfTheories. 473
12.1 b Self-Awareness Is Reflective Thinking. 474
12.1c Self-Regulation Is the Self's Most Important Function. 480
Appendix 511
Glossary 527
Referen ces 537
Name Index 617
Subject Index 631
Preface
As anyone who teaches or takes college courses knows, textbook prices have "gone
through the roof' in recent years, causing resentment throughout academia. In an
attempt to resolve this problem, I have formed a partnership with BVT Publishing to
offer my social psychology text at a substantially lower price than virtually all other
comparable texts, with no reduction in quality. I am confident you will be very happy
with our final product.
Regarding this course of study, one of the most important lessons I have learned
as a teacher is that you should always have a good story to tell. Fortunately, social
psychology is a dynamic science consisting of many fascinating stories. These "scien-
tific stories" form the basis of this text, and my goal as an instructor and a textbook
author is to emphasize the process of research in social psychology: to engage students
in an exploration of how what we know about social psychology has evolved, to put
students in the mind-set of the social psychologists who have left their mark on the
field. Together, we explore the stories behind these classic and contemporary studies.
As a textbook author, I've learned that the text, too, must have its own story-one
that resonates with students and instructors alike and helps tie all of the various theo-
ries and concepts together. In this seventh edition, I continue to emphasize a central
theme- one that has worked well for me and my students- that I believe is essential
to how we think about social psychology, and one that will encourage students to think
about their own stories as they explore the concepts in this course.
foster a sense of inclusion for all readers. For example, in the discussion of
social behavior in a cross-cultural context, the particular aspect of culture
highlighted is individualism versus collectivism. Why? Throughout much of
the history of American social psychology, the concept of individualism has
been an influential, yet unexamined, force directing our analysis of social
life. Today that is no longer the case. As the study of social psychology has
become a cross-cultural endeavor, some of the basic assumptions about the
relationship between the individual and the group have been questioned.
This text discusses how people from individualist and collectivist cultures
respond to similar social situations, helping students to understand the
richness and flexibility of social life.
• The evolutionary perspective illuminates how a universal pattern of social
behavior might have developed. One of the benefits of cross-cultural
research is that it allows us to not only identify those aspects of social
behavior that vary from one culture to the next but also to identify social
behaviors that are not culturally constrained. When a universal social
behavior is identified, discussion turns to how this pattern of behavior may
have evolved. Throughout the text I examine how evolutionary forces might
have left us with certain behavioral capacities, while also recognizing that
current social and environmental forces encourage or discourage the actual
development and use of t hese capacities.
• Social neuroscience uses the latest cutting-edge technology to study the
relationship between neural processes of the brain and social processes.
This "window into the brain" provides another layer of knowledge in our
understanding of social interaction.
• More than twenty Self/Social Connection Exercises contain self-report
questionnaires currently being used by researchers. The results of studies
employing them are also part of the text material. In these exercises,
students are encouraged to consider how this text material relates to their
own lives. Thus, as students learn about various social psychological theories
and relevant research findings, they also learn something about themselves.
• Bulleted end-of-section summaries provide a concise presentation to better
facilitate students' studying. The bulleted summaries in the sixth edition
were well received and have been retained in the new edition.
CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER CHANGES
Chapter 1
Social Psychology Roots and Concepts
• Expanded coverage of cultural trends related to increased self-focus
Chapter 2
Research Methods
• New chapter-opening story
• Streamlined coverage of steps in the research process and correlational
research
Preface xxi
• New coverage of how cultural values can shape people's responses to survey
items
Chapter 3
Social Cognition and Perception
• Reorganized discussion of schemas and heuristics
• Expanded coverage of counterfactual thinking
• Streamlined coverage of attribution theories and expanded coverage of
cultural influences
Chapter 4
Attitudes and Persuasion
• New research on the facial feedback hypothesis
• New research on the theory of planned behavior
Chapter 5
Prejudice and Discrimination
• New research on racial biases in perceiving angry faces
• Expanded coverage of African-Americans' perceptions of unfairness in the
criminal justice system
• New research on weight prejudice
• New section on mental illness prejudice
Chapter 6
Interpersonal Attraction
• New discussion of the need to belong
• New discussion of female attractiveness standards
Chapter 7
Intimate Relationships
• New chapter-opening story
• Revised discussion on the psychology of intimacy
• New research on collectivist versus individualist views of romantic love
• Expanded coverage of how social disapproval impacts romantic relationships
• New section on how being playful benefits romantic relationships
xxii Preface
Chapter 8
Social Influence
• New research on the automatic activation of conformity
• New section on intense social influence and compliance
• New Applications section on how the Internet influences voting behavior
Chapter 9
Prosocial and Helping Behavior
• New research on the decline of empathy among young adults
• New section on prosocial video games and helping
• New section on how being helpful benefits personal well-being
Chapter 10
Aggression
• New chapter-opening story
• Expanded coverage of the evolutionary basis of aggression
• New research on violence in video games
• New section on copycat violence
• Expanded coverage of sexual violence
Chapter 11
Behavior in Groups
• Revised coverage of the nature of groups
• Expanded coverage of female leadership
Chapter 12
The Self
• New chapter-opening story
• Expanded coverage and reorganization of self-regulation research and theory
• Reorganized coverage of the self as a social construction
• New coverage of research on the intersection of social neuroscience and self
processes
• Streamlined coverage of self-presentation strategies
• Reorganized coverage and new research on self-esteem processes
Acknowledgments xxiii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have provided invaluable assistance and understanding while I was revis-
ing this text. I first want to thank my family, not only for supporting my writing efforts
and forgiving my memory lapses during this time, but also providing me with wonder-
ful examples of social psychological principles that I used throughout the text.
I also wish to thank the students in my social psychology courses at Marquette
University, who are the first to be exposed to my new stories of the social psychologi-
cal enterprise. In addition, I thank those students using my book at other colleges and
universities who wrote me letters and emails concerning their reactions to what they
read. The encouragement, enthusiasm, and criticism of all these students have made
revising the book much easier.
My appreciation also goes to the many Internet-user members of the Society of
Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP) who graciously responded to my requests
for reprints and preprints of recent scientific articles describing advances in our under-
standing of social behavior. Their responses greatly aided me in preparing a seventh
edition of Social Psychology that includes exciting new research and theoretical
developments. Listed below are some of these individuals:
Tässä oli nyt mitä tarvittiin; oli asiakirja, jonka piti tepsimän, kun
sitä painolastina seurasi muutama tuhat nimeä ja puumerkkiä muka
todistuksena valittajain suuresta lukumäärästä. Valituskirja oli vaan
painolastineen kiireimmiten toimitettava Tuomiokapituliin. Tämä
tärkeä toimi uskottiin Ryppylän isännälle, joka oman vakuutuksensa
mukaan oli monasti kirjoittanut Kupernyöriin ja siis kokemuksesta
kyllä tiesi, miten asioita korkeimmissa oikeuksissa ajetaan.
Sen auttaminen ei ollutkaan niin helppo tehtävä kun hän ensin oli
luullut. Hän sai nostaa ja sai hikoilla, sillä konilla oli suuret luut,
vaikka liha olikin uskollisessa palveluksessa vähään hivunnut.
Viimein monta kertaa turhaan koetettuaan hän sai hevoisen jaloilleen
ja pääsi vaivalla lähimmäiseen kylään. Sieltä sai hän lainata
paremman hevoisen, jättäen omansa siksi aikaa sinne lihoomaan ja
voimistumaan.
Tuon käskyn johdosta, joka »kävi ulos», sai räätäli Hurskala myös
erityisen innon osaltaan vaikuttamaan seurakunnan yhteiseksi
hyväksi. Sillä hän ymmärsi hyvin, että sellaisen miehen, kuin hänen,
joka ahkeroitsi jumalisuutta, tuli myös huolehtia, että seurakunta sai
oikean opettajan. Sentähden hän sitä miettien heitti kesken kiireintä
työtään neuloksensa pöydälle, huokasi ja sitten huusi vaimolleen,
joka viereisessä huoneessa silitti liinavaatteita:
Mutta hyvä ukko, mitä sinä puhut? En minä siitä ymmärrä maan
halaistua sanaa, jollet sinä selvemmin ilmoita tarkoitustasi, sanoi
vaimo silmät suurena katsellen miestään, josta hän tiesi, ettei sillä
ollut juuri tapana hänelle turhia jaaritella.
Niin muija, sinä tiedät, että minä olen tämän viikon ahkeraan
rukoillut. Ja olen rukoillut en sillä tavalla, kuin nuo löyhäuskolaiset,
joille rukouksen voima ja arvo on seitsemällä sinetillä lukittu
salaisuus, vaan vanhain hurskasten tapaan polvillani ja toisinaan
maassa suullani maaten; sillä eihän sitä tämmöinen syntisparka ja
maan viheliäinen mato voi itseänsä tarpeeksi syvälle nöyryyttää.
Minä olen rukoillut, huokaillut ja pyytänyt, että Herra armossaan
estäisi, ettei tuo löyhäuskon saarnaaja ja parannuksen halveksija
Alander pääsisi tänne Herran viinamäkeä raiskaamaan, vanhaa
jumalisuutta sortamaan ja rukouksen leimuvaa liekkiä
sammuttamaan. Minä olen rukoillut Herran apua ja johdatusta
kirkkoherran vaalihin ja minä toivon, että hän suuressa
laupeudessaan on kuullut minun heikon, kelvottoman ja syntisen
huokaukseni!
Niin oikein. Kyllä sinä sen asian ymmärrät ja voit seurata henkesi
vaatimusta, sanoi vaimo, joka ihmetellen oli kuunnellut miehensä
hurskautta uhkuvaa puhetta. Samalla kiirehti hän tuomaan toisesta
huoneesta miehensä pyhävaatteet.
No, sepä hyvä! Kotona puhui minulle siitä muija, muttei hän voinut
sitä lähemmin selittää, kun oli itsekin vaan ohimennen saanut kuulla.
Mutta kertokaapas te, kuinka se tapahtui, jos se on tosi asia, niinkuin
sitä hollataan, pyysi Kivelän isäntä.
Mutta siinä oli akkaa, joka vei voiton papistakin! myhähti sen
johdosta ivaten Kivelän isäntä, jota emännän kertomus oli suuresti
huvittanut. Mitäs luulette nyt sellaisesta seuraavan?
Kuka oli se, joka uskalsi sillä tavalla ajatella ja kirjoittaa »siitä
työstä ja hankkeesta, jota he olivat koko seurakunnan hyväksi
hankkineet?» — Ettei se ollut tapahtunut koko seurakunnan
tahdosta, vaan valittajain liian tunkeilevaisesta hyväntahtoisuudesta
jonkun yksityisen hyväksi, siitä ei saanut puhua mitään. — Eikö
myös se ollut miltei pyhän häväisemistä, että vastakirjoittaja oli vielä
kirjoituksessaan rohjennut mainita vanhan kirkkoherra-vainajan
nimen? — Että hän kuolleessa, niin kirkkoherra kun se oli ollutkin,
näki tavallisen syntisen eikä mitään paavilaista pyhimystä, oli edellä
mainitun viisauden mittakaavan mukaan sopimatonta. — Ja eikö se
ollut suorastaan »Juudaan tapaista», että vastakirjoittaja tahtoi tietoa
rahain keräämisestä ja pilkallisesti kysyi, jos niistä oli käytetty nimien
kerääjäin suun voitelemiseksi, koska kerääjäin joukossa oli huomattu
sellaisia voideltuja henkilöitä?
Tätä tyytyväisin mielin, niinkuin sen sopi, joka tietää työnsä hyvin
suorittaneen, tuumiessaan, otti ja heitti hän pöydältään tarpeettomat
paperit pesään, jossa iloinen valkea palaa leimusi.
Seurauksena oli, että hän suurella vaivalla ja ajan hukalla sai kyllä
kyhätyksi pitkän mutta laihan sepustuksen, jota parista kömpelöstä
vertauksesta puhumatta ei edes siihen sovitettu raamatunlause ja
lopussa hurskas mietelmä saaneet mehevämmäksi.