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Contents

Preface xi

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Production Systems 2
1.2 Automation in Production Systems 6
1.3 Manual Labor in Production Systems 11
1.4 Automation Principles and Strategies 13
1.5 About This Book 18

PART I: OVERVIEW OF MANUFACTURING 21

Chapter 2 MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS 21
2.1 Manufacturing Industries and Products 25
2.2 Manufacturing Operations 28
2.3 Production Facilities 32
2.4 Product/Production Relationships 37

Chapter 3 MANUFACTURING METRICS AND ECONOMICS 46

3.1 Production Performance Metrics 47
3.2 Manufacturing Costs 62

PART II: AUTOMATION AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES 77

Chapter 4 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION 77
4.1 Basic Elements of an Automated System 80
4.2 Advanced Automation Functions 88
4.3 Levels of Automation 93
4.4 Automation and Artificial Intelligence 95

Chapter 5 INDUSTRIAL CONTROL SYSTEMS 101

5.1 Process Industries versus Discrete Manufacturing Industries 102
5.2 Continuous versus Discrete Control 104
5.3 Computer Process Control 110

v
Preface xiii

Individual questions or comments may be directed to the author at Mikell.Groover@

Lehigh.edu or mpg0@Lehigh.edu.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A number of changes in the fourth and fifth editions of the book were motivated by
responses to a survey that was conducted by the publisher. Some very worthwhile sug-
gestions were offered by the reviewers, and I attempted to incorporate them into the
text where appropriate and feasible. In any case, I appreciate the thoughtful efforts that
they contributed to the project, and I am sure that the book is better as a result of their
efforts than it otherwise would have been. I would like to acknowledge their participa-
tion in the survey: T. S. Bukkapatnam, Oklahoma State University; Joseph Domblesky,
Marquette University; Brent Donham, Texas A&M University; John Jackman, Iowa
State University; Matthew Kuttolamadom, Texas A&M University; Frank Peters, Iowa
State University; and Tony Schmitz, University of North Carolina-Charlotte. I also want
to acknowledge the advice of Kurt Lesker IV, former student and currently president of
his family’s business, which was started by his great grandfather, Kurt Lesker I.
I also acknowledge the following individuals at Pearson Education Inc. for their
support during this project: Holly Stark, Executive Editor; and Carole Snyder, Content
Producer. In addition, I am grateful for the fine job done by Preethi Sundar at Pearson
CSC who served as Project Manager for the project. She and the copy editors working
with her were thorough and meticulous in their review of the manuscript (I take back
all of the bad things I ever said about copy editors throughout the nearly 40 years I
have been writing textbooks).
Also, I am in gratitude to all of the faculty who have adopted the previous edi-
tions of the book for their courses, thus making those projects commercially successful
for Pearson Education Inc., so that I would be allowed to prepare this new edition.
Finally, I wish to thank Marcia Hamm Groover, my wife, my PowerPoint slide ex-
pert, my computer specialist (I write books about computer-related technologies, but she
is the one who fixes my computer when it has problems), and my supporter on this and
other textbook projects.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mikell P. Groover is Professor Emeritus of Industrial and Systems Engineering at

Lehigh University, where he taught and did research for 44 years. He received his B.A.
in Arts and Science (1961), B.S. in Mechanical Engineering (1962), M.S. in Industrial
Engineering (1966), and Ph.D. (1969), all from Lehigh. His industrial experience includes
several years as a manufacturing engineer before embarking on graduate studies.
His teaching and research areas include manufacturing processes, production sys-
tems, automation, material handling, facilities planning, and work systems. He has re-
ceived a number of teaching awards at Lehigh University, as well as the Albert G.
Holzman Outstanding Educator Award from the Institute of Industrial Engineers (1995)
and the SME Education Award from the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (2001).
His publications include over 85 technical articles and books (listed below). His books
are used throughout the world and have been translated into French, German, Spanish,
Portuguese, Russian, Japanese, Korean, and Chinese. The first edition of Fundamentals
xiv Preface

of Modern Manufacturing received the IIE Joint Publishers Award (1996) and the
M. Eugene Merchant Manufacturing Textbook Award from the Society of Manufacturing
Engineers (1996).
Dr. Groover is a member of the Institute of Industrial Engineers (IIE) and the
Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME). He is a Fellow of IIE and SME.

PREVIOUS BOOKS BY THE AUTHOR

Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Aided Manufacturing, Prentice Hall, 1980.

CAD/CAM: Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing, Prentice Hall, 1984 (co-authored
with E. W. Zimmers, Jr.).
Industrial Robotics: Technology, Programming, and Applications, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1986 (co-authored with M. Weiss, R. Nagel, and N. Odrey).
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Prentice Hall,
1987.
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems, originally pub-
lished by Prentice Hall in 1996, and subsequently published by John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1999.
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Second Edition,
Prentice Hall, 2001.
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems, Second Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems, Third Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007.
Work Systems and the Methods, Measurement, and Management of Work, Pearson Prentice
Hall, 2007.
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Third Edition,
Pearson Education, Inc, 2008.
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems, Fourth ­Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2010.
Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2012.
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems, Fifth Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2013.
Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, Fourth Edi-
tion, Pearson Education, Inc, 2015.
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems, Sixth Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2016.
 Chapter 1

Introduction

CHAPTER CONTENTS
1.1 Production Systems
1.1.1 Facilities
1.1.2 Manufacturing Support Systems
1.2 Automation in Production Systems
1.2.1 Automated Manufacturing Systems
1.2.2 Computerized Manufacturing Support Systems
1.2.3 Reasons for Automating
1.3 Manual Labor in Production Systems
1.3.1 Manual Labor in Factory Operations
1.3.2 Labor in Manufacturing Support Systems
1.4 Automation Principles and Strategies
1.4.1 The USA Principle
1.4.2 Ten Strategies for Automation and Process Improvement
1.4.3 Automation Migration Strategy
1.5 About This Book

The word manufacturing derives from two Latin words, manus (hand) and factus (make),
so that the combination means made by hand. This was the way manufacturing was accom-
plished when the word first appeared in the English language around 1567. Commercial
goods of those times were made by hand. The methods were handicraft, accomplished
in small shops, and the goods were relatively simple, at least by today’s standards. As
many years passed, factories came into being, with many workers at a single site, and the
work had to be organized using machines rather than handicraft techniques. The products

1
2 Chap. 1 / Introduction

became more complex, and so did the processes to make them. Workers had to special-
ize in their tasks. Rather than overseeing the fabrication of the entire product, they were
responsible for only a small part of the total work. More up-front planning was required,
and more coordination of the operations was needed to keep track of the work flow in the
factories. Slowly but surely, the systems of production were being developed.
The systems of production are essential in modern manufacturing. This book is all
about these production systems and how they are sometimes automated and computerized.

1.1 PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

A production system is a collection of people, equipment, and procedures organized to

perform the manufacturing operations of a company. It consists of two major components
as indicated in Figure 1.1:

1. Facilities. The physical facilities of the production system include the equipment, the
way the equipment is laid out, and the factory in which the equipment is located.
2. Manufacturing support systems. These are the procedures used by the company to
manage production and to solve the technical and logistics problems encountered in
ordering materials, moving the work through the factory, and ensuring that products
meet quality standards. Product design and certain business functions are included
in the manufacturing support systems.

In modern manufacturing operations, portions of the production system are

a­ utomated and/or computerized. In addition, production systems include people. Peo-
ple make these systems work. In general, direct labor people (blue-collar workers) are

Manufacturing
systems
Facilities
Factory and
plant layout

Production
system Product design

Manufacturing
planning
Manufacturing
support systems
Manufacturing
control

Business
functions

Figure 1.1 The production system consists of

facilities and manufacturing support systems.
Sec. 1.1 / Production Systems 3

responsible for operating the facilities, and professional staff people (white-collar ­workers)
are responsible for the manufacturing support systems.

1.1.1 Facilities

The facilities in the production system consist of the factory, production machines and
tooling, material handling equipment, inspection equipment, and computer systems that
control the manufacturing operations. Facilities also include the plant layout, which is the
way the equipment is physically arranged in the factory. The equipment is usually orga-
nized into manufacturing systems, which are the logical groupings of equipment and work-
ers that accomplish the processing and assembly operations on parts and products made
by the factory. Manufacturing systems can be individual work cells consisting of a single
production machine and a worker assigned to that machine. More complex manufacturing
systems consist of collections of machines and workers, for example, a production line. The
manufacturing systems come in direct physical contact with the parts and/or assemblies
being made. They “touch” the product.
In terms of human participation in the processes performed by the manufacturing
systems, three basic categories can be distinguished, as portrayed in Figure 1.2: (a) manual
work systems, (b) worker-machine systems, and (c) automated systems.

Manual Work Systems. A manual work system consists of one or more workers
performing one or more tasks without the aid of powered tools. Manual material handling
tasks are common activities in manual work systems. Production tasks commonly require the
use of hand tools, such as screwdrivers and hammers. When using hand tools, a workholder
is often employed to grasp the work part and position it securely for processing. Examples
of production-related manual tasks involving the use of hand tools include the following:

• A machinist using a file to round the edges of a rectangular part that has just been
milled
• A quality control inspector using a micrometer to measure the diameter of a shaft
• A material handling worker using a dolly to move cartons in a warehouse
• A team of assembly workers putting together a piece of machinery using hand tools.

Worker-Machine Systems. In a worker-machine system, a human worker oper-

ates powered equipment, such as a machine tool or other production machine. This is
one of the most widely used manufacturing systems. Worker-machine systems include

Periodic worker
Hand tools Machine attention

Worker Worker Automated machine

Process Process Process

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.2 Three categories of manufacturing systems: (a) manual work

system, (b) worker-machine system, and (c) fully automated system.
4 Chap. 1 / Introduction

combinations of one or more workers and one or more pieces of equipment. The workers
and machines are combined to take advantage of their relative strengths and attributes,
which are listed in Table 1.1. Examples of worker-machine systems include the following:

• A machinist operating an engine lathe to fabricate a part for a product

• A fitter and an industrial robot working together in an arc–welding work cell
• A crew of workers operating a rolling mill that converts hot steel slabs into flat plates
• A production line in which the products are moved by mechanized conveyor and
the workers at some of the stations use power tools to accomplish their processing
or assembly tasks.

Automated Systems. An automated system is one in which a process is performed

by a machine without the direct participation of a human worker. Automation is imple-
mented using a program of instructions combined with a control system that e­ xecutes the
instructions. Power is required to drive the process and to operate the program and control
system (these terms are defined more completely in Chapter 4).
There is not always a clear distinction between worker-machine systems and
­automated systems, because many worker-machine systems operate with some degree
of automation. Two levels of automation can be identified: semiautomated and fully
­automated. A semiautomated machine performs a portion of the work cycle under some
form of program control, and a human worker tends to the machine for the remainder
of the cycle, by loading and unloading it, or by performing some other task each cycle.
A fully automated machine is distinguished from its semiautomated counterpart by its
capacity to operate for an extended period of time with no human attention. Extended
period of time means longer than one work cycle; a worker is not required to be present
during each cycle. Instead, the worker may need to tend the machine every tenth cycle,
or every hundredth cycle. An example of this type of operation is found in many injection
molding plants, where the molding machines run on automatic cycles, but periodically the
molded parts at the machine must be collected by a worker. Figure 1.2(c) depicts a fully
automated system. The semiautomated system is best portrayed by Figure 1.2(b).
In certain fully automated processes, one or more workers are required to be present
to continuously monitor the operation, and make sure that it performs according to the
intended specifications. Examples of these kinds of automated processes include complex
chemical processes, oil refineries, and nuclear power plants. The workers do not actively

TABLE 1.1 Relative Strengths and Attributes of Humans and Machines

Humans Machines
Sense unexpected stimuli Perform repetitive tasks consistently
Develop new solutions to problems Store large amounts of data
Cope with abstract problems Retrieve data from memory reliably
Adapt to change Perform multiple tasks
Generalize from observations simultaneously
Learn from experience Apply high forces and power
Make decisions based on Perform simple computations
incomplete data quickly
Make routine decisions quickly
Sec. 1.1 / Production Systems 5

participate in the process except to make occasional adjustments in the equipment settings,
perform periodic maintenance, and spring into action if something goes wrong.

1.1.2 Manufacturing Support Systems

To operate the production facilities efficiently, a company must organize itself to design
the processes and equipment, plan and control the production orders, and satisfy prod-
uct quality requirements. These functions are accomplished by manufacturing support
­systems—people and procedures by which a company manages its production operations.
Most of these support systems do not directly contact the product, but they plan and
­control its progress through the factory.
Manufacturing support involves a sequence of activities, as depicted in Figure 1.3.
The activities consist of four functions that include much information flow and data pro-
cessing: (1) business functions, (2) product design, (3) manufacturing planning, and (4)
manufacturing control.

Business Functions. The business functions are the principal means by which the
company communicates with the customer. They are, therefore, the beginning and the end
of the information-processing sequence. Included in this category are sales and marketing,
sales forecasting, order entry, and customer billing.
The order to produce a product typically originates from the customer and proceeds
into the company through the sales department of the firm. The production order will
be in one of the following forms: (1) an order to manufacture an item to the customer’s
specifications, (2) a customer order to buy one or more of the manufacturer’s proprietary
products, or (3) an internal company order based on a forecast of future demand for a
proprietary product.

Product Design. If the product is manufactured to customer design, the design has
been provided by the customer, and the manufacturer’s product design department is not
involved. If the product is to be produced to customer specifications, the manufacturer’s
product design department may be contracted to do the design work for the product as
well as to manufacture it.
If the product is proprietary, the manufacturing firm is responsible for its develop-
ment and design. The sequence of events that initiates a new product design often origi-
nates in the sales department; the direction of information flow is indicated in Figure 1.3.
The departments of the firm that are organized to accomplish product design might
include research and development, design engineering, and perhaps a prototype shop.

Order to Business Manufacturing Manufacturing

Product design
produce functions planning control

Product to
Starting materials Factory operations
customer

Figure 1.3 Sequence of information-processing activities in a typical

­manufacturing firm.
6 Chap. 1 / Introduction

Manufacturing Planning. The information and documentation that constitute

the product design flows into the manufacturing planning function. The information-­
processing activities in manufacturing planning include process planning, master schedul-
ing, material requirements planning, and capacity planning.
Process planning consists of determining the sequence of individual processing
and assembly operations needed to produce the part. The manufacturing engineering
department is responsible for planning the processes and related technical details such as
­tooling. Manufacturing planning includes logistics issues, commonly known as production
­planning. The authorization to produce the product must be translated into the master
production schedule, which is a listing of the products to be made, the dates on which
they are to be delivered, and the quantities of each. Based on this master schedule, the
individual components and subassemblies that make up each product must be scheduled.
Raw materials must be purchased or requisitioned from storage, parts must be ordered
from suppliers, and all of these items must be planned so they are available when needed.
The computations for this planning are made by material requirements planning.
In a­ ddition, the master schedule must not list more quantities of products than the factory
is capable of producing each month with its given number of machines and manpower.
Capacity ­planning is concerned with determining the human and equipment resources
of the firm and checking to make sure that the production plan is feasible.

Manufacturing Control. Manufacturing control is concerned with managing and

controlling the physical operations in the factory to implement the manufacturing plans.
The flow of information is from planning to control as indicated in Figure 1.3. Informa-
tion also flows back and forth between manufacturing control and the factory operations.
Included in this function are shop floor control, inventory control, and quality control.
Shop floor control deals with the problem of monitoring the progress of the product
as it is being processed, assembled, moved, and inspected in the factory. Shop floor control
is concerned with inventory in the sense that the materials being processed in the factory
are work-in-process inventory. Thus, shop floor control and inventory control overlap to
some extent. Inventory control attempts to strike a proper balance between the risk of too
little inventory (with possible stock-outs of materials) and the carrying cost of too much
inventory. It deals with such issues as deciding the right quantities of materials to order
and when to reorder a given item when stock is low. The function of quality control is to
ensure that the quality of the product and its components meet the standards specified
by the product designer. To accomplish its mission, quality control depends on inspec-
tion activities performed in the factory at various times during the manufacture of the
product. Also, raw materials and component parts from outside sources are sometimes
inspected when they are received, and final inspection and testing of the finished product
is performed to ensure functional quality and appearance. Quality control also includes
data collection and problem-solving approaches to address process problems related to
quality, such as statistical process control (SPC) and Six Sigma.

1.2 AUTOMATION IN PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Some components of the firm’s production system are likely to be automated, whereas
others will be operated manually or clerically. The automated elements of the produc-
tion system can be separated into two categories: (1) automation of the manufacturing
Sec. 1.2 / Automation in Production Systems 7

Manufacturing
Automation
systems
Facilities
Factory and
plant layout

Production
system Product design

Manufacturing
Computerization
planning
Manufacturing
support systems
Manufacturing
control

Business
functions

Figure 1.4 Opportunities for automation and computerization

in a production system.

systems in the factory, and (2) computerization of the manufacturing support systems.
In ­modern production systems, the two categories are closely related, because the auto-
mated manufacturing systems on the factory floor are themselves usually implemented
by computer systems that are integrated with the manufacturing support systems and
­management information system operating at the plant and enterprise levels. The two
categories of automation are shown in Figure 1.4 as an overlay on Figure 1.1.

1.2.1 Automated Manufacturing Systems

Automated manufacturing systems operate in the factory on the physical product.

They perform operations such as processing, assembly, inspection, and material han-
dling, in many cases accomplishing more than one of these operations in the same system.
They are called automated because they perform their operations with a reduced level
of human participation compared with the corresponding manual process. In some
highly automated systems, there is virtually no human participation. Examples of auto-
mated manufacturing systems include the following:

• Automated machine tools that process parts

• Transfer lines that perform a series of machining operations
• Automated assembly systems
• Manufacturing systems that use industrial robots to perform processing or assembly
operations
• Automatic material handling and storage systems to integrate manufacturing
operations
• Automatic inspection systems for quality control
8 Chap. 1 / Introduction

Product variety
Programmable
automation
Flexible
automation

Fixed
automation

1 100 10,000 1,000,000

Production quantity

Figure 1.5 Three types of automation relative

to production quantity and product variety.

Automated manufacturing systems can be classified into three basic types: (1) fixed
automation, (2) programmable automation, and (3) flexible automation. They generally
operate as fully automated systems although semiautomated systems are common in
programmable automation. The relative positions of the three types of automation for
different production volumes and product varieties are depicted in Figure 1.5.

Fixed Automation. Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of process-

ing (or assembly) operations is fixed by the equipment configuration. Each operation in
the sequence is usually simple, involving perhaps a plain linear or rotational motion or an
uncomplicated combination of the two, such as feeding a rotating spindle. It is the inte-
gration and coordination of many such operations in one piece of equipment that makes
the system complex. Typical features of fixed automation are (1) high initial investment
for custom-engineered equipment, (2) high production rates, and (3) inflexibility of the
equipment to accommodate product variety.
The economic justification for fixed automation is found in products that are made
in very large quantities and at high production rates. The high initial cost of the e­ quipment
can be spread over a very large number of units, thus minimizing the unit cost relative
to alternative methods of production. Examples of fixed automation include machining
transfer lines and automated assembly machines.

Programmable Automation. In programmable automation, the production equip-

ment is designed with the capability to change the sequence of operations to accommo-
date different part or product configurations. The operation sequence is controlled by a
program, which is a set of instructions coded so that they can be read and interpreted by
the system. New programs can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce
new parts or products. Some of the features that characterize programmable automation
include (1) high investment in general-purpose equipment, (2) lower production rates than
fixed automation, (3) flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product configura-
tion, and (4) high suitability for batch production.
Sec. 1.2 / Automation in Production Systems 9

Programmable automated systems are used in low- and medium-volume produc-

tion. The parts or products are typically made in batches. To produce each new batch of
a different item, the system must be reprogrammed with the set of machine instructions
that correspond to the new item. The physical setup of the machine must also be changed:
Tools must be loaded, fixtures must be attached to the machine table, and any required
machine settings must be entered. This changeover takes time. Consequently, the typical
cycle for a given batch includes a period during which the setup and reprogramming take
place, followed by a period in which the parts are produced. Examples of programmable
automation include numerically controlled (NC) machine tools, industrial robots, and pro-
grammable logic controllers.

Flexible Automation. Flexible automation is an extension of programmable

automation. A flexible automated system is capable of producing a variety of parts or
products with virtually no time lost for changeovers from one design to the next. There
is no lost production time while reprogramming the system and altering the physical
setup (tooling, fixtures, and machine settings). Accordingly, the system can produce
various mixes and schedules of parts or products instead of requiring that they be made
in batches. What makes flexible automation possible is that the differences between
parts processed by the system are not significant, so the amount of changeover between
designs is minimal. Features of flexible automation include (1) high investment for a
custom-engineered system, (2) continuous production of variable mixtures of parts or
products, (3) medium production rates, and (4) flexibility to deal with product design
variations. Examples of flexible automation are flexible manufacturing systems that
­perform machining processes.

1.2.2 Computerized Manufacturing Support Systems

Automation of the manufacturing support systems is aimed at reducing the amount of

manual and clerical effort in product design, manufacturing planning and control, and
the business functions of the firm. Nearly all modern manufacturing support systems are
implemented using computers. Indeed, computer technology is used to implement auto-
mation of the manufacturing systems in the factory as well. Computer-integrated manu-
facturing (CIM) denotes the pervasive use of computer systems to design the ­products,
plan the production, control the operations, and perform the various information-­
processing functions needed in a manufacturing firm. True CIM involves integrating all
of these functions in one system that operates throughout the enterprise. Other terms
are used to identify specific elements of the CIM system; for example, computer-aided
design (CAD) supports the product design function. Computer-aided manufacturing
(CAM) is used for functions related to manufacturing engineering, such as process plan-
ning and numerical control part programming. Some computer systems perform both
CAD and CAM, and so the term CAD/CAM is used to indicate the integration of the
two into one system.
Computer-integrated manufacturing involves the information-processing activities
that provide the data and knowledge required to successfully produce the product. These
activities are accomplished to implement the four basic manufacturing support functions
identified earlier: (1) business functions, (2) product design, (3) manufacturing planning,
and (4) manufacturing control.
10 Chap. 1 / Introduction

1.2.3 Reasons for Automating

Companies undertake projects in automation and computer-integrated manufacturing for

good reasons, some of which are the following:

1. Increase labor productivity. Automating a manufacturing operation invariably

increases production rate and labor productivity. This means greater output per hour
of labor input.
2. Reduce labor cost. Increasing labor cost has been, and continues to be, the trend
in the world’s industrialized societies. Consequently, higher investment in
automation has become economically justifiable to replace manual operations.
Machines are increasingly being substituted for human labor to reduce unit
­product cost.
3. Mitigate the effects of labor shortages. There is a general shortage of labor in many
advanced nations, and this has stimulated the development of automated operations
as a substitute for labor.
4. Reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks. An argument can be put forth
that there is social value in automating operations that are routine, boring, fatiguing,
and possibly irksome. Automating such tasks improves the general level of working
conditions.
5. Improve worker safety. Automating a given operation and transferring the worker
from active participation in the process to a monitoring role, or removing the
worker from the operation altogether, makes the work safer. The safety and physi-
cal ­well-being of the worker has become a national objective with the enactment
of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) in 1970. This has provided an
impetus for automation.
6. Improve product quality. Automation not only results in higher production rates than
manual operation, it also performs the manufacturing process with greater consis-
tency and conformity to quality specifications.
7. Reduce manufacturing lead time. Automation helps reduce the elapsed time between
customer order and product delivery, providing a competitive advantage to the man-
ufacturer for future orders. By reducing manufacturing lead time, the manufacturer
also reduces work-in-process inventory.
8. Accomplish processes that cannot be done manually. Certain operations cannot
be accomplished without the aid of a machine. These processes require precision,
­miniaturization, or complexity of geometry that cannot be achieved manually.
­Examples include certain integrated circuit fabrication operations, rapid prototyp-
ing processes based on computer graphics (CAD) models, and the machining of
complex, mathematically defined surfaces using computer numerical control. These
processes can only be realized by computer-controlled systems.
9. Avoid the high cost of not automating. There is a significant competitive advan-
tage gained in automating a manufacturing plant. The advantage cannot always be
­demonstrated on a company’s project authorization form. The benefits of automa-
tion often show up in unexpected and intangible ways, such as in improved quality,
higher sales, better labor relations, and better company image. Companies that do
not automate are likely to find themselves at a competitive disadvantage with their
customers, their employees, and the general public.
Sec. 1.3 / Manual Labor in Production Systems 11

1.3 MANUAL LABOR IN PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Is there a place for manual labor in the modern production system? The answer is yes.
Even in a highly automated production system, humans are still a necessary component of
the manufacturing enterprise. For the foreseeable future, people will be required to man-
age and maintain the plant, even in those cases where they do not participate directly in
its manufacturing operations. The discussion of the labor issue is separated into two parts,
corresponding to the previous distinction between facilities and manufacturing support:
(1) manual labor in factory operations and (2) labor in manufacturing support systems.

1.3.1 Manual Labor in Factory Operations

There is no denying that the long-term trend in manufacturing is toward greater use of
automated machines to substitute for manual labor. This has been true throughout human
history, and there is every reason to believe the trend will continue. It has been made pos-
sible by applying advances in technology to factory operations. In parallel and sometimes
in conflict with this technologically driven trend are issues of economics that continue to
find reasons for employing manual labor in manufacturing.
Certainly one of the current economic realities in the world is that there are coun-
tries whose average hourly wage rates are so low that most automation projects are dif-
ficult to justify strictly on the basis of cost reduction. These countries include China, India,
Mexico, and many countries in Eastern Europe, Southeast Asia, and Latin America.
With the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the North
American continent has become one large labor pool. Within this pool, Mexico’s labor
rate is an order of magnitude less than that in the United States. U.S. corporate execu-
tives who make decisions on factory locations and the outsourcing of work must reckon
with this reality.
In addition to the labor cost issue, there are other reasons, ultimately based on eco-
nomics, that make the use of manual labor a feasible alternative to automation. Humans
possess certain attributes that give them an advantage over machines in certain situations
and certain kinds of tasks (Table 1.1). A number of situations can be listed in which manual
labor is preferred over automation:

• Task is technologically too difficult to automate. Certain tasks are very difficult (either
technologically or economically) to automate. Reasons for the difficulty include (1)
problems with physical access to the work location, (2) adjustments required in the
task, (3) manual dexterity requirements, and (4) demands on hand–eye coordina-
tion. Manual labor is used to perform the tasks in these cases. Examples include
automobile final assembly lines where many final trim operations are accomplished
by human workers, inspection tasks that require judgment to assess quality, and
material handling tasks that involve flexible or fragile materials.
• Short product life cycle. If a product must be designed and introduced in a short
period of time to meet a near-term window of opportunity in the marketplace, or
if the product is anticipated to be on the market for a relatively short period, then
a manufacturing method designed around manual labor allows for a much sooner
product launch than does an automated method. Tooling for manual production can
be fabricated in much less time and at much lower cost than comparable automation
tooling.
12 Chap. 1 / Introduction

• Customized product. If the customer requires a one-of-a-kind item with unique

features, manual labor has the advantage as the appropriate production resource
because of its versatility and adaptability. Humans are more flexible than any auto-
mated machine.
• Ups and downs in demand. Changes in demand for a product necessitate changes in
production output levels. Such changes are more easily made when manual labor is
used as the means of production. An automated manufacturing system has a fixed
cost associated with its investment. If output is reduced, that fixed cost must be
spread over fewer units, driving up the unit cost of the product. On the other hand,
an automated system has an ultimate upper limit on its output capacity. It cannot
produce more than its rated capacity. By contrast, manual labor can be added or
reduced as needed to meet demand, and the associated cost of the resource is in
direct proportion to its employment. Manual labor can be used to augment the out-
put of an existing automated system during those periods when demand exceeds the
capacity of the automated system.
• Need to reduce risk of product failure. A company introducing a new product to the
market never knows for sure what the ultimate success of that product will be. Some
products will have long life cycles, while others will be on the market for relatively
short periods. The use of manual labor as the productive resource at the beginning
of the product’s life reduces the company’s risk of losing a significant investment in
automation if the product fails to achieve a long market life. Section 1.4.3 discusses
an automation migration strategy that is suitable for introducing a new product.
• Lack of capital. Companies are sometimes forced to use manual labor in their pro-
duction operations when they lack the capital to invest in automated equipment.

1.3.2 Labor in Manufacturing Support Systems

In manufacturing support functions, many of the routine manual and clerical tasks can
be automated using computer systems. Certain production planning activities are b ­ etter
accomplished by computers than by clerks. Material requirements planning (MRP,
­Section 25.2) is an example. In material requirements planning, order releases are gener-
ated for component parts and raw materials based on the master production schedule
for final products. This requires a massive amount of data processing that is best suited
to computer automation. Many commercial software packages are available to perform
MRP. With few exceptions, companies that use MRP rely on computers to perform the
computations. Humans are still required to interpret and implement the MRP output and
to manage the production planning function.
In modern production systems, the computer is used as an aid in performing virtually
all manufacturing support activities. Computer-aided design systems are used in product
design. The human designer is still required to do the creative work. The CAD system
is a tool that augments the designer’s creative talents. Computer-aided process planning
systems are used by manufacturing engineers to plan the production methods. In these
examples, humans are integral components in the operation of the manufacturing support
functions, and the computer-aided systems are tools to increase productivity and improve
quality. CAD and CAM systems rarely operate completely in automatic mode.
Humans will continue to be needed in manufacturing support systems, even as the
level of automation in these systems increases. People will be needed to do the deci-
sion making, learning, engineering, evaluating, managing, and other functions for which
Sec. 1.4 / Automation Principles and Strategies 13

humans are better suited than machines, according to Table 1.1. Even if all of the manu-
facturing systems in the factory are automated, there is still a need for the following kinds
of work to be performed by humans:

• Equipment maintenance. Skilled technicians are required to maintain and repair the
automated systems in the factory when these systems break down. To improve the reli-
ability of the automated systems, preventive maintenance programs are implemented.
• Programming and computer operation. There will be a continual demand to upgrade
software, install new versions of software packages, and execute the programs. It is
anticipated that much of the routine process planning, numerical control part program-
ming, and robot programming may be highly automated using artificial intelligence
(AI) in the future. AI and its relationship with automation are discussed in Section 4.4.
• Engineering project work. The computer-automated and integrated factory is likely
never to be finished. There will be a continual need to upgrade production ­machines,
design tooling, solve technical problems, and undertake continuous improvement
­projects. These activities require the skills of engineers and others working in the factory.
• Plant management. Someone must be responsible for running the factory. There
will be a staff of professional managers and engineers who are responsible for plant
operations. There is likely to be an increased emphasis on managers’ technical skills
compared with traditional factory management positions, where the emphasis is on
personnel skills.

1.4 AUTOMATION PRINCIPLES AND STRATEGIES

The preceding section leads one to conclude that automation is not always the right answer
for a given production situation. A certain caution and respect must be observed in
­applying automation technologies. This section offers three approaches for dealing with
automation projects1: (1) the USA Principle, (2) Ten Strategies for Automation and
­Process Improvement, and (3) an Automation Migration Strategy.

1.4.1 The USA Principle

The USA Principle is a commonsense approach to automation and process improvement

projects. Similar procedures have been suggested in the manufacturing and automa-
tion trade literature, but none has a more captivating title than this one. USA stands for
(1) understand the existing process, (2) simplify the process, and (3) automate the pro-
cess. A statement of the USA Principle appeared in an article published by the American
­Production and Inventory Control Society [5]. The article is concerned with implementing
enterprise resource planning (ERP, Section 25.7), but the USA approach is so general that
it is applicable to nearly any automation project. Going through each step of the procedure
for an automation project may in fact reveal that simplifying the process is sufficient and
automation is not necessary.

1
There are additional approaches not discussed here, but in which the reader may be interested—for
example, the ten steps to integrated manufacturing production systems discussed in J. Black’s book The Design
of the Factory with a Future [1]. Much of Black’s book deals with lean production and the Toyota Production
System, which is covered in Chapter 26 of the present book.
14 Chap. 1 / Introduction

Understand the Existing Process. The first step in the USA approach is to com-
prehend the current process in all of its details. What are the inputs? What are the outputs?
What exactly happens to the work unit2 between input and output? What is the function
of the process? How does it add value to the product? What are the upstream and down-
stream operations in the production sequence, and can they be combined with the process
under consideration?
Some of the traditional industrial engineering charting tools used in methods analysis
are useful in this regard, such as the operation chart and the flow process chart [3]. Applica-
tion of these tools to the existing process provides a model of the process that can be ana-
lyzed and searched for weaknesses (and strengths). The number of steps in the process, the
number and placement of inspections, the number of moves and delays experienced by the
work unit, and the time spent in storage can be ascertained by these charting techniques.
Mathematical models of the process may also be useful to indicate relationships
between input parameters and output variables. What are the important output variables?
How are these output variables affected by inputs to the process, such as raw material
properties, process settings, operating parameters, and environmental conditions? This
information may be valuable in identifying what output variables need to be measured for
feedback purposes and in formulating algorithms for automatic process control.

Simplify the Process. Once the existing process is understood, then the search
begins for ways to simplify. This often involves a checklist of questions about the existing
process. What is the purpose of this step or this transport? Is the step necessary? How does
it add value to the output? Can it be eliminated? Does it use the most appropriate technol-
ogy? How can it be simplified? Are there unnecessary steps in the process that might be
eliminated without detracting from function?
Some of the ten strategies for automation and process improvement (Section 1.4.2)
can help simplify the process. Can steps be combined? Can steps be performed simultane-
ously? Can steps be integrated into a manually operated production line?

Automate the Process. Once the process has been reduced to its simplest form,
then automation can be considered. The possible forms of automation include those listed
in the ten strategies discussed in the following section. An automation migration strategy
(such as the one in Section 1.4.3) might be implemented for a new product that has not
yet proven itself.

1.4.2 Ten Strategies for Automation and Process Improvement

Applying the USA Principle is a good approach in any automation project. As suggested
previously, it may turn out that automation of the process is unnecessary or cannot be cost
justified after the process has been simplified.
If automation seems a feasible solution to improving productivity, quality, or
other measure of performance, then the following ten strategies provide a road map
to search for these improvements. These ten strategies were originally published in the
author’s first book.3 They seem as relevant and appropriate today as they did in 1980.

2
The work unit is the part or product being processed or assembled.
3
M. P. Groover, Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Aided Manufacturing, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1980.
Sec. 1.4 / Automation Principles and Strategies 15

They are referred to as strategies for automation and process improvement because
some of them are applicable whether the process is a candidate for automation or just for
simplification.

1. Specialization of operations. The first strategy involves the use of special-purpose

equipment designed to perform one operation with the greatest possible efficiency.
This is analogous to the specialization of labor, which is employed to improve labor
productivity.
2. Combined operations. Production occurs as a sequence of operations. Complex
parts may require dozens or even hundreds of processing steps. The strategy
of combined operations involves reducing the number of distinct production
­machines or workstations through which the part must be routed. This is accom-
plished by performing more than one operation at a given machine, thereby
­reducing the number of separate machines needed. Since each machine typically
involves a setup, setup time can usually be saved by this strategy. Material han-
dling effort, nonoperation time, waiting time, and manufacturing lead time are
all reduced.
3. Simultaneous operations. A logical extension of the combined operations strategy
is to simultaneously perform the operations that are combined at one workstation.
In effect, two or more processing (or assembly) operations are performed simultane-
ously on the same work part, thus reducing total processing time.
4. Integration of operations. This strategy involves linking several workstations together
into a single integrated mechanism, using automated work handling devices to trans-
fer parts between stations. In effect, this reduces the number of separate work centers
through which the product must be scheduled. With more than one workstation,
several parts can be processed simultaneously, thereby increasing the overall output
of the system.
5. Increased flexibility. This strategy attempts to achieve maximum utilization of equip-
ment for job shop and medium-volume situations by using the same equipment for
a variety of parts or products. It involves the use of programmable or flexible auto-
mation (Section 1.2.1). Prime objectives are to reduce setup time and programming
time for the production machine. This normally translates into lower manufacturing
lead time and less work-in-process.
6. Improved material handling and storage. A great opportunity for reducing nonpro-
ductive time exists in the use of automated material handling and storage systems.
Typical benefits include reduced work-in-process, shorter manufacturing lead times,
and lower labor costs.
7. On-line inspection. Inspection for quality of work is traditionally performed after
the process is completed. This means that any poor-quality product has already been
produced by the time it is inspected. Incorporating inspection into the manufacturing
process permits corrections to the process as the product is being made. This reduces
scrap and brings the overall quality of the product closer to the nominal specifications
intended by the designer.
8. Process control and optimization. This includes a wide range of control schemes
intended to operate the individual processes and associated equipment more
­efficiently. By this strategy, the individual process times can be reduced and product
quality can be improved.
16 Chap. 1 / Introduction

9. Plant operations control. Whereas the previous strategy is concerned with the control
of individual manufacturing processes, this strategy is concerned with control at the
plant level. It attempts to manage and coordinate the aggregate operations in the
plant more efficiently. Its implementation involves a high level of computer network-
ing within the factory.
10. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM). Taking the previous strategy one level
higher, CIM involves extensive use of computer systems, databases, and networks
throughout the enterprise to integrate the factory operations and business functions.

The ten strategies constitute a checklist of possibilities for improving the production
system through automation or simplification. They should not be considered mutually
exclusive. For most situations, multiple strategies can be implemented in one improvement
project. The reader will see these strategies implemented in the many systems discussed
throughout the book.

1.4.3 Automation Migration Strategy

Owing to competitive pressures in the marketplace, a company often needs to introduce a

new product in the shortest possible time. As mentioned previously, the easiest and least
expensive way to accomplish this introduction is to design a manual production method,
using a sequence of workstations operating independently. The tooling for a manual
method can be fabricated quickly and at low cost. If more than a single set of workstations
is required to make the product in sufficient quantities, as may be the case, then the manual
cell is replicated as many times as needed to meet demand. If the product turns out to be
successful, and high future demand is anticipated, then it makes sense for the company to
automate production. The improvements are often carried out in phases. Many companies
have an automation migration strategy, that is, a formalized plan for evolving the manu-
facturing systems used to produce new products as demand grows. A typical automation
migration strategy is the following:

Phase 1: Manual production using single-station manned cells operating indepen-

dently. This is used for introduction of the new product for reasons already
mentioned: quick and low-cost tooling to get started.
Phase 2: Automated production using single-station automated cells operating
independently. As demand for the product grows, and it becomes clear
that automation can be justified, then the single stations are automated
to reduce labor and increase production rate. Work units are still moved
between workstations manually.
Phase 3: Automated integrated production using a multi-station automated sys-
tem with serial operations and automated transfer of work units between
­stations. When the company is certain that the product will be produced in
mass quantities and for several years, then integration of the single-station
automated cells is warranted to further reduce labor and increase produc-
tion rate.

This strategy is illustrated in Figure 1.6. Details of the automation migration strat-
egy vary from company to company, depending on the types of products they make and
the manufacturing processes they perform. But well-managed manufacturing companies
Another random document with
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others; so that all over the land a vast number of these seed eaters are at work
during the colder months reducing next year’s crop of worse than useless plants.
Robin.—An examination of
500 stomachs shows that over
42 per cent of its food is animal
matter, principally insects, while
the remainder is made up
largely of small fruits or berries.
Vegetable food forms nearly 58
per cent of the stomach
contents, over 47 per cent being
wild fruits, and only a little
more than 4 per cent being
possibly cultivated varieties.
Cultivated fruit amounting to
about 25 per cent was found in
the stomachs in June and July,
but only a trifle in August. Wild
fruit, on the contrary, is eaten in
every month, and constitutes
during half the year a staple
food.
Questions.—Which of these
birds are common in your
neighbourhood? Which of them
according to the foregoing
report are plainly injurious?
Clearly beneficial? Doubtful?
Which are great destroyers of
weed seeds? Wood-borers?
Ants? Grain? Why is the
Fig. 332.—African Ostrich, × ¹⁄₂₀. (order?) destruction of an ant by a night
hawk of greater benefit than the
destruction of an ant by a
woodpecker? Name the only woodpecker that injures trees. If a bird eats two
ounces of grain and one ounce of insects, has it probably done more good or more
evil?
 CHAPTER XIV
MAMMALS

Suggestions.—A tame rabbit, a house cat, or a pet squirrel may be taken to the
school and observed by the class. Domestic animals may be observed at home and
on the street. A study of the teeth will give a key to the life of the animal, and the
teacher should collect a few mammalian skulls as opportunities offer. The pupils
should be required to identify them by means of the chart of skulls (p. 194). If some
enthusiastic students fond of anatomy should dissect small mammals, the
specimens should be killed with chloroform, and the directions for dissection usual
in laboratory works on this subject may be followed. There is a brief guide on page
223. The following outline for the study of a live mammal will apply almost as well
to the rabbit or the squirrel as to the cat.
The Cat.—The house cat (Felis domestica) is probably descended
from the Nubian cat (Felis maniculata, Fig. 333) found in Africa. The
wild species is about half as large again as the domestic cat, grayish
brown with darker stripes; the tail has dark rings. The lynx, or wild
cat of America (Lynx rufus), is quite different. Compare the figures
(333, 335) and state three obvious differences. To which American
species is the house cat closer akin, the lynx (Fig. 335) or the ocelot
(Fig. 334)? The domestic cat is found among all nations of the world.
What is concluded, as to its nearest relatives, from the fact that the
Indians had no cats when America was discovered? It was considered
sacred by the ancient Egyptians, and after death its body was
embalmed.
The body of the cat is very flexible. It may be divided into five
regions, head, neck, trunk, tail, and limbs. Its eyes have the same
parts as the eyes of other mammals. Which part of its eye is most
peculiar? (Fig. 333.) What part is lacking that is present in birds?
How are the eyes especially adapted for seeing at night? Does the
pupil in the light extend up or down or across the iris? Does it ever
become round?
 Fig. 333.—Wild Cat of Africa (Felis maniculata), × ⅛.

What is the shape and the position of the ears? Are they large or
small compared with those of most mammals? They are fitted best
for catching sound from what direction? What is thus indicated in
regard to the cat’s habits? (Compare with ears of rabbit.) Touch the
whiskers of the cat. What result? Was it voluntary or involuntary
motion? Are the nostrils relatively large or small compared with
those of a cow? Of man?
Is the neck long or short? Animals that have long fore legs usually
have what kind of neck? Those with short legs? Why? How many toes
on a fore foot? Hind foot? Why is this arrangement better than the
reverse? Some mammals are sole walkers (plantigrade), some are
toe walkers (digitigrade). To which kind does the cat belong? Does it
walk on the ends of the toes? Does it walk with all the joints of the
toes on the ground? Where is the heel of the cat? (Fig. 334.) The
wrist? To make sure of the location of the wrist, begin above: find
the shoulder blade, the upper arm (one or two bones?), the lower
arm (one or two bones?), the wrist, the palm, and the fingers (Fig.
337). Is the heel bone prominent or small?
 Fig. 334.—Ocelot (Felis pardalis), of Texas and Mexico. × ⅑.

In what direction does the knee of the cat point? The heel? The
elbow? The wrist? Compare the front and the hind leg in length;
straightness; heaviness; number and position of toes; sharpness of
the claws. What makes the dog’s claws duller than a cat’s? What
differences in habit go with this? Judging from the toe that has
become useless on the fore foot of the cat, which toe is lacking in the
hind foot? Is it the cat’s thumb or little finger that does not touch the
ground? (Fig. 337.) Locate on your own hand the parts
corresponding to the pads on the forefoot of a cat. Of what use are
soft pads on a cat’s foot?
Some animals have short, soft fur and long, coarse over hair. Does
the cat have both? Is the cat’s fur soft or coarse? Does the fur have a
colour near the skin different from that at the tip? Why is hair better
suited as a covering for the cat than feathers would be? Scales?
Where are long, stiff bristles found on the cat? Their length suggests
that they would be of what use to a cat in going through narrow
places? Why is it necessary for a cat to be noiseless in its
movements?
 Fig. 335.—Lynx (Lynx rufus). The “Bob-tailed cat”
(North America).

Observe the movements of the cat.—Why cannot a cat come

down a tall tree head foremost? Did you ever see a cat catch a bird?
How does a cat approach its prey? Name a jumping insect that has
long hind legs; an amphibian; several mammals (Figs. 362, 374).
Does a cat ever trot? Gallop? Does a cat chase its prey? When does
the cat move with its heel on the ground? The claws of a cat are
withdrawn by means of a tendon (see Fig. 338). Does a cat seize its
prey with its mouth or with its feet.?
How does a cat make the purring sound? (Do the lips move? The
sides?) How does a cat drink? Do a cat and dog drink exactly the
same way? Is the cat’s tongue rough or smooth? How is the tongue
used in getting the flesh off close to the bone? Can a cat clean a bone
entirely of meat?
In what state of development is a newly born kitten? With what
does the cat nourish its young? Name ten animals of various kinds
whose young are similarly nourished. What is this class of animals
called? Why does a cat bend its back when it is frightened or angry?
Does a cat or a dog eat a greater variety of food? Which refuses to
 eat an animal
found dead? Will
either bury food
for future use?
Which is
sometimes
troublesome on
account of
Fig. 336.—Jaguar, of tropical America. digging holes in
the garden?
Explain this
instinct. Which lived a solitary life when wild? Which had a definite
haunt, or home? Why are dogs more sociable than cats? A dog is
more devoted to his master. Why? A cat is more devoted to its home,
and will return if carried away. Why? Why does a dog turn around
before lying down? (Consider its original environment.)
The Skeleton (Fig.
337).—Compare the
spinal column of a cat in
form and flexibility with
the spinal column of a
fish, a snake, and a bird.
The skull is joined to
the spinal column by two
knobs (or condyls),
which fit into sockets in
the first vertebra. Fig. 337.—Skeleton of Cat.
Compare the jaws with
those of a bird and a
reptile. There is a prominent ridge in the temple to which the
powerful chewing muscles are attached. There is also a ridge at the
back of the head where the muscles which support the head are
attached (Fig. 348).
Count the ribs. Are there more or fewer than in man? The
breastbone is in a number of parts, joined, like the vertebræ, by
cartilages. Compare it with a bird’s sternum; why the difference? The
shoulder girdle, by which the front legs are attached to the trunk, is
hardly to be called a girdle, as the collar bones (clavicles) are
 rudimentary. (They often escape notice
during dissection, being hidden by
muscles.) The shoulder blades, the other
bones of this girdle, are large, but
relatively not so broad toward the dorsal
edge as human shoulder blades. The
clavicles are tiny because they are useless.
Why does the cat not need as movable a
shoulder as a man? The pelvic, or hip
Fig. 338.—Claw of Cat (1)
retracted by ligament, and girdle, to which the hind legs are attached,
(2) drawn down by muscle is a rigid girdle, completed above by the
attached to lower tendon. spinal column, to which it is immovably
joined. Thus the powerful hind legs are
joined to the most rigid portion of the
trunk.
Mammals.—The cat belongs to the class Mammalia or
mammals. The characteristics of the class are that the young are not
hatched from eggs, but are born alive, and nourished with milk
(hence have lips), and the skin is covered with hair. The milk glands
are situated ventrally. The position of the class in the animal
kingdom was shown when the cow was classified (p. 9). Their care
for the young, their intelligence, and their ability to survive when in
competition with other animals, causes the mammals to be
considered the highest class in the animal kingdom.
According to these tests, what class of vertebrates should rank
next to mammals? Compare the heart, the lungs, the blood, and the
parental devotion of these two highest classes of animals.
 Fig. 339.—Skeleton of Lion (cat family).

The first mammals, which were somewhat like small opossums,

appeared millions of years ago, when the world was inhabited by
giant reptiles. These reptiles occupied the water, the land, and the
air, and their great strength and ferocity would have prevented the
mammals from multiplying (for at first they were small and weak),
but the mammals carried their young in a pouch until able to care for
themselves, while the reptiles laid eggs and left them uncared for.
The first mammals used reptilian eggs for food, though they could
not contend with the great reptiles. Because birds and mammals are
better parents than reptiles, they have conquered the earth, and the
reptiles have been forced into subordination, and have become
smaller and timid.
Classification of Mammals.—Which two have the closest
resemblances in the following lists: Horse, cow, deer. Why? Cat, cow,
bear. Why? Monkey, man, sheep. Why? Rat, monkey, squirrel. Why?
Giraffe, leopard, camel. Why? Walrus, cat, cow. Why? Check the five
mammals in the following lists that form a group resembling one
another most closely: Lion, bear, pig, dog, squirrel, cat, camel, tiger,
man. State your reasons. Giraffe, leopard, deer, cow, rat, camel,
hyena, horse, monkey. State reasons.
Teeth and toes are the basis for subdividing the class mammalia
into orders. Although the breathing, the circulation, and the internal
 organs and processes are similar
in all mammals, the external
organs vary greatly because of the
varying environments of different
species. The internal structure
enables us to place animals
together which are essentially
alike; e.g. the whale and man are
both mammals, since they
Fig. 340.—Walrus (Trichechus resemble in breathing,
rosmarus). circulation, and multiplication of
young. The external organs guide
us in
sepa
ratin
g the
class
into
orde
Fig. 342.—Foot of Bear rs.
(Plantigrade).
The
teeth
vary according to the food
eaten. The feet vary according
to use in obtaining food or
escaping from enemies. This
Fig. 341.—Weasel, in summer; in Canada
will explain the difference in in winter it is all white but tip of tail.
the length of legs of lion and
horse, and of the forms of the
teeth in cat and cow. Make a careful study of the teeth and the limbs
as shown in the figures and in all specimens accessible. Write out the
dental formulas as indicated at the top of page 194. The numerals
above the line show the number of upper teeth, those below the line
show the number of lower teeth, in one half of the jaw. They are
designated as follows: I, incisors; C, canine; M, molars. Multiplying
by two gives the total number. Which skulls in the chart have the
largest canines? Why? The smallest, or none at all? Why? Compare
the molars of the cow, the hog, and the dog. Explain their
differences. In which skulls are some of the molars lacking?
Rudimentary? Why are the teeth that do not touch usually much
smaller than those that do?

Fig. 343.—Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus).

KEY, OR TABLE, FOR
CLASSIFYING
MAMMALS (class
Mammalia) INTO
ORDERS
Orders
A1 Imperfect Mammals, young hatched or
prematurely born
B1 Jaws a birdlike beak, Mon’otremes
egg-laying
B2 Jaws not beaklike, Marsu’pials
young carried in pouch
A2 Perfect Mammals, young not hatched, nor
prematurely born

C1 Front part of both Eden’tates

jaws lack teeth
C2 Teeth with sharp Insect’ivors
points for piercing
shells of insects
B1 Digits with claws
C3 Canines very long, Car’nivors
molars suited for
tearing
C4 Canines lacking, Rodents
incisors very large

C1 Head large; Ceta’ceans

carnivorous
B2 Digits not distinct
C2 Head small; Sire’neans
herbivorous

B3 Digits with nails or C1 Five toes, nose Proboscid’eans

hoofs prolonged into a
snout
C2 Toes odd number, E’quines Ungulates
less than five
C3 Toes even number, Ru’minants
upper front teeth
lacking, chew the
cud
C4 Toes even number, Swine
upper front teeth
 present, not cud-
chewers
C5 All limbs having Quad’rumans
hands
C6 Two limbs having Bi’mans
hands
Exercise in Classification.—Copy the following list, and by reference to
figures write the name of its order after each mammal:—

Ape (Figs. 405, 406)

Rabbit (Fig. 345)
Dog (Figs. 356, 408)
Hog (Figs. 357, 393)
Bat (Figs. 347, 370)
Cat (Figs. 337, 348)
Armadillo (Figs. 349, 365)
Cow (Figs. 344, 386)
Walrus (Fig. 340)
Monkey (Figs. 352, 401)
Horse (Figs. 355, 395)
Ant-eater (Figs. 354, 364)
Antelope (Fig. 391)
Mole (Figs. 367, 368)
Beaver (Figs. 372, 373)
Duckbill (Fig. 359)
Tapir (Fig. 384)
Dolphin (Figs. 379, 397)

Use chart of skulls and Figs. 381, 382, 395–400 in working out this exercise.
Man’s dental formula is (M ⁵⁄₅, C ¹⁄₁, I ²⁄₂)2 = 32.
In like manner fill out formulas below:—
 Cow (M—C—I—)2 = 32
Rabbit (M—C—I—)2 = 28
Walrus (M—C—I—)2 = 34
Bat (M—C—I—)2 = 34
Cat (M—C—I—)2 = 30
Armadillo (M—C—I—)2 = 28
Horse (M—C—I—)2 = 40
Whale (M—C—I—)2 = 0
Am. Monkey (M—C—I—)2 = 36
Sloth (M—C—I—)2 = 18
Ant-eater (M—C—I—)2 = 0
Dog (M—C—I—)2 = 42
Hog (M—C—I—)2 = 44
Sheep (M—C—I—)2 = 32

The lowest order of

mammals contains only two
species, the duckbill and the
porcupine ant-eater, both living in
the Australian region. Do you
judge that the duckbill of
Tasmania (Fig. 359) lives chiefly
in water or on land? Why? Is it
probably active or slow in
movement? It dabbles in mud and
slime for worms and mussels, etc.
How is it fitted for doing this?
Which feet are markedly webbed?
How far does the web extend? The
Fig. 344.—Skull and front of lower jaw web can be folded back when not
of Cow. in use. It lays two eggs in a nest of
grass at the end of a burrow. Trace
resemblances and differences
between this animal and birds.
The porcupine ant-eater has numerous quill-like spines (Fig. 360)
interspersed with its hairs. (Use?) Describe its claws. It has a long
prehensile tongue. It rolls into a ball when attacked. Compare its
 Fig. 346.—Walrus (see Fig.
341).

jaws with a bird’s bill. It lays

one egg, which is carried in a
fold of the skin until hatched. Fig. 345.—Rabbit. A, B, incisors; C, molars
Since it is pouched it could be
cl
assed with
the
pouched
mammals
(next
order), but
it is egg- Fig. 347.—Bat.
Fig. 348.—Cat.
laying.
Suppose the two
animals in this
order did not
nourish their
young with milk
Fig. 349.—Armadillo. after hatching,
would they most
resemble
mammals, birds, or reptiles?
Write the name of this order. —— (See
Table, p. 193.) Why do you place them in this Fig. 350.—Horse (front
order (——)? (See p. 193.) The name of the of jaw).
order comes from two Greek words meaning
“one opening,” because the ducts from the
bladder and egg glands unite with the large intestine and form a
 cloaca. What
other classes
of
vertebrates
are similar
in this?
Fig. 351.—Greenland Whale.

Fig. 352.—American Monkey.

Fig. 353.—Sloth (Fig.

363).
Fig. 354.—Ant-eater (Fig. 364).

Fig. 355.—Horse.
Fig. 356.—Dog. Upper (A) and lower (B) jaw.

Fig. 357.—Hog.

Fig. 358.—Sheep.
 Fig. 359.—Duckbill (Ornithorhynchus
paradoxus).

Fig. 360.—Spiny Ant-eater (Echidna

aculeata). View of under surface to show
pouch. (After Haacke.)
 Fig. 361.—Opossum (Didelphys Virginianus).

Pouched Mammals.—These animals, like the last, are

numerous in the Australian region, but are also found in South
America, thus indicating that a bridge of land once connected the
two regions. The opossum is the only species which has penetrated to
North America (Fig. 361). Are its jaws slender or short? What kinship
is thus suggested? As shown by its grinning, its lips are not well
developed. Does this mean a low or a well-developed mammal?
Where does it have a thumb? (Fig. 361.) Does the thumb have a nail?
Is the tail hairy or bare? Why? Do you think it prefers the ground or
the trees? State two reasons for your answer. It hides in a cave or
bank or hollow tree all day, and seeks food at night. Can it run fast on
the ground? It feigns death when captured, and watches for a chance
for stealthy escape.
The kangaroo (Fig. 362), like the opossum, gives birth to
imperfectly developed young. (Kinship with what classes is thus
indicated?) After birth, the young (about three fourths of an inch
long) are carried in a ventral pouch and suckled for seven or eight
months. They begin to reach down and nibble grass before leaving
the pouch. Compare fore legs with hind legs, front half of body with
 hind half. Describe tail.
What is it used for when
kangaroo is at rest? In
jumping, would it be
useful for propelling and
also for balancing the
body? Describe hind and
fore feet. Order ——.
Why? ________. See
key, page 193.
Imperfectly Toothed
Mammals.—These
animals live chiefly in
South America (sloth,
armadillo, giant ant-eater)
and Africa (pangolin). The
Fig. 362.—Giant Kangaroo. sloth (Fig. 363) eats
leaves. Its movements are
remarkably slow, and a
vegetable growth resembling moss often gives its hair a green colour.
(What advantage?) How many toes has it? How are its nails suited to
its manner of living? Does it save exertion by hanging from the
branches of trees instead of walking upon them?
Judging from the
figures (363, 364, 365),
are the members of this
order better suited for
attack, active resistance,
passive resistance, or
concealment when
contending with other
animals? The ant-eater’s
claws (Fig. 364) on the
fore feet seem to be a
hindrance in walking; for
what are they useful?
Why are its jaws so
Fig. 363.—Sloth of South America.
slender? What is
probably the use of the
enormous bushy tail?
The nine-banded
armadillo (Fig. 365)
lives in Mexico and
Texas. It is
omnivorous. To escape
its enemies, it burrows
into the ground with
surprising rapidity. If
unable to escape when
pursued, its hard,
stout tail and head are
turned under to
protect the lower side
of the body where
there are no scales.
The three-banded Fig. 364.—Giant Ant-eater of South America. (See
species (Fig. 366) lives Fig. 354.) Find evidences that the edentates are a
in Argentina. Compare degenerate order. Describe another ant-eater (Fig.
the ears and tail of the 360).
two species; give
reasons for differences.
Why are the eyes so
small? The claws so
large? Order______.
Why? ______.

Fig. 365.—Nine-banded Armadillo of Texas and

Mexico. (Dasypus novemcinctus.) It is increasing
in numbers; it is very useful, as it digs up and
destroys insects. (See Fig. 347.)