M Sc (Physics) SEM-II (2021)

Subject: Statistical Physics

Unit II:
Fundamentals of quantum statistical mechanics, BE
and FD Statistics, Symmetry of wave functions,
Boltzmann limit of Bosons and Fermions, Ideal Bose
system: Bose-Einstein condensation, Behaviour of
ideal Bose gas below and above Bose temperature,
Photons and liquid helium as bosons.
 Quantum Statistics
Bose-Einstein Statistics Fermi-Dirac Statistics
✓ Particles are indistinguishable ✓ Particles are indistinguishable
(Bosons) (Fermions)
✓ No restriction on occupancy of ✓ Restriction on occupancy of
energy levels (Any quantum state energy levels (No quantum state
can have any number of bosons can have more than one fermion
without following Pauli’s following Pauli’s exclusive
exclusive principle) principle)
✓ Particles have integer spin (zero ✓ Particles have half integer spin
ђ ђ
or even integral multiple of 𝟐
(odd integral multiple of 𝟐
i.e.
ђ ђ
i.e. 𝒏 𝟐 where, n=0, 2, 4, 6,…) 𝒏 𝟐 where, n=1, 3, 5, 7,…)
✓ Wavefunction is symmetric ✓ Wavefunction is antisymmetric
(wavefunction exist and does not (wavefunction exist but changes
change its sign for interchanging its sign for interchanging the
the position of particle i.e. position of particle i. e.
Ѱ 𝒂, 𝒃 = Ѱ 𝒃, 𝒂 Ѱ 𝒂, 𝒃 = −Ѱ 𝒃, 𝒂
✓ Occupation number, ns = 0, 1, ✓ Occupation number, ns = 0, 1
2, 3,.. ✓ Mean occupation number,
✓ Mean occupation number, 1
1 < 𝒏𝒔 >= 𝑬 −𝝁
𝒔
< 𝒏𝒔 >= 𝑬 −𝝁 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 + 1
𝒔
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 − 1
Symmetry of wave functions
In quantum statistics, the wave function of the system of indistinguishable
particles provides the information of nature of particles on account of occupancy of
quantum states. Symmetric wavefunction shows no restriction of occupancy of
quantum states, but antisymmetric wave function shows restriction of occupancy
of quantum states.

𝑯 Ѱ𝒂
𝒏 = 𝑬𝒂𝒏 Ѱ𝒂𝒏 𝑬𝒂𝒏 + 𝑬𝒃𝒌 = 𝑬𝒃𝒏 + 𝑬𝒂𝒌
The most general wave function is the Ѱ𝒂𝒏 Ѱ𝒃𝒌 + Ѱ𝒃𝒏 Ѱ𝒂𝒌 Symmetric
linear combination of Ѱ𝒂𝒏 Ѱ𝒃𝒌 and Ѱ𝒃𝒏 Ѱ𝒂𝒌 Antisymmetric
Ѱ𝒂𝒏 Ѱ𝒃𝒌 − Ѱ𝒃𝒏 Ѱ𝒂𝒌
After interchanged a and b 𝒂 𝒃
Or, Ѱ𝒏 Ѱ𝒏 Antisymmetric
Ѱ𝒃𝒏 Ѱ𝒂𝒌 + Ѱ𝒂𝒏 Ѱ𝒃𝒌 Symmetric unchanged Ѱ𝒂𝒌 Ѱ𝒃𝒌
Ѱ𝒃𝒏 Ѱ𝒂𝒌 − Ѱ𝒂𝒏 Ѱ𝒃𝒌 = − Ѱ𝒂𝒏 Ѱ𝒃𝒌 − Ѱ𝒃𝒏 Ѱ𝒂𝒌 Antisymmetric changes in sign
Now, suppose that there are N particles a1, a2, a3, a4, … aN such that
a1 is in state n1, a2 is in state n2 and so on.

𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
෍ Ѱ𝒏11 Ѱ𝒏22 Ѱ𝒏33 Ѱ𝒏44 … Ѱ𝒏𝑵𝑵 Symmetric

Antisymmetric

If we exchange any two particles, the symmetric wave function remains

unaffected. Similarly, by exchanging any two particles, antisymmetric
wave function also remains unaffected except change in its sign due to
exchange of two columns of determinant. This shows that both
symmetric and antisymmetric wave functions exists in such situation
of particles interchangeability.
Now, suppose that there are N particles a1, a2, a3, a4, … aN such that
all are in state n1. The symmetric wave function describing this
distribution is a new state given by but it does not vanish indicates
this distribution is allowed. Hence, particles posses symmetric wave
function do not follow Pauli’s exclusive principle and the particles are
bosons.
𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂 𝒂
Ѱ𝒏11 Ѱ𝒏21 Ѱ𝒏31 Ѱ𝒏41 … Ѱ𝒏𝑵1

On the other hand, the antisymmetric wave function describing this

distribution vanishes due to same rows of determinant as given by
which indicates that the distribution is not allowed. This means all
the particles cannot be in same state. In fact no state can have more
than one particle. Hence, particles posses antisymmetric wave
function follow Pauli’s exclusive principle and the particles are
fermions.

Thus, particles satisfying symmetry requirement are said to obey BE

statistics, while those satisfying anti-symmetry requirement are said
to obey FD statistics.
 Quantum distribution function
In quantum statistics, the function describes the occupancy of quantum
states. The number of indistinguishable particles per quantum state is
said to quantum distribution function. It is defined as the mean
occupation number <ns>. Mean occupation number for bosons and
fermions can be obtained by using grand canonical ensemble theory.

Gibbs grand canonical distribution and grand partition function are

given by
𝝁𝑵−𝑬𝒏
𝑬 𝝁𝑵
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 − 𝒏
𝝆𝒏𝑵 = 𝒁𝑵 = ෍ 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 ෍ 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝒁𝑵 𝒏 𝑵

𝒏𝟏 𝑬𝟏 +𝒏𝟐 𝑬𝟐 +𝒏𝟑 𝑬𝟑 +⋯ 𝝁 𝒏𝟏 +𝒏𝟐 +𝒏𝟑 +⋯

−
𝒁𝑵 = ෍ 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝑵
𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁 𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁 𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁
− 𝟏 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟑 𝟑
𝒁𝑵 = ෍𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 …
𝑵
𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁 𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁 𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁
− 𝟏 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟑 𝟑
𝒁𝑵 = ෍𝒆 𝒌𝑻 ෍𝒆 𝒌𝑻 ෍𝒆 𝒌𝑻 …
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟑
 𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁 𝑬𝒔 −𝝁 𝟐 𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
− 𝒔 𝒔 − −
Consider for bosons ෍𝒆 𝒌𝑻 =𝟏+𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +⋯
ns = 0, 1, 2, 3,.., 𝒏𝒔
−𝟏
𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁
− 𝒔 𝒔
𝑬 −𝝁
− 𝒔 𝟏
෍𝒆 𝒌𝑻 = 𝟏− 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 =
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
−
𝒏𝒔 𝟏−𝒆 𝒌𝑻

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Therefore, 𝒁𝑵 =
𝑬 −𝝁 𝑬 −𝝁 𝑬 −𝝁
…
− 𝟏 − 𝟐 − 𝟑
𝟏− 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝟏− 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝟏− 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝟏
𝒁𝑵 = ෑ
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
𝒔 −
𝟏−𝒆 𝒌𝑻

𝟏 𝟏
𝒍𝒏𝒁𝑵 = 𝒍𝒏 + 𝒍𝒏 +⋯
𝑬 −𝝁 𝑬 −𝝁
− 𝟏 − 𝟐
𝟏− 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝟏− 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝟏
𝒍𝒏𝒁𝑵 = ෍ 𝒍𝒏
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
−
𝒔 𝟏−𝒆 𝒌𝑻
 𝝏Ω 𝝏 𝒍𝒏𝒁𝑵
In grand canonical ensemble, < 𝑵 >= − = 𝒌𝑻
𝝏𝝁 𝝏𝝁
𝟏
𝝏 σ𝒔 𝒍𝒏 𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
− 𝟏 −
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁 𝟏
< 𝑵 >= 𝒌𝑻 𝟏−𝒆 𝒌𝑻
= 𝒌𝑻 ෍ − −𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝝏𝝁 −
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁 𝒌𝑻
𝒔 𝟏−𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
− 𝟏
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝟏
< 𝑵 >= ෍ =෍ =෍
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁 𝟏 𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
− 𝒔 −𝟏 𝒔
𝒔 𝟏−𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝑬 −𝝁
− 𝒔 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝟏
෍ < 𝒏𝒔 > = ෍ 𝟏
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁 < 𝒏𝒔 >= 𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
𝒔 𝒔 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
This is mean occupation number for bosons

If, 𝝁 = −𝜶𝒌𝑻 𝟏
< 𝒏𝒔 >=
𝒆 𝜶+𝜷𝑬𝒔 − 𝟏
𝟏
𝜷= 𝒌𝑻 𝒈𝒔
𝒏𝒔 = 𝜶+𝜷𝑬
𝒆 𝒔 −𝟏
Consider for fermions 𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁
− 𝒔 𝒔 −
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
ns = 0, 1 ෍𝒆 𝒌𝑻 = 𝟏+𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝒏𝒔

𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁 𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁 𝒏 𝑬 −𝝁
− 𝟏 𝟏 − 𝟐 𝟐 − 𝟑 𝟑
𝒁𝑵 = ෍𝒆 𝒌𝑻 ෍𝒆 𝒌𝑻 ෍𝒆 𝒌𝑻 …
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟑

𝑬𝟏 −𝝁 𝑬𝟐 −𝝁 𝑬𝟑 −𝝁
− − −
𝒁𝑵 = 𝟏+𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝟏+𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝟏+𝒆 𝒌𝑻 …
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
−
𝒁𝑵 = ෑ 𝟏 + 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝒔
𝑬 −𝝁 𝑬𝟐 −𝝁
− 𝟏 −
𝒍𝒏𝒁𝑵 = 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 + 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +⋯
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
−
𝒍𝒏𝒁𝑵 = ෍ 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝒔
 𝝏Ω 𝝏 𝒍𝒏𝒁𝑵
In grand canonical ensemble, < 𝑵 >= − = 𝒌𝑻
𝝏𝝁 𝝏𝝁
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
−
𝜕 σ𝒔 𝒍𝒏 1 + 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 1 −
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁 1
< 𝑵 >= 𝒌𝑻 = 𝒌𝑻 ෍ 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝜕𝝁 −
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁 𝒌𝑻
𝒔 1+𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝑬 −𝝁
− 𝒔 1
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 =෍ 1
< 𝑵 >= ෍ 1 =෍
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁 +1 𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
− 𝒔 𝑬 −𝝁
𝒔 1+𝒆 𝒌𝑻 − 𝒔 𝒔 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +1
𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝟏
෍ < 𝒏𝒔 > = ෍ 𝟏
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁 < 𝒏𝒔 >= 𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
𝒔 𝒔 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +𝟏
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 +𝟏
This is mean occupation number for fermions

If, 𝝁 = −𝜶𝒌𝑻 𝟏
< 𝒏𝒔 >=
𝒆 𝜶+𝜷𝑬𝒔 + 𝟏
𝟏
𝜷= 𝒌𝑻 𝒈𝒔
𝒏𝒔 = 𝜶+𝜷𝑬
𝒆 𝒔 +𝟏
Boltzmann limit for Bosons and Fermions
Mean occupation number for quantum particles with +1 for fermions
and -1 for bosons 1
< 𝒏𝒔 >= 𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 ± 1
Quantum statistics gives Boltzmann form for classical particles in the
limiting case only when 1 is neglected under the condition,
𝑬𝒔 −𝝁 𝑬𝒔 −𝝁 −𝝁 𝝁
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 ≫𝟏 or 𝒆 𝒆
𝒌𝑻 𝒌𝑻 ≫ 𝟏 or 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 ≫𝟏 or 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 ≪𝟏
In grand canonical ensemble,
𝟑 𝟑ൗ
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 ൗ𝟐 𝟐
𝝁 −𝝁 𝑽 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻
< 𝑵 >= 𝒍𝒏𝒁𝑵 = 𝑽 𝒆𝒌𝑻 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 =
𝒉𝟐 <𝑵> 𝒉𝟐

𝟑ൗ 𝟑ൗ
𝑽 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐
≫𝟏 Or
<𝑵> 𝒉𝟐 𝟐
≪𝟏 Or 𝝀𝟑𝑻 𝝆 ≪ 𝟏
<𝑵> 𝒉𝟐 𝑽 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻

This condition is called as Boltzmann limit for Bosons and Fermions

This is also the condition for non-degenerate gas.
𝒉
Where, 𝝀𝑻 = is called as thermal wavelength
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻
 The condition of Boltzmann limit for Bosons and Fermions, 𝝀𝟑𝑻 𝝆 ≪ 𝟏
is satisfied if density of gas is low and temperature is high.

𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
The variation of quantum distribution function <ns> with in three
𝒌𝑻
cases MB, BE and FD statistics
𝑬 −𝝁
At high value of 𝒌𝑻𝒔
, quantum gas
1
< 𝒏𝒔 >= 𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
behave as classical gas. This is true
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 ±1 only at very high temperature.
𝑬 −𝝁
Therefore, at high T, if 𝒌𝑻
𝒔
is to be
high for which 𝝁 must be negative.

A gas which can be treated classically

is said to non-degenerate. On the other
hand, it is quantum statistically
degenerate under the condition called
as degeneracy criterion given by
𝟑ൗ
𝟐
𝝀𝟑𝑻 𝝆
𝟐
Degeneracy criterion ≫𝟏 Or <𝑵> 𝒉
≫𝟏
𝑽 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻
Show that the electron gas in copper at
room temperature is degenerate or non-
degenerate for the concentration of
electrons in copper 8.5 x 1028 m-3

h = 6.6262 x 10-34 Js
m = 9.1 x 10-31 Kg
k = 1.3806 x 10-23 J/K
T = 300 K (room temperature)
 Ideal Bose System
𝟏
Mean occupation number for bosons < 𝒏𝒔 >= 𝑬𝒔 −𝝁
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
The number of bosons in the energy range between E to E+dE
𝒏 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 1 𝒈 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝒈 𝑬 𝒅𝑬
= 𝒏 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 = 𝒏 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 = −𝝁 𝑬
𝒈 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 E−𝝁 𝑬−𝝁
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −1 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −1 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −1
𝒈 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝝁
𝒏 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 = 𝑬
where, 𝒛 = 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
−𝟏
𝒛 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
−𝟏
𝒈 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 𝒈 𝒈 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
where, 𝒈 = 2𝒔 + 1 is called fold degeneracy for quantum gas
s is spin quantum number, s = ½ for quantum particles with spin
𝑽 4𝝅𝑷2 𝒅𝑷
𝒈 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 3 ම𝒅𝒑𝒙 𝒅𝒑𝒚 𝒅𝒑𝒛 = 𝑽
𝒉 𝒉3
3 3
4𝝅 𝑷 + 𝒅𝑷 4𝝅 𝑷
ම𝒅𝒑𝒙 𝒅𝒑𝒚 𝒅𝒑𝒛 = −
3 3
4 3
4
= 𝝅 𝑷 + 𝒅𝑷 − 𝑷3 = 𝝅 3𝑷2 𝒅𝑷 = 4𝝅𝑷2 𝒅𝑷
3 3
 For ideal bosons 𝟏 𝟑
𝟒𝝅𝑷𝟐 𝒅𝑷 𝟐𝒎𝑬 𝟐𝒎𝒅𝑬 𝟐𝒎 𝟐 𝟏
𝒈 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 = 𝒈 𝑽 𝟐 𝑬 = 𝟐𝝅𝑽𝒈 𝑬𝟐 𝒅𝑬
𝒉𝟑 = 𝟒𝝅𝑽𝒈
𝒉𝟑 𝒉𝟐
𝟑
𝟏 𝟑 𝟏
𝟐𝒎 𝟐 ∞ ∞
𝟐𝝅𝑽𝒈 𝑬𝟐 𝒅𝑬 𝟐𝒎 𝟐 𝑬𝟐 𝒅𝑬
𝒉𝟐 𝑵 = න 𝒏 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 = 𝟐𝝅𝑽𝒈 න
𝒏 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 = 𝑬 𝒉𝟐 𝑬
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏
𝒛 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
−𝟏
𝒛 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏 1 1
∞ ∞
𝑬
𝑬2 𝒅𝑬 𝒌𝑻𝒙 2 𝒌𝑻𝒅𝒙
Let =𝒙 න 𝑬 =න
𝒌𝑻 0 −1 0 𝒛−1 𝒆 𝒙 − 1
𝒛 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −1
3 1
∞
2𝒎𝒌𝑻 2 𝒙2 𝒅𝒙
𝑵 = 2𝝅𝑽𝒈 න
𝒉2 0 𝒛−1 𝒆 𝒙 − 1
𝟏 𝒛𝒆−𝒙
−𝟏 𝒙 = −𝒙 = 𝒛𝒆−𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒛𝒆−𝒙 −𝟏 = 𝒛𝒆−𝒙 (𝟏 + 𝒛𝒆−𝒙 + 𝒛𝟐 𝒆−𝟐𝒙 + 𝒛𝟑 𝒆−𝟑𝒙 + ⋯ . )
𝒛 𝒆 −𝟏 𝟏 − 𝒛𝒆 ∞
𝟏
−𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒛𝒆−𝒙 + 𝒛𝟐 𝒆−𝟐𝒙 + 𝒛𝟑 𝒆−𝟑𝒙 + ⋯ . = ෍ 𝒛𝒍 𝒆−𝒍𝒙
𝒛 𝒆 −𝟏
𝟑 𝒍=𝟏 𝟑 ∞
∞ ∞ 𝟐𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 ∞ 𝟑
𝟐𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝟏
𝑵 = 𝟐𝝅𝑽𝒈 න ෍𝒛 𝒆 𝒍 −𝒍𝒙
𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐𝝅𝑽𝒈 ෍ 𝒛 න 𝒆 𝒙𝟐−𝟏 𝒅𝒙
𝒍 −𝒍𝒙
𝒉𝟐 𝟎
𝒉𝟐 𝟎
𝒍=𝟏 𝒍=𝟏
3 ∞ 3 ∞

2𝒎𝒌𝑻 2 𝜞 2 𝜞 𝒏 = න 𝒆−𝒙 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 𝒅𝒙

𝑵 = 2𝝅𝑽𝒈 ෍ 𝒛𝒍 3 𝟎 3 1
𝒉2 𝜞 = 𝝅
𝒍=1 𝒍2 𝜞 𝒏 ∞ 2 2
𝒏
= න 𝒆−𝒍𝒙 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 𝒅𝒙
𝒍 𝟎
 𝟑 ∞ 𝟏 𝟑 ∞
𝟐𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝒛𝒍
𝑵 = 𝟐𝝅𝑽𝒈 ෍ 𝒛𝒍 𝑵 = 𝑽𝒈 ෍ 𝟑
𝒉𝟐 𝟑 𝒉𝟐
𝒍=𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝒍=𝟏 𝒍𝟐

𝟑 ∞
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝒛𝒍 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑
𝑵 = 𝑽𝒈 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛) ෍ 𝟑 =𝒛+ 𝟑 + 𝟑 + ⋯ = 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛)
𝒉𝟐 𝟐 𝒍=𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟐

In the similar way for total U 3 3 𝑵 = ෍ 𝒏𝒊

∞ ∞
2𝒎 2 𝑬2 𝒅𝑬 𝒊
𝑼=න 𝒏 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝑬 = 2𝝅𝑽𝒈 න 𝑬
0 𝒉2 0 −1 𝑼 = ෍ 𝒏𝒊 𝑬𝒊
𝒛 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −1
𝒊
𝟑 𝟑
∞ ∞
Let
𝑬
=𝒙 𝑬𝟐 𝒅𝑬 𝒌𝑻𝒙 𝟐 𝒌𝑻𝒅𝒙
𝒌𝑻 න 𝑬 =න
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎 𝒛−𝟏 𝒆 𝒙 − 𝟏
𝒛 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
𝟑 𝟑
∞
𝟐𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝑼 = 𝟐𝝅𝑽𝒈𝒌𝑻 න
𝒉𝟐 𝟎 𝒛−𝟏 𝒆 𝒙 − 𝟏
3
∞ ∞
2𝒎𝒌𝑻 2
𝒍 −𝒍𝒙
3
U = 2𝝅𝑽𝒈𝒌𝑻 න ෍ 𝒛 𝒆 𝒙2 𝒅𝒙
𝒉2 0 𝒍=1
 𝟑 ∞
∞
𝟐𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐
𝒍
𝟓
−𝒍𝒙 𝟐−𝟏
𝑼 = 𝟐𝝅𝑽𝒈𝒌𝑻 ෍𝒛 න 𝒆 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒉𝟐 𝟎
𝒍=𝟏
𝟑 ∞ 𝟓
𝟐𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝜞 𝟐
𝑼 = 𝟐𝝅𝑽𝒈𝒌𝑻 ෍ 𝒛𝒍 𝟓
𝒉𝟐
𝒍=𝟏 𝒍𝟐
5 31
𝜞 = 𝝅
2 22
𝟑 ∞ 𝟑 𝟑 ∞
𝟐𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝟒 𝝅 𝟑 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝒛𝒍
𝑼 = 𝟐𝝅𝑽𝒈𝒌𝑻 ෍ 𝒛𝒍 = 𝒌𝑻𝑽𝒈 ෍
𝒉𝟐 𝟓 𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝟓
𝒍=𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝒍=𝟏 𝒍𝟐

𝟑 ∞
𝟑 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝒛𝒍 𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑
𝑼= 𝒌𝑻𝑽𝒈 𝝃𝟓 (𝒛) ෍ 𝟓
=𝒛+ 𝟓
+ 𝟓
+ ⋯ = 𝝃𝟓 (𝒛)
𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝟐 𝒍=𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟐 𝟐
 Bose Einstein Condensation
Ideal Bose system behave as classical system under Boltzmann limit
−µ µ
𝒆 ≫𝟏
𝒌𝑻 or 𝒆 ≪𝟏
𝒌𝑻 or z <<1
But as the temperature decreases and reaches to critical temperature
Tc, number of bosons (Ne) in the excited state (E ≠ 0) will accumulate
towards the ground state (E = 0) and the gaseous state of Bose gas
begins to start condensate and condensation starts at T = Tc.
As the temperature again decreases below Tc, more Ne will decrease
and number of bosons (No) in the ground state (E = 0) will increase. At
T = 0, Ne = 0 and No = N. This phenomenon of Bose gas below critical
temperature is called Bose-Einstein condensation.
𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐
At T < Tc 𝑵𝒆 = 𝑽𝒈 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛) 𝟑
𝒉𝟐 𝟐 𝟑
𝑵𝒆 𝑻 𝟐
𝑻 𝟐
𝟑 =
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻𝒄 𝟐 𝑵 𝑻𝒄 𝑵𝒆 = 𝑵
𝑻𝒄
At T = Tc 𝑵 = 𝑽𝒈 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛)
𝒉𝟐 𝟐
𝟑 𝟑
𝑵𝒐 = 𝑵 − 𝑵𝒆 𝑵𝒐 𝑵𝒆 𝑻 𝟐 𝑻 𝟐
= 𝟏− =𝟏− 𝑵𝒐 = 𝑵 𝟏 −
𝑵 𝑵 𝑻𝒄 𝑻𝒄
 In Bose-Einstein condensation, large
number of bosons accumulate in ground
state below critical temperature called as
Bose temperature. Thus, at T ≤ Tc, ideal
Bose gas may exist in two phases: (i) a
gaseous phase consisting of Ne bosons
distributed over the excited state (E ≠ 0)
(ii) condensed phase consisting of No
bosons occupy ground state (E = 0).

Critical temperature for bosons:

At high T, z << 1, but when T decreases, z increases and reaches to
maximum, z = 1 at T ≤ Tc 𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻𝒄 𝟐
At T = Tc 𝑵 = 𝑽𝒈 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛 = 𝟏)
𝒉𝟐 𝟐
12 13
Where, 𝝃3 𝒛 = 1 = 1 + 3 + 3 + ⋯ = 2.612 Reimann zeta function
2 22 32
3 2 2
3 𝑵 𝒉2 2
𝒉2 𝑵 3 𝒉2 𝝆 3
𝑻𝒄 2 = 𝑻𝒄 = 𝑻𝒄 =
𝑽𝒈𝝃3 𝒛 = 1 2𝝅𝒎𝒌 2𝝅𝒎𝒌 2.612 𝑽𝒈 2𝝅𝒎𝒌 2.612 𝒈
2
 Behaviour of ideal Bose system below Tc
At T = Tc 𝟑
At T < Tc 3
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻𝒄 𝟐
𝑵 = 𝑽𝒈 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛) 3 2𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 2
𝒉𝟐 𝑼 = 𝒌𝑻𝑽𝒈 𝝃5 𝒛
𝟐 2 𝒉2 2
3
2𝝅𝒎𝒌 2 𝑵 3 𝑵 3
𝑽𝒈 = 𝑼 = 𝒌𝑻 3 𝑻 2 𝝃5 𝒛
𝒉2 3 2 2
𝑻𝒄 2 𝝃3 𝒛 𝑻𝒄 2 𝝃3 𝒛
2 2
𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟑
3
𝝃5 𝒛 At T = Tc 𝝃𝟑 𝒛 = 𝟏 = 𝟏 + + + ⋯ = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟏𝟐
3 𝑻 2
2
𝟑 𝟑
𝑼 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 and T < Tc 𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟐
2 𝑻𝒄 𝝃3 𝒛 𝟐 𝟑
2 z=1 𝟏 𝟏
𝝃𝟓 𝒛 = 𝟏 = 𝟏 + 𝟓
+ 𝟓
+ ⋯ = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟒𝟐
𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟐
3 3 3
𝝃5 𝒛 = 1
3 𝑻 2
2 3 𝑻 2 1.342 3 𝑻 2
𝑼 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 = 0.51 𝑵𝒌𝑻
2 𝑻𝒄 𝝃3 𝒛 = 1 2 𝑻𝒄 2.612 2 𝑻𝒄
2
At T = Tc This shows that at critical
3 temperature, the total energy of ideal
𝑼 𝑻𝒄 = 0.51 𝑵𝒌𝑻𝒄
2 Bose gas is approximately one half to
that of classical gas
Specific heat
𝟑 𝟓 𝟑 𝟑
𝒅𝑼 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐 𝒅𝑻𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐 𝟓 𝟑 𝑻 𝟐
𝑪𝑽 = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 𝑵𝒌 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 𝑵𝒌 𝑻 𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝑵𝒌
𝒅𝑻 𝟐 𝑻𝒄 𝒅𝑻 𝟐 𝑻𝒄 𝟐 𝑻𝒄
At T = Tc 𝑪𝑽 𝑻𝒄 = 1.92𝑵𝒌
This shows that 𝑪𝑽 of Bose gas is temperature dependent and at Tc it
is greater than that of the classical gas.
𝟑 𝟑
Pressure 𝑵𝒌𝑻 𝑻 𝟐
𝟐𝑼 𝟐 𝟑 𝑻 𝟐
𝑷= = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 𝑵𝒌𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏
𝟑𝑽 𝟑𝑽 𝟐 𝑻𝒄 𝑽 𝑻𝒄
𝑵𝒌𝑻𝒄
At T = Tc 𝑷(𝑻 𝒄 ) = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟏
𝑽
This shows that at critical temperature, the pressure of ideal Bose gas
is one half to that of the classical gas.
3
Entropy 𝑻 2 3
𝒅𝑼 1 𝒅𝑼 1.92𝑵𝒌 1 2 1
𝑻𝒄
𝑺 = න𝒅𝑺 = න =න 𝒅𝑻 = න 𝒅𝑻 = 1.92𝑵𝒌 න 𝑻2 𝒅𝑻
𝑻 𝑻 𝒅𝑻 𝑻 𝑻𝒄
3 3 3
1 2 𝑻2 𝑻 2
𝑺 = 1.92𝑵𝒌 = 1.28𝑵𝒌 This shows that the entropy of ideal
𝑻𝒄 3 𝑻𝒄 Bose gas reduces to zero at T = 0.
2
At T = Tc 𝑺 𝑻𝒄 = 1.28𝑵𝒌 This is Nernst’s Heat Theorem (Third
law of thermodynamics).
 Behaviour of ideal Bose system above Tc 𝟑
𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝑵
At T > Tc z<1 𝑵 = 𝑽𝒈 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛) 𝑽𝒈 =
𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛)
𝟐
𝟐
3
3 2𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 2 𝝃𝟓 (𝒛)
𝟑 𝑵 𝟑
𝑼 = 𝒌𝑻𝑽𝒈
2 𝒉2
𝝃5 𝒛 𝑼 = 𝒌𝑻 𝝃𝟓 (𝒛) 𝑼 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 𝟐
2 𝟐 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛) 𝟐 𝟐 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟑
𝒛 𝒛
𝝃𝟑 𝒛 = 𝒛 + 𝟑 + 𝟑 +⋯
𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟐 For z << 1, T is very high at which Bose gas
behave as classical gas
𝒛𝟐 𝒛𝟑
𝝃𝟓 𝒛 = 𝒛 + 𝟓
+ 𝟓
+⋯
𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟑𝟐
𝒛𝟐 𝒛
𝝃𝟑 𝒛 = 𝒛 + 𝟑 =𝒛 𝟏+ 𝟑
For z < 1, T is above Tc 𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
but not very high 𝒛𝟐 𝒛
𝝃𝟓 𝒛 = 𝒛 + 𝟓
=𝒛 𝟏+ 𝟓
𝟐
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝒛
𝒛 1+ 5
3 3 𝒛 𝒛 −1
22 3 𝒛 𝒛
𝑼 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 𝒛 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 1 + 5 1+ 3 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 1 + 5 1−
2 𝒛 1+ 3 2 2 3
22 22 22 22
22
 3 𝒛
𝑼 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 1 − 5
2
22
3
2𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻𝒄 2
At T = Tc, z = 1 𝑵 = 𝑽𝒈 𝝃3 𝒛 = 1
𝒉2 2
3
2𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 2
At T > Tc, z < 1 𝑵 = 𝑵𝒆 = 𝑽𝒈 𝝃3 𝒛
𝒉2 2
𝟑 𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻𝒄 𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒌𝑻 𝟐
Equating, 𝑽𝒈 𝝃𝟑 𝒛 = 𝟏 = 𝑽𝒈 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛)
𝒉𝟐 𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝟐
𝟑 3
𝝃𝟑 (𝒛) 𝑻𝒄 2
𝑻𝒄 𝟐
𝟐 𝝃3 𝒛 = 𝝃3 𝒛 = 1
= 𝑻
𝑻 𝝃𝟑 𝒛 = 𝟏 2 2
𝟐
Since, at T > Tc, z < 1
𝝃𝟑 (𝒛)
𝒛 𝟐
𝝃𝟑 𝒛 = 𝒛 𝟏 + 𝟑
𝒛= 𝒛 𝝃3 𝒛
𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟏+ 𝟑 2
𝟐𝟐 𝒛
1+ 3
3 22
Total energy of Bose gas above Tc, 𝑼 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 1 − 5
2
22
 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛) 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛)
𝟑 𝟐 𝟑 𝒛
𝑼 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 𝟏 − 𝟓 𝑼 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 𝟏 − 𝟐
𝟏−
𝟐 𝒛 𝟐 𝟓 𝟑
𝟐𝟐 𝟏+ 𝟑 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐
𝝃𝟑 (𝒛) 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛) 𝟐
𝟑 𝝃𝟑 𝒛 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛)
𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟐
𝑼= 𝑵𝒌𝑻 𝟏 − 𝟓
𝟏− 𝟑 𝑼= 𝑵𝒌𝑻 𝟏 − +
𝟐 𝒛 𝟐 𝟓 𝟓 𝟑 𝒛
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟏+ 𝟑 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟏+ 𝟑
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝟐
𝟐 𝝃𝟑 𝒛
𝝃𝟑 𝒛 𝝃𝟑 (𝒛) 𝝃𝟑 𝒛
𝟑 𝟐 𝟐 𝒛 𝟑 𝟐 𝟐
𝑼 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 𝟏 − + 𝟏− 𝑼 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 𝟏 − + −⋯
𝟐 𝟓 𝟐𝟒 𝟑 𝟐 𝟓 𝟐𝟒
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
3
𝑻𝒄 2
Since, 𝝃3 𝒛 = 𝝃3 𝒛 = 1
2 2 𝑻 At very high
3 𝝃3 𝒛 = 1
2 temperature, T = ∞,
𝝃3 𝒛 = 1 3
3 2 𝑻𝒄 2 2 𝑻𝒄 3
𝑼 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 1 − 5 + −⋯ 𝑼= 𝑵𝒌𝑻
2 𝑻 24 𝑻 2
22
𝝃3 𝒛 = 1 3 At very high
Specific heat at 3 𝑻𝒄 2 temperature, T = ∞,
2
constant volume 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌 1 + 7 + ⋯ 3
2 𝑻
22 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌
2
Thus, Bose gas behave as classical gas at very high temperature.
 3
Classical value 𝑈= 𝑵𝒌𝑻 Classical value
3
2 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌
3 2 𝟑
3 𝑻 2
𝑻 𝟐
Below Tc 𝑼 = 0.51 𝑵𝒌𝑻 Below Tc 𝑪𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝑵𝒌
2 𝑻𝒄 𝑻𝒄
3
At T = Tc 𝑼 = 0.51 𝑵𝒌𝑻𝒄 At T = Tc 𝑪𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝑵𝒌
2

Above Tc Above Tc 3
𝝃3 𝒛 = 1
3 2 𝑻𝒄 2
3 𝝃3 𝒛 = 1
2 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌 1 + 7 +⋯
𝝃3 𝒛 = 1 3 2 𝑻
3 2 𝑻𝒄 2 2 𝑻𝒄 22
𝑼= 𝑵𝒌𝑻 1 − 5 + −⋯
2 𝑻 24 𝑻 3
22 At T = ∞ 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌
3 2
At T = ∞ 𝑈= 𝑵𝒌𝑻
2
Photons and liquid helium as bosons
Photons Planck’s law and hypothesis of light quanta
Photons are massless with spin 1ђ quantum particles, and hence
photons are bosons. Fold degeneracy of photons is g = (2s + 1) = 2.
𝒉
Momentum of photon, 𝒑 = 𝝀
𝒉𝒄
Energy of photon, 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝂 = 𝝀
Number of photons in an enclosure does not remain constant as the
photons absorbed by the wall of enclosure and new photons reemitted.
Therefore, for photons, 𝑵 = σ𝒊 𝒏𝒊 ≠ 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
Since, energy of photons in an enclosure is being constant,
𝝏𝑬
Chemical potential for photons, 𝝁 = − = 𝟎
𝝏𝑵
Therefore, mean occupation number for photons according to BE
statistics, 1 1
< 𝒏𝒔 >= 𝑬𝒔−𝝁 = 𝑬𝒔
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −1 𝒆𝒌𝑻 −1 𝒉𝝂 2 𝒉
𝒅𝝂
𝒈 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 𝒄 𝒄
𝒏 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 = 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐 = 𝒉𝝂 𝒈 𝝂 𝒅𝝂 = 8𝝅𝑽
𝑬 𝒉3
𝒆 𝒌𝑻 − 1 𝒉𝒄
𝒑𝒄 = 𝒉𝝂 = 8𝝅𝑽𝝂2 𝒅𝝂
4𝝅𝒑2 𝒅𝒑 𝝀 𝒏 𝝂 𝒅𝝂 = 𝒉𝝂
𝒈 𝑬 𝒅𝑬 = 2 𝑽 𝒉𝝂 𝒉
3
𝒄 𝒆 −1
𝒌𝑻
𝒉3
𝒑= =
𝒄 𝝀
Energy density of photons in terms of frequency 𝝂 is given by

8𝝅𝒉𝝂3 𝒅𝝂
𝒖 𝝂 𝒅𝝂 = 𝒏 𝝂 𝒅𝝂 . 𝒉𝝂 = 𝒉𝝂
𝒄3 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −1

Energy density of photons in terms of wavelength 𝝀 is given by

𝒄 𝟑 𝒄
𝟖𝝅𝒉
𝝀 𝝀𝟐
𝒅𝝀 𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄𝝀−𝟓 𝒅𝝀
𝒖 𝝀 𝒅𝝀 = 𝒖 𝝀 𝒅𝝀 = 𝒉𝒄
𝒉𝒄
𝟑
𝒄 𝒆 𝝀𝒌𝑻 −𝟏 𝒆 𝝀𝒌𝑻 −𝟏
Planck’s law of radiation is the variation of energy density of
photons with respect to its frequency or wavelength
ν1 < ν2 < ν3 λ1 > λ2 > λ3

T1 < T2 < T3
From Planck’s law of radiation, Rayleigh-Jeans for low frequency or high
wavelength and Wien’s for high frequency or low wavelength explained
by Bose.

Rayleigh-Jeans law: 𝒉𝒄 𝒉𝒄 1 𝒉𝒄
2
𝒉𝝂 𝒆 𝝀𝒌𝑻=1+ + +⋯
For low frequency, 𝒌𝑻 ≪ 𝟏 𝝀𝒌𝑻 2! 𝝀𝒌𝑻
𝒉𝒄 𝒉𝒄
or high wavelength, 𝝀𝒌𝑻 ≪ 𝟏 Neglecting higher powers of 𝝀𝒌𝑻
𝒉𝒄 𝒉𝒄
𝒆 𝝀𝒌𝑻 =𝟏+
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄𝝀−𝟓 𝒅𝝀 𝝀𝒌𝑻 −𝟒
𝒖 𝝀 𝒅𝝀 = 𝒖 𝝀 𝒅𝝀 = 𝟖𝝅𝒌𝑻𝝀 −𝟒 𝒅𝝀 𝒖 𝝀 ∝ 𝝀
𝒉𝒄 This shows that 𝒖 𝝀 ∝ 𝑻
𝝀𝒌𝑻
Thus, Bose proved that Rayleigh-Jeans law is only applicable for lower
frequency or higher wavelength of photons and hence there is no
possibility of ultraviolet catastrophe.
 Wien’s law:
𝒉𝝂
For high frequency, 𝒌𝑻 ≫ 𝟏 8𝝅𝒉𝒄𝝀−5 𝒅𝝀
𝒖 𝝀 𝒅𝝀 = 𝒉𝒄
𝒉𝒄
or low wavelength, ≫𝟏 𝒆 𝝀𝒌𝑻
𝝀𝒌𝑻
Wien’s displacement law: 𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄𝝀−𝟓
𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄𝝀−𝟓 𝒅 𝒉𝒄
𝒖 𝝀 = 𝒅𝒖(𝝀) 𝒆 𝝀𝒌𝑻
𝒉𝒄 =
𝒆 𝝀𝒌𝑻 𝒅𝝀 𝒅𝝀
𝒉𝒄
−𝟓 − 𝝀𝒌𝑻
𝒅𝒖(𝝀) 𝒅 𝝀 𝒆
= 𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄
𝒅𝝀 𝒅𝝀
T1 < T2 < T3
𝒅𝒖(𝝀) 𝒉𝒄 𝒉𝒄 𝟏 𝒉𝒄
λ1 > λ 2 > λ3
= 𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄{𝝀−𝟓 𝒆− 𝝀𝒌𝑻 − − 𝟐 + 𝒆− 𝝀𝒌𝑻 −𝟓 𝝀−𝟔 }
𝒅𝝀 𝒌𝑻 𝝀
𝒅𝒖(𝝀) −𝟔 −
𝒉𝒄 𝒉𝒄
= 𝟖𝝅𝒉𝒄𝝀 𝒆 𝝀𝒌𝑻 −𝟓
𝒅𝝀 𝝀𝒌𝑻
𝒅𝒖(𝝀)
At 𝝀 = 𝝀𝒎 𝒖(𝝀) is maximum =𝟎
𝒅𝝀
𝒉𝒄 𝒉𝒄 𝒉𝒄 𝒉𝒄
−𝟔 − 𝝀 𝑻 =
𝝀 𝒆 𝝀𝒌𝑻 −𝟓 =𝟎 =𝟓 𝒎
𝝀𝒎 𝒌𝑻 𝝀𝒎 𝒌𝑻 𝟓𝒌
𝒉𝒄
Wien’s constant, = 0.28 𝒄𝒎𝑲 𝝀𝒎 𝑻 = 0.28 𝒄𝒎𝑲
𝟓𝒌
From Wien’s constant, temperature of Sun, Moon and Stars can be determined by
observing wavelength corresponding to maximum energy density
 Stefan-Boltzmann law:
∞
8𝝅𝒉𝝂3 𝒅𝝂 8𝝅𝒉 ∞ 𝝂3 𝒅𝝂
𝒖 𝝂 𝒅𝝂 = 𝒖 = න 𝒖 𝝂 𝒅𝝂 = 3 න 𝒉𝝂
𝒉𝝂 0 𝒄 0
3
𝒄 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −1 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 −1
∞ 𝒙 𝟑
𝒌𝑻 𝟒 ∞
𝒉𝝂 𝟖𝝅𝒉 𝒉
𝒅𝒙 𝟖𝝅𝒉 𝒌𝑻 𝒙 𝟑 𝒅𝒙
=𝒙 𝒖= 𝟑 න 𝒖= 𝟑 න 𝒙−𝟏
𝒌𝑻 𝒄 𝟎 𝒆 𝒙−𝟏 𝒄 𝒉 𝟎 𝒆
−𝒙
𝟏 𝒆
𝒙 = −𝒙 = 𝒆−𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒙 −𝟏 = 𝒆−𝒙 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒙 + 𝒆−𝟑𝒙 + ⋯ = ෍ 𝒆−𝒍𝒙
𝒆 −𝟏 𝟏−𝒆
𝒍
𝟒 ∞ 𝟒 ∞
𝟖𝝅𝒉 𝒌𝑻 𝟖𝝅𝒉 𝒌𝑻
𝒖= 𝟑 න ෍ 𝒆−𝒍𝒙 𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙 𝒖= 𝟑 ෍ න 𝒆−𝒍𝒙 𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙
𝒄 𝒉 𝟎
𝒄 𝒉 𝟎
𝒍 𝒍
𝟒 𝟒 𝟒
𝟖𝝅𝒉 𝒌𝑻 𝜞 𝟒 𝟖𝝅𝒉 𝒌𝑻 𝟏 𝟖𝝅𝒉 𝒌𝑻
𝒖= 𝟑 ෍ 𝟒 = 𝟑 𝜞 𝟒 ෍ 𝟒 = 𝟑 (𝟑!)𝝃(𝟒)
𝒄 𝒉 𝒍 𝒄 𝒉 𝒍 𝒄 𝒉
𝒍 𝒍
1 1 1 1 𝝅4
𝜞 𝒏 + 𝟏 = 𝒏! ෍ 4 = 1 + 4 + 4 + 4 + ⋯ = 𝝃𝟒 =
𝒍 2 3 4 90
𝟒 𝒍
𝟖𝝅𝒉 𝒌𝑻 𝟔𝝅𝟒 The amount of energy radiated per second per unit area,
𝒖= 𝟑
𝒄 𝒉 𝟗𝟎 𝟏 𝟐𝝅𝟓 𝒌𝟒 𝟒 𝟐𝝅𝟓 𝒌𝟒
𝟖𝒉𝝅𝟓 𝒌𝑻
𝟒 𝑬 = 𝒖𝒄 = 𝑻 = 𝝈𝑻𝟒 𝝈=
𝟒 𝟐
𝟏𝟓𝒄 𝒉 𝟑 𝟏𝟓𝒄𝟐 𝒉𝟑
𝒖=
𝟏𝟓𝒄𝟑 𝒉 Specific heat at constant volume, 𝒅𝒖 𝝅5 𝒌4 3
𝑪𝑽 = = 2.13 3 3 𝑻
𝒅𝑻 𝒄 𝒉
Thus, laws of radiation explained by Bose by considering photons as bosons.
Liquid Helium
Liquid helium remains in liquid state even at absolute zero temperature.
Helium does not solidify due to its large zero point energy, weak
molecular interaction and small atomic mass. In comparing with other
noble elements, Argon can solidify at low temperature because of its
smaller zero point energy. Hydrogen although lighter than helium, can
solidify because of its stronger molecular interaction. The liquid helium
is unique in nature. Helium has two isotopes, He4 and He3. They have
significantly different physical property due to following different
statistics.

He4 He3
➢ Bosons ➢ Fermions
➢ Spinless (spin 0) ➢ Spin =
ђ
𝟐
➢ e- = 2, p+ = 2, no = 2
➢ e = 2, p+ = 2, no = 1
-
➢ Atomic mass = 4
➢ Atomic mass = 3
➢ Superfluid at Tc = 2.17 K
➢ Superfluid at Tc = 3 mK
➢ Most abundant
➢ Less abundant
The phase diagram of He4 as bosons shows two liquid phases He-I and He-II.

T3
T3/2

❖ Tisza model proposed the behaviour of He4 as two fluid theory. Liquid
phases He-I behave as normal fluid and He-II behave as mixture of
normal and superfluid. More superfluidity at T = 0 and less
superfluidity at T = Tc. This theory has no molecular basis to explain
superfluidity of He4.
❖ London model proposed that He4 is an ideal Bose system obeying BE
statistics. Using theory of ideal Bose system, critical temperature Tc
of He4 was found to be Tc = 3.13K which is closed to experimental
value Tλ= 2.17K.
By applying ideal Bose system to He4, it is consisting of mixture of gaseous
phase in which particles are in excited state and condensed phase in
which particles are in ground state at T ≤ Tc. The specific heat at constant
volume according to Bose for various T are given by;
𝟑
𝑻 𝟐
Below Tc 𝑪𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝑵𝒌 At T = 0 𝑪𝑽 = 0
𝑻𝒄

At T = Tc 𝑪𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝑵𝒌
3
𝝃3 𝒛 = 1
3 2 𝑻𝒄 2
Above Tc 𝑪𝑽 =
2
𝑵𝒌 1 + 7 𝑻
+⋯
22
3
At T = ∞ 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌
2
The difference between theoretical values and experimental values of 𝑪𝑽
according to Bose are (i) 𝑪𝑽 of He-II below 0.6K obeys Debye T3 law,
whereas according to Bose, it is varying as T3/2 below Tc. (ii) The value of
𝑪𝑽 according to Bose at Tc is 1.92Nk, which is much smaller than that
observed experimentally for He4 at Tλ. (iii) Tc of Bose gas is greater than Tλ
of He4
Due to small interaction of He4 particles which can not be neglected,
therefore, ideal Bose theory was not adequate to explain many properties
of He4 but it has became as a guide for understanding superfluidity of He4.
❖ Landau theory of superfluidity of He4
According to Landau (1941), liquid He-II is a superfluid in which
excitations (quasi particles – phonons and rotons) with different energy
and momentum move in the volume occupied by the system.
At very low temperature, the number of these excitations are sufficiently
small, so they do not interact with one another. Hence, assembly of these
excitations may be regarded as ideal bosons. The energy of these
excitations vary with momentum. At low momentum, the excitations
are phonons or quantized sound
waves with energy,
𝑬 𝒑 = 𝒄𝒑
As the momentum increases, the
excitations are rotons or quantized
classical vortex motion with energy,
𝒑 − 𝒑𝟎 𝟐
𝑬 𝒑 = 𝑬 𝒑𝟎 +
𝟐𝝁
The contribution of phonons and rotons in He-II is temperature
dependant. Below 0.5K, behaviour of He-II is only due to phonons
whereas above 0.5K upto 1K, the behaviour is due to both and above 1K
is only due to rotons. Later, Feynman (1954) also agreed with London
model for superfluidity of He4
Experiments on Bose-Einstein Condensation (BEC)

❖ In 1938, Kapitsa and group discovered superfluid of He4 using BEC.

But only 8% of He4 it could condensate.
❖ The first pure BEC was created by Eric Cornell and group in 1995 for
Rb87 atoms at 170 nK using combination of laser cooling and
magnetic evaporate cooling.
❖ In the same year after Eric Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT showed
BEC for Na23.
❖ Nobel Prize in Physics for first time experimetly showing BEC was
awarded to Cornell, Wieman and Ketterle in 2001.
❖ Later various bosonic particles have shown BEC including Li7, K39,
Ca40 in 2010.
❖ BEC of rotons has been first detected in 2018. Under specific
conditions the roton minimum gives rise to a crystal solid-like
structure called the supersolid.
❖ Recently, in June 2020, Cold Atom Laboratory experiment on board
the International Space Station successfully created BEC of Rb87
atoms in zero gravity.