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Instant Download PDF EARTH 2 2nd Edition Hendrix Solutions Manual Full Chapter
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Manual
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Instructor’s Manual Chapter 10
Earth, 2e Weathering, Soil, and Erosion
CHAPTER 10
Weathering, Soil, and Erosion
Chapter Outline
10.1 Weathering and Erosion
10.2 Mechanical Weathering
10.2a Pressure-Release Fracturing
10.2b Frost Wedging
10.2c Abrasion
10.2d Organic Activity
10.2e Thermal Expansion and Contraction
10.3 Chemical Weathering
10.3a Dissolution
10.3b Hydrolysis
10.3c Oxidation
10.3d Chemical and Mechanical Weathering Acting Together
10.4 Soil
10.4a Components of Soil
10.4b Soil Horizons
10.4c Soil Classification
10.4d Soil-Forming Factors
10.5 Mass Wasting and Landslides
10.6 Types of Rapid Mass Wasting
10.6a Slide
10.6b Fall
10.7 Predicting and Avoiding the Effects of Mass Wasting
10.7a Why Do Slides, Flows, and Falls Occur?
Chapter Summary
Weathering is the decomposition and disintegration of rocks and minerals at Earth’s surface.
While weathering involves little or no movement of the decomposed rock, erosion is the removal
of weathered rock or soil by flowing water, wind, glaciers, or gravity. After being eroded, rock or
soil may be transported over large distances and will eventually be deposited. Weathering occurs
by both mechanical and chemical processes.
Instructor’s Manual Chapter 10
Earth, 2e Weathering, Soil, and Erosion
Mechanical (or physical) weathering reduces rock into smaller pieces without altering the
chemical composition of the rock and its minerals; it can occur by several processes. During
pressure-release fracturing, rock expands after the removal of overlying rock. During frost
wedging, freezing water in cracks expands and wedges the rock apart, often observed in cliffs; the
loose rock then accumulates as a talus at the base of the cliff. Abrasion is the mechanical
weathering process that wears down rocks by friction and impact with other rocks or rock grains.
Organic activity can also impact rocks, such as plant roots widening cracks in rocks if they grow
there. Thermal expansion and contraction forces due to wild fires, for example, may fracture
rocks.
Chemical weathering occurs when chemical reactions decompose minerals. A few minerals,
such as halite (table salt), dissolve readily in water in a process called dissolution. Acids and
bases enhance the solubility of minerals. Rainwater is slightly acidic due to reactions between
water and atmospheric carbon dioxide. During hydrolysis, water reacts with a mineral to form
new minerals. Hydrolysis of feldspar to clay is a common form of chemical weathering. Quartz is
very resistant to weathering and is therefore the primary component of sand at beaches. Oxidation
is the process in which minerals react with oxygen and decompose. Chemical weathering and
mechanical weathering often operate together. For example, solutions seeping into cracks may
cause rocks to expand by growth of salts (salt cracking). Another example is the exfoliation of
granite, a process in which concentric shells split away from the main rock, probably caused by
expansion due to hydrolysis.
The thin layer of loose, unconsolidated, weathered material that overlies bedrock is called
regolith. Soil is the uppermost layer of this material that supports rooted plants, a mixture of
mineral grains, organic material, water, and gas. The most fertile soil is loam, a mixture
especially rich in sand and silt with generous amounts of organic matter. The organic component
of soil is humus, which is decomposed litter (plant material such as twigs and leaves). Water
transports soluble ions and clays downward through the soil in a process called leaching, and soil
horizons (different soil layers) develop. The uppermost layer of soil, called the O horizon,
consists mainly of litter and humus. The amount of organic matter decreases downward through
the A horizon and B horizon. O and A horizons together are called topsoil. The lowest soil layer,
the C horizon, contains mostly weathered bedrock and very little organic matter. Six major
factors control soil characteristics: parent rock, climate, rates of plant growth and decay, slope
aspect (slope orientation with respect to the Sun) and steepness, time, and transport. In dry
climates, capillary action (the process of upward movement of water in soil due to the attraction
of water molecules to soil particles) and plant roots bring most of the water to the surface.
Pedocals, salt-encrusted soils, form as a result. In pedocals, leached ions precipitate in the B
horizon, where they accumulate and may form caliche, a hard crust from calcium carbonate
precipitation. In moist climates, pedalfer soils develop. In these regions, soluble ions are removed
from the soil, leaving high concentrations of less-soluble aluminum and iron. Laterite soils form
in very moist climates, where all of the more-soluble ions are removed.
Soils can be classified in many different ways; in the United States the National Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS) classifies soils based on their soil order, which is the highest
hierarchical level and based on physical and chemical characteristics, thickness, and color of the
soil horizons, and soil series, which is the lowest category of soil classification and based on the
location the soil was first mapped in. Today, twelve soil orders, and over 20,000 soil series exist.
Instructor’s Manual Chapter 10
Earth, 2e Weathering, Soil, and Erosion
Mass wasting is the downhill movement of rock and soil under the influence of gravity.
Landslide is the general term for this type of erosion and for the landform created by it. The
stability of a slope and the severity of a landslide depend on the steepness of the slope, the
orientation and type of rock layers, and the nature of unconsolidated material. Different types of
material possess different angles of repose, which is the maximum steepness at which they
remain stable. Vegetated hills are more stable than bares ones. Water also affects the stability of a
slope. Earthquakes or volcanic eruptions can cause landslides.
Landslides fall into three categories: flow, slide, and fall. During flow, a mixture of rock, soil,
and water moves as a fluid. Creep is a slow type of flow that occurs at a rate of about 1 centimeter
per year. A mudflow is a fluid mass of fine-grained sediment and water; debris flows or earth
flows contain bigger sediment particles. Slide is the movement of a coherent mass of material.
Slump is a type of slide in which the moving mass slips on a concave fracture. In a rockslide, a
segment of bedrock detaches and slides downslope along a fracture; often, the rock breaks up as it
moves, creating a rock avalanche. Fall occurs when particles fall or tumble freely down a steep
slope or a cliff.
Landslide probability is evaluated by combining data on soil stability, slope angle, climate,
and history of slope failure in the area.
Lecture Suggestions
▪ Bring different types of material (such as gravel, sand, and clay) to class to demonstrate
different angles of repose.
▪ Discuss the dipole structure of water when talking about dissolution.
▪ Watch the USGS movie on landslides at: http://landslides.usgs.gov/learn/movie/.
▪ Explore Half Dome in Yosemite National Park as an example of exfoliation, using the
web link below (which also features a podcast).
▪ Dig a hole in the soil outside of the lecture building; discuss the layers encountered.
Key Terms
erosion regolith B horizon
mechanical weathering soils C horizon
physical weathering loam soil order
chemical weathering cation exchange capacity soil series
pressure-release fracturing (CEC) residual soils
frost wedging percentage base saturation transported soil
talus litter loess
abrasion humus andisol
organic activity soil horizon vertisol
thermal expansion and transformation capillary action
contraction translocation hardpan
dissolution O horizon aridisol
hydrolysis A horizon calcrete
oxidation topsoil salinization
salt cracking E horizon alfisol
exfoliation eluviation spodosol
spheroidal weathering leaching mollisol
Instructor’s Manual Chapter 10
Earth, 2e Weathering, Soil, and Erosion
Web Links
http://www.nps.gov/yose/planyourvisit/halfdome.htm
Information and a podcast on the Half Dome in Yosemite Park from the National Park Service.
http://landslides.usgs.gov/learn/
Information on landslides from the United States Geological Survey.
http://www.cals.uidaho.edu/soilorders/orders.htm
The University of Idaho’s webpage on soil orders.
http://soils.usda.gov/
The United States Department of Agriculture’s website on soils.
http://teach.albion.edu/jjn10/physical-weathering/
Diagrams and photos of physical and chemical weathering.
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eziandio l’insegnamento medico, creatore a sua volta di nuovi
professionisti. Di che, a parte la naturalezza della cosa, abbiamo la
esplicita riprova in talune più tarde costituzioni degli imperatori di
questo e dei due secoli successivi, nelle quali, ai medici, esentati dai
carichi pubblici, si riconosce anche un ufficio insegnativo, ed essi,
nella loro qualità di «magistri», vengono collocati accanto ai retori, ai
grammatici ed ai filosofi [27].
Nel mondo greco ed orientale, infatti, fiorivano da secoli illustri
scuole di medicina. Ne fiorivano ad Atene, a Cirene, ad Alessandria,
in Asia Minore, nelle isole dell’Arcipelago, in Bodi, a Marsiglia, nella
Magna Grecia, e in altri luoghi ancora [28]. Scuole private fiorivano
anche in Roma, specie dopo la concessione della cittadinanza,
appositamente largita da G. Cesare ai medici, [29] e quivi ognuno di
essi aveva numerosi apprendisti, che egli, dietro onorario, istruiva e
conduceva seco al letto dei malati [30]. E in Roma, insieme con
l’insegnamento privato, i più famosi medici davano, in luoghi
pubblici, conferenze, esperimenti, e si esponevano anche a
discussioni, venendo con questa loro attività a costituire un vero e
vivo focolare di istruzione medica [31].
A tutti costoro Augusto largiva la esenzione dagli oneri pubblici, e
non soltanto alle loro persone, ma anche a quelle dei successori. [32]
Si beneficava così, per la prima volta, tutto un genere di
insegnamento professionale, ai cui seguaci, pel fatto solo di
scegliere una determinata professione, che esentava da numerosi
carichi, si veniva a concedere un utile materiale quotidiano [33]. Gli
effetti della liberalità di Augusto li rileveremo tra qualche secolo. Il
numero degli esercenti la medicina si sarà allora così moltiplicato da
imporre una qualche restrizione delle godute liberalità.
Quali fossero intanto gli oneri, da cui i medici, sia nella loro qualità di
esercenti che d’insegnanti, venivano, pel momento e per l’avvenire,
esentati, noi specificheremo più innanzi, là dove la concessione
largita diventerà comune ad altre categorie di «magistri», ed avrà
assunto, progredendo, tratti più decisi.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
Ma l’epistola di Antonino Pio ci dà anche l’elenco degli oggetti, su cui
queste immunità ai magistri vertevano prima di Adriano, e (noi
possiamo pensare) vertevano a un di presso sin dalla loro origine.
I grammatici, i medici, i retori e i filosofi erano, secondo la parola
della costituzione riconfermata da Adriano, esenti dall’ufficio: 1) di
γυμνασιαρχοι 2) di ἱερεῖς; 3) dall’obbligo della ἑπισταθμία; 4)
dall’ufficio di σιτῶναι, 5) di ἐλαιῶναι, 6) di κριταί, 7) di πρέσβεις, 8) di
στρατιῶται e da ogni altro carico di qualsiasi genere [106].
Non sarà male, piuttosto che tradurre verbalmente, chiarire,
specificando, l’importanza di ciascuna di codeste esenzioni.
L’espressione gymnasiarchia ci richiama anzi tutto al mondo greco.
Ivi, nel periodo classico, essa era stata una liturgia, forse
identificabile con la lampadodromia, [107] e tale rimaneva ancora, nel
periodo romano, non ostante avesse, qua e là, assunta la forma di
magistratura. Perciò il gymnasiarca offriva agli efebi vesti, forniva
olio per il ginnasio, dedicava stabilimenti di bagni, accudiva alla
celebrazione di sacrifici e di festività, acquistava le vittime all’uopo
richieste, provvedeva all’allestimento dei banchetti, che seguivano i
sacrifizi, costituiva a sue spese il fondo per i premi richiesti dai vari
concorsi, innalzava pubbliche costruzioni. Era dunque il suo, specie
se, come talora avveniva, si cumulava con quello di agonoteta, un
ufficio terribilmente dispendioso [108].
Ma il concetto di gymnasiarchia, contenuto nel paragrafo del
Digesto, che qui interpretiamo, non può, come talora è stato
fatto, [109] riferirsi specificatamente alla liturgia o alla speciale
magistratura greca, che portava codesto nome. Deve invece riferirsi
alla cura in genere dei pubblici spettacoli, a quel ludorum publicum
regimen, che, nel mondo greco, spettava, come abbiamo visto, al
gymnasiarca; in Roma, nell’età imperiale, al pretore [110]; nei
rimanenti municipii, agli edili; [111] o, nell’una e negli altri, a curatores
speciali [112]. E quanto gravoso fosse codesto onere si può
convincersene, rammentando che in Roma erano proverbiali i
dispendii, a cui gli edili soggiacevano, durante la celebrazione di