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Contents
Preface xix
Part One Summary 21

Foundations Key Concepts 22
Exercises 22
Answers 23
Chapter 1
References 23
The Nature of
Scientific Inquiry 1 RESEARCH IN THE PUBLIC EYE 14
Instructional Objectives 1
Chapter 2
Sources of Knowledge 2 Research Approaches in Education 24
Experience 2 Instructional Objectives 24
Authority 2
Deductive Reasoning 4 Quantitative Research 28
Inductive Reasoning 5 Experimental Research 28
The Scientific Approach 7 Nonexperimental Research 29
An Example of the Scientific
Approach 8 Qualitative Research 32
Basic Interpretative Studies 32
Other Aspects of Science 12 Case Studies 32
Assumptions Made by Scientists 12 Content Analysis 32
Attitudes Expected of Scientists 13 Ethnography 33
Formulation of Scientific Theory 15 Grounded Theory 33
Purposes of Theories 16 Historical Research 33
Criteria for Theories 16 Narrative Inquiry 34
Limitations Of The Scientific Approach Phenomenonological Studies 34
In The Social Sciences 18
SIMILARITIES ACROSS QUANTITATIVE
Complexity of Subject Matter 18
Difficulties in Observation 19 AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 34
Difficulties in Replication 19 Typical Stages in Research 35
Interaction of Observer
and Subjects 19 Questions that Educational
Difficulties in Control 19 Researchers Ask 37
Problems of Measurement 20 Theoretical Questions 37
Practical Questions 37
The Nature of Research 20
Educational Research 20 Basic and Applied Research 38
vii
viii contents
Language of Research 39 Chapter 4

Constructs 39 Reviewing the Literature 67
Constitutive Definition 39 Instructional Objectives 67
Operational Definition 39
Variables 40
The Role of Related Literature
Types of Variables 41
in Quantitative Research 68
Constants 42
The Role of Related Literature
Summary 43
in Qualitative and Mixed Methods
Key Concepts 44
Research 69
Exercises 44
Answers 45 Efficient Location
References 46 of Related Literature 70
Indexing and Abstracting Databases 71
RESEARCH IN THE PUBLIC EYE 43
ERIC (Educational Resources
Information Center) 71
Using the ERIC System 72
Other Education-Focused
Part Two Periodical Indexes 73
Research Background Other Useful Databases 75
Citation Indexes 75
Chapter 3 Tests in Print and Mental
Measurements Yearbook 78
The Research Problem 47
Statistical Sources 78
Government Publications 79
Dissertationas and Theses (formerly
Sources of Problems 48
Proqueset Digital Dissertations) 80
Experience 49
Aggregate Databases 80
Theories 49
Professional Development Collection 80
Choosing a Theory 50
Academic Search Premier
Related Literature 52
and Academic Search Complete 80
Reviews of Research 53
Web of Knowledge 81
Noneducation Sources 54
JSTOR 81
Qualitative Research Problems 54
Google Scholar 81
Evaluating the Problem 55 WorldCat 81
DISCOVERY TOOLS 82
Stating the Research Problem 58
The Necessity of Mastering
The Problem Statement
Online Database Searching 82
in Quantitative Research 58
The Problem Statement FREE RESOURCES ON The Internet 83
in Qualitative Research 59 Evaluating Internet Sources 84
Authority 84
Identifying Population
Accuracy 85
and Variables 59
Timeliness 85
SUMMARY 63 Online Journals 85
Key Concepts 64 Organizing the Related Literature 85
Exercises 64
Answers 65 Summary 87
References 66 Key Concepts 88
Exercises 88
RESEARCH IN THE PUBLIC EYE 51 Answers 88
contents ix
References 89 Scales of Measurement 113

Nominal Scale 113
RESEARCH IN THE PUBLIC EYE 78 Ordinal Scale 114
Interval Scale 114
Chapter 5 Ratio Scale 115
The Hypothesis in Quantitative
Organizing Research Data 117
Research 90 Frequency Distributions 117
Graphic Presentations 117
Purposes of the Hypothesis Measures of Central Tendency 120
in Quantitative Research 91 The Mean 120
The Median 122
Suggestions for Deriving
The Mode 123
Hypotheses 93
Comparison of the Three Indexes
Deriving Hypotheses Inductively 93
of Central Tendency 124
Deriving Hypotheses Deductively 94
Shapes of Distributions 124
Characteristics of a Usable
Measures Of Variability 126
Hypothesis 95
Range 126
A Hypothesis States the Expected Variance and Standard Deviation 127
Relationship Between Variables 95
A Hypothesis Must Be Testable 96 Measures of Relative Position 130
A Hypothesis Should Be Consistent z Score 130
with the Existing Body of Knowledge 98 Other Standard Scores 132
A Hypothesis Should Be Stated Stanine Scores 133
as Simply and Concisely as Possible 99 Percentile Rank 134
Types of Hypotheses 100 The Normal Curve 136

The Research Hypothesis 100
Correlation 139
The Null Hypothesis 100
Pearson Product Moment
The Alternative Hypothesis 102
Correlation Coefficient 140
Testing the Hypothesis 102 Scatterplots 143
Classroom Example of Testing Interpretation of Pearson r 147
a Hypothesis 103
Effect Size 149
The Quantitative Research Plan 105
Meta-Analysis 151
The Pilot Study 106
Summary 154
Summary 107
Key Concepts 155
Key Concepts 107
Exercises 155
Exercises 107
Answers 157
Answers 109
References 158
References 110
Research in the Public Eye 124
Chapter 7
Part Three
Sampling and Inferential
Statistical Analysis Statistics 160
Chapter 6
Descriptive Statistics 112 Sampling 161
Instructional Objectives 112 Rationale of Sampling 161
x contents
Steps in Sampling 162 The Two-Variable Chi Square

Probability Sampling 163 (Chi-Square Test of Independence) 204
Simple Random Sampling 163 Assumptions of Chi Square 206
Stratified Sampling 166
Cluster Sampling 167 Summary 206
Systematic Sampling 168 Key Concepts 207
Nonprobability Sampling 169 Exercises 208
Convenience Sampling 169 Answers 211
Purposive Sampling 169 References 212
Quota Sampling 169 Research in the Public Eye 181
Random Assignment 170
The Size of the Sample
(Fundamentals) 171
The Concept of Sampling Error 171 Part Four
The Lawful Nature Fundamentals
of Sampling Errors 172
of Measurement
Sampling Errors of the Mean 172
Standard Error of the Mean 173
Chapter 8
The Strategy of Inferential Tools of Research 213
Statistics 175 Instructional Objectives 213
The Null Hypothesis 175
Type I and Type II Errors 176 MEASUREMENT IN QUANTITATIVE
Type I Error 177 RESEARCH 214
Type II Error 177
Comparison of Type I and Type II Tests 215
Errors 177 Achievement Tests 216
Level of Statistical Significance 178 Standardized Tests 217
Directional and Nondirectional Researcher-Made Tests 218
Tests 179 Norm-Referenced and Criterion-
Determining the Appropriate Sample Referenced Tests 219
Size 181 Test Performance Range 220
Power 183 Performance Measures 220
Constructing a Performance
The General Strategy of Statistical Test 221
Tests 184 Aptitude Tests 221
The t Test for Independent Samples 185 Individual Aptitude Tests 222
The t Distributions 187 Group Tests of Aptitude 223
Degrees of Freedom 187
Testing and Technology 223
The t Test for Dependent Samples 189
The t Test for Pearson r Measures of Personality 223
Correlation Coefficients 192 Objective Personality Assessment 224
Analysis of Variance 192 Projective Personality Assessment 225
Computing the F Ratio
(simple analysis of variance) 193 Scales 225
The F Test of Significance 195 Attitude Scales 226
Effect Size 197 Likert Scales: Method of Summated
Multifactor Analysis of Variance 197 Ratings 226
Interpreting the F Ratios 201 Scoring Likert Scales 227
The Chi-Square Tests of Significance 202 Item Analysis 228
The One-Variable Chi Square Validity 229
(Goodness of Fit) 202 Reliability 229
contents xi
Bipolar Adjective Scales 229 Reliability Coefficients 259

Rating Scales 230 Test-Retest Reliability 259
Category Scales 231 Equivalent-Forms Reliability 260
Comparative Rating Scales 231 Internal-Consistency Measures
Errors in Rating 232 of Reliability 261
Split-Half Reliability 261
Direct Observation 233
Homogeneity Measures 262
Devices for Recording Observations 234
Kuder-Richardson Procedures 262
Checklists 234
Coefficient Alpha 264
Rating Scales 234
Interpretation of Reliability
Coding Systems 234
Coefficients 265
Advantages and Disadvantages
Standard Error of Measurement 269
of Direct Observation 236
Reliability of Criterion-Referenced
Validity and Reliability
Tests 271
of Direct Observation 236
Agreement Coefficient (r) 272
Contrived Observations 237
Kappa Coefficient 273
MEASUREMENT in Qualitative Phi Coefficient 274
Research 237 Reliability of Observational Data 274
Summary 237 Validity and Reliability Compared 275

Key Concepts 238
Summary 277
Exercises 238
Key Concepts 278
Answers 239
Exercises 278
References 240
Answers 281
RESEARCH IN THE PUBLIC EYE 216 References 283

Chapter 9
Validity and Reliability 241
Instructional Objectives 241 Part Five
Research Methods
Validity 242
Validation 243
Chapter 10
Evidence Based on Test Content 243
Evidence Based on Relations Experimental Research 285
to a Criterion 245 Instructional Objectives 285
Concurrent Validity 245
Predictive Validity 246 Characteristics of Experimental
Choosing the Criterion 246 Research 287
Validity Coefficient 247 Control 287
Construct-Related Evidence Manipulation 289
of Validity 248 Observation and Measurement 289
Validity Generalization 251
Experimental Comparison 290
Validity of Criterion-Referenced Tests 252
Application of the Validity Concept 252 Experimental Design 291
Reliability 253 Validity of Research Designs 292
Sources of Random Error 254 Internal Validity 293
Relationship Between Reliability Threats to Internal Validity 293
and Validity 256
Equations for Reliability 256 Dealing with Threats to Internal
Approaches to Reliability 258 Validity 306
xii contents
Random Assignment 306 Design 7: Solomon Four-Group

Randomized Matching 308 Design 332
Homogeneous Selection 308 Factorial Designs 333
Building Variables into the Design 309 Design 8: Simple Factorial
Statistical Control 309 Design 334
Using Subjects as their Own Controls 310 Other Randomized Experimental
Controlling Situational Differences 310 Designs 338
Quasi-Experimental Designs 339
Statistical Conclusion Validity 313
Design 9: Nonrandomized Control Group,
Construct Validity of Experiments 313 Pretest-Posttest Design 339
Threats to Construct Validity 314 Interaction of Selection and
Promoting Construct Validity 314 Maturation 340
Interaction of Selection
External Validity of Experimental and Regression 341
Designs 315 Interaction of Selection
Threats to External Validity 315 and Instrumentation 341
Dealing with Threats to External Design 10: Counterbalanced
Validity 317 Design 342
Time-Series Designs 343
Relationships Among the Types
Design 11: One-Group Time-Series
of Validity 318
Design 343
Summary 319 Design 12: Control Group
Key Concepts 320 Time-Series Design 345
Exercises 320 Validity Problems with Experimental
Answers 322 Designs 346
References 323 Single-Subject Experimental
Designs 346
Research in the Public Eye 305 ABAB Designs 347
Multiple-Baseline Designs 349
Multiple-Baseline Across-Behaviors
Chapter 11
Design 349
Experimental Research Designs 324 Multiple-Baseline Across-Participants
Instructional Objectives 324 Design 350
Multiple-Baseline Across-Settings
Classifying Experimental Design 350
Designs 325 Comparison of Single-Subject
Preexperimental Designs 326 and Group Designs 351
Design 1: One-Group Pretest–Posttest
Summary 352
Design 326
Key Concepts 352
Design 2: Static Group Comparison 327
Exercises 353
True Experimental Designs 328
Answers 354
Design 3: Randomized Subjects,
References 355
Posttest-Only Control Group
Design 328 Research in the Public Eye 333
Design 4: Randomized Matched
Subjects, Posttest-Only Control
Group Design 329 Chapter 12
Design 5: Randomized Subjects, Ex Post Facto Research 356
Pretest-Posttest Control Instructional Objectives 356
Group Design 330
Design 6: Solomon Three-Group Planning an Ex Post Facto
Design 331 Research Study 359
contents xiii
Alternative Explanations Determining Sample Size 384

in Ex Post Facto Research 361 Correlation and Causation 384
Common Cause 361 Partial Correlation 386
Reverse Causality 361 Multiple Regression 386
Other Possible Independent
Factor Analysis 388
Variables 362
Confirmatory Factor Analysis 390
An Application of Alternative
Explanations 363 Other Complex Correlational
Procedures 391
Partial Control in Ex Post Facto
Research 364 Summary 392
Matching 365 Key Concepts 393
Homogeneous Groups 366 Exercises 393
Building Extraneous Variables Answers 395
into the Design 367 References 397
Analysis of Covariance 367
The Role of Ex Post Facto
Research 369
Chapter 14
Summary 370 Survey Research 398
Key Concepts 371
Exercises 371
Answers 372 Types of Surveys 400
References 373 Surveys Classified According
Research in the Public Eye 370 to Focus and Scope 400
A Census of Tangibles 401
A Census of Intangibles 401
Chapter 13
A Sample Survey of Tangibles 401
Correlational Research 374 A Sample Survey of
Instructional Objectives 374 Intangibles 402
Surveys Classified According
Uses of Correlational Research 376 to the Time Dimension 403
Assessing Relationships 376 Longitudinal Surveys 403
Assessing Consistency 376 Panel Studies 403
Prediction 377 Trend Studies 404
Design of Correlational Studies 377
Cohort Studies 404
Cross-Sectional Surveys 404
Correlation Coefficients 379
Survey Technique 405
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient
of Correlation 379 Six Basic Steps Involved
Coefficient of Determination 379 in Survey Research 405
Spearman rho Coefficient Data-Gathering Techniques 406
of Correlation 380 Personal Interviews 407
The phi Coefficient 381 Focus Groups 408
Telephone Interviews 408
Considerations for Interpreting Computer-Assisted Telephone
a Correlation Coefficient 381 Interviewing (CATI) 409
The Nature of the Population Conducting the Interview 410
and the Shape of its Distribution 382 Training the Interviewer 410
Comparison to Other Correlations 382 Mailed Questionnaires 411
Practical Utility 382 Electronic Mail Surveys 412
Statistical Significance 383 Internet Surveys 412
xiv contents
Directly Administered Explanation 447

Questionnaires 413 Methods 448
Values 448
Standard Error of the Sampling
Proportion 414 Major Characteristics
Calculating the Standard Error 414 of Qualitative Research 451
Calculating Sample Size 416 Concern for Context and Meaning 451
Naturally Occuring Settings 451
Constructing the Instrument 417 Human as Instrument 451
Format of Questions 417 Descriptive Data 452
Structure of Questions 419 Emergent Design 452
Field Testing 421 Inductive Analysis 452
Writing Survey Questions 422
Designing Qualitative Research 454
Using a Mailed Questionnaire 426 Choosing a Problem 454
Directions 426 Sampling 456
Order of Questions 426 Data Collection 459
Matrix Sampling 427 Observation 459
Format of the Questionnaire 427 Choosing an Observation Site 459
Preparing the Cover Letter 429 Determining Researcher
Roles 460
Maximizing Response Rates 431
Using Field Notes 463
Monetary Incentive 432
Interviews 466
Follow-Ups 433
Documents and Artifacts 471
First Reminder 433
Second Follow-Up 433 Ethical Considerations
Third Follow-Up 433 in Qualitative Research 473
Dealing with Nonresponse 433
Summary 476
Validity 435 Key Concepts 477
Reliability 436 Exercises 477
Answers 478
Statistical Analysis in Surveys 436 References 479
Controlling Variables in a Survey
Analysis 437
Statistics for Crosstabs 439
Chapter 16
Summary 441
Types of Qualitative Research 481
Key Concepts 441
Exercises 441
Answers 443
Qualitative Taxonomies 482
References 444
Basic Qualitative Studies 484
Case Studies 485
Chapter 15
Content Analysis 488
Defining and Designing Qualitative
Research 446 Ethnographic Studies 490
Grounded Theory Studies 492
Distinguishing Qualitative Inquiry Historical Studies 496

From Quantitative Inquiry 447 Primary and Secondary Sources 497
Approach 447 External and Internal Criticism 497
contents xv
Narrative Research 498 Consistent Findings 537

Coding Agreement 537
Phenomenological Research 501
Corroboration 537
Other Types of Qualitative Confirmability 537
Research 504
Evaluating Qualitative Reports 540
Summary 507
Summary 543
Key Concepts 507
Key Concepts 544
Exercises 508
Exercises 544
Answers 508
Answers 545
References 509
References 545
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Analyzing and Reporting Qualitative
Research 512 Action Research 547
Analyzing Qualitative Data 513 Defining Action Research 548

Familiarizing and Organizing 513 Approaches to Action Research 550
Coding and Reducing 515 Benefits of Action Research
Interpreting and Representing 522 in Education 550
Action Research Compared
Reporting Qualitative Research 523 to Traditional Research 551
Abstract 524
Introduction 524 The Action Research Process 553
Research Design 524 Action Research Problems 555
Methods 524 Categories of Action
Site and Participant Selection 524 Research Problems 556
Data-Collection Methods 524 Strategies for Identifying
Data Analysis Procedures 525 the Problem 557
Findings 525 Reflection 557
Interpretations and Implications 525 Description 558
References 525 Explanation 558
Appendix 525 Literature Review 559
Technology in Qualitative Brainstorming 560
Analysis 527 Action Research Questions 560
Rigor in Qualitative Research 531 Data Collection for

Credibility 531 Action Research 561
Evidence Based on Structural Using Multiple Sources of Data 561
Corroboration 532 Data-Collection Strategies 562
Evidence Based on Consensus 532 Experiencing 562
Evidence Based on Referential or Enquiring 562
Interpretive Adequacy 533 Examining 564
Evidence Based on Theoretical Rigor and Ethical Treatment
Adequacy 533
in Action Research 564
Evidence Based on Control of Bias 534
Rigor in Action Research 565
Transferability 534
Ethics in Action Research 565
Dependability 536
Documentation 536 Data Analysis in Action Research 567
xvi contents
Coding 567 Strengths and Weaknesses

Stages of Analysis 568 of Mixed Methods Research 602
Data Interpretation Summary 603

in Action Research 568 Key Concepts 603
Using Visuals 569 Exercises 603
Reflecting 570 Answers 604
References 604
Action Plan 570
Reporting Action Research 572
Components of the Report 572
Publishing and Judging Reports 572
Part Six
Increasing use of Action
Research in Education 574 Communicating Research
Action Research in Professional
Development and School Chapter 20
Improvement 575 Guidelines for Writing Research
Study Groups 575 Proposals 606
Action Research and Professional Instructional Objectives 606
Development Schools 576
Challenges 576 Writing a Research Proposal 607
Resources for More Information 577 Quantitative Research Proposal 607
Action Research Example 577 Introduction 608
Statement of the Problem 608
Summary 586 Review of the Literature 609
Key Concepts 586 Statement of the Hypothesis(es) 610
Exercises 587 Significance of the Study 610
Answers 587 Implications 610
References 588 Applications 611
Methods 611
Participants 611
Instruments 612
Chapter 19 Procedures 612
Mixed Methods Research 589 Protection of Human Subjects 613
Instructional Objectives 589 Data Analysis 613
Data Organization 613
Defining Mixed Methods Statistical Procedures 613
Research 590 Schedule and Budget 616
The “Third” Wave 590 Schedule 616
Classifying Mixed Methods 591 Budget 617
Purposes for Conducting References 617
Mixed Methods Research 592 Critiquing the Proposal 617
Importance of Completing the Proposal
Mixed Methods Designs 594 Before Collecting Data 618
Notation System 596
Qualitative Research Proposal 618
Data Analysis in Mixed Introduction 619
Methods Research 597 Purpose 619
Situating the Self 619
SAMPLING IN MIXED DESIGNS 599
Initial Research Questions 619
Rigor in Mixed Designs 599 Related Literature/Discourse 620
contents xvii
Research Procedure 620 Introduction 642

Site and Selection of the Sample 620 Review of Literature 643
Role of the Researcher 621 Methods 643
Data-Collection Methods 621 Results 643
Data Analysis 621 Discussion 645
Significance of the Study 621 Interpreting Expected Results 645
Schedule and Budget 621 Interpreting Negative Results 646
Critiquing the Qualitative Proposal 622 Interpreting Results When the Null
Hypothesis Is Retained 647
Ethical and Legal Considerations 622
Interpreting Unhypothesized
Aera Code of Ethics 622
(Serendipitous) Relationships 648
Principles of Ethical Research in
Implications/Application 648
Education 623
Conclusions and Summary 649
Ethical Standards 623
Conclusions 649
Professional Obligations 625
Summary 649
Legal Obligations 626
Supplementary Pages 650
Protecting Subjects from Harm 627
References 650
Obtaining Informed Consent 627
Appendices 650
Right to Privacy 630
Vita 650
Exemptions from Regulations 632
The Journal Article 651
Summary 634 The Professional Conference Paper 652
Key Concepts 634 Poster Session Presentations 653
Exercises 634
Checklist for Evaluating
Answers 636
Quantitative Research Reports 653
References 636
Style Manuals 655
Summary 655
Chapter 21 Key Concepts 656
Exercises 656
Interpreting and Reporting Results
Answers 658
of Quantitative Research 638 References 659
Writing the Final Report 639
The Thesis or Dissertation 639 APPENDIX 660
Preliminary Pages 641 GLOSSARY 672
Title Page 641
Abstract 642 INDEX 685
Main Body of the Dissertation 642
Preface
This edition of Introduction to Research in N e w a n d U p d at e d

Education continues our commitment to pro- in this Edition
viding a comprehensive, reader-friendly intro- For the ninth edition, we have retained features
duction to the concepts, principles, and previously designed to enhance students’
methodologies used in educational research. understanding and added additional features.
As in previous editions, our goal is to provide
students with the knowledge and skills needed • “Think About It” boxes conclude major
to be intelligent consumers of research, as well discussions in chapters, and prompt stu-
as to plan and conduct quality research studies dents to apply and think critically about
on their own. Recent federal legislation calls material covered in a previous section.
for more rigorous evidence-based research to These exercises can be used as concept
provide knowledge for developing and evaluat- checks for students.
ing effective educational programs and prac- • T
hrough original illustrations conceptual-
tices. Future educators who will be a part of ized by Donald Ary and created specifically
this educational “revolution” need to under- for this book, the “Picture This” feature
stand and be prepared to carry out a research reinforces key chapter concepts in a clever
study. This book is written primarily for begin- and entertaining manner.
ning graduate students in education, but it is • A
new feature in this edition is the
also appropriate for students in other social “Research in the Public Eye” box in each
sciences. chapter, which presents examples of
The sequence of topics in this text loosely research that appeared in popular publi-
corresponds to the steps in the research pro- cations. Students are asked questions that
cess. The first five chapters focus on an intro- require them to critique various method-
duction to the scientific approach in education, ologies employed, interpret findings, and
the nature and selection of the research prob- evaluate the conclusions reached.
lem, the review of relevant literature, and the
• E
nd-of-chapter exercises expose students
development of hypotheses. The next section
to intriguing research problems and help
deals with the measurement tools used in gath-
develop critical thinking.
ering research data and the statistical proce-
dures used in the analysis of data. In the third In addition to these new features, all chap-
section we introduce the major research meth- ters and references have been thoroughly
odologies used in both quantitative and qualita- updated for this edition. Most notably, Chapter
tive educational research. The final section 4 has been revised to include the latest Internet
deals with interpreting and communicating the search tools and electronic database resources
results of research. for accessing related literature.
xix
xx Preface
Supplements Ac k n o w l e d g e m e n t s
I n s t r u c t o r ’s M a n u a l w i t h Te s t We welcome David A. Walker as a new co-author
Bank and Online ExamView® for the ninth edition. We want to thank Gregg S.
The online Instructor’s Manual, available Geary, Interim University Librarian and Director
through the instructor web site, contains infor- of the Student Success Center at the University of
mation to assist the instructor in designing the Hawaii at Manoa, for his work on updating the
course. For assessment support, the Test Bank chapter on library and Internet resources. We are
offers over 100 questions to assess your stu- grateful to Pearson Education Ltd. on behalf of
dents’ knowledge. the literary executor of the late sir Ronald A.
Also available for download from the instruc- Fisher, F.R.S., and the late Dr. Frank Yates, F.R.S.,
tor web site, ExamView® testing software includes for permission to reprint Tables III, IV, and VII fro
all the test items from the Test Bank in electronic m Statistical Tables for Biological, Agricultural
format, enabling you to create customized tests and Medical Research (6th ed., 1974).
in print or online. We greatly appreciate the assistance of the
staff at Cengage Learning, especially our devel-
opmental editor, Genevieve Allen. In addition,
Powerpoint Slides
we thank Mark Kerr, Executive Editor; Samen
Available for download at the instructor’s web Iqbal, Production Manager; and Greta Lindquist,
site, these ready-to-use Microsoft® PowerPoint® Editorial Assistant.
lecture slides cover content for each chapter of We gratefully acknowledge the contributions
the book. of the following reviewers:
C o m p a n i o n We b S i t e Joseph Ciechalski, East Carolina University

The book-specific web site offers students a Kathleen Dolgos, Kutztown University
variety of study tools and useful resources
George Fero, McKendree University
including glossary/flashcards, online workshops,
tutorial quizzes, and links related to each chap- Carrie Fitzgerald, State University of New
ter. Students can access these book resources York (SUNY) Fredonia
through CengageBrain.com. For instructors, the Robert Pearson, University of Northern
instructor’s manual with test bank, PowerPoint California
slides, and ExamView files are available for Tracy Walker, Virginia State University
download.
Chapter 1
The Nature of
Scientific Inquiry
Knowledge
is power.
I n s t ruc t io n a l Ob j ec t i v e s
After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:
1 List five major sources of knowledge and comment on the strengths and
weaknesses of each source.
2 Describe the characteristics of the scientific approach.
3 State the assumptions underlying science and the attitudes expected of
scientists.
4 Specify the purpose and characteristics of scientific theory in the behavioral
sciences.
5 Indicate the limitations involved in the application of the scientific approach in
the social sciences.
6 Define educational research and give examples.
Educators are, by necessity, decision makers. Daily they face the task of deciding how
to plan learning experiences, teach and guide students, organize a school system, and
myriad other matters. Unlike unskilled workers, who are told what to do and how to do
it, professionals must plan for themselves. People assume that professionals have the
knowledge and skills necessary to make valid decisions about what to do and how to
do it. We generally define knowledge as justified true belief. How are educators to know
what is true? How do they acquire reliable information? Although there are other sources
of knowledge, such as experience, authority, and tradition, scientific inquiry into edu-
cational problems provides the most valuable source of knowledge to educators for
decision making. However, education has not always been influenced by the results of
Monica Butnaru/Shutterstock.com
careful and systematic investigations.
2 part One Foundations
Sources of Knowledge
Before we further pursue the role of scientific inquiry in education, let us
review some of the ways in which human beings throughout history have
sought knowledge. The major sources of knowledge can be categorized under
five headings: (1) experience, (2) authority, (3) deductive reasoning, (4) induc-
tive reasoning, and (5) the scientific approach.
Experience
Experience is a familiar and well-used source of knowledge. After trying sev-
eral routes from home to work, you learn which route takes the least time or
is the most traffic free or the most scenic. Through personal experience, you
can find answers to many questions that you face. Much wisdom passed from
generation to generation is the result of experience. If people were not able to
profit from experience, progress would be severely retarded. In fact, this abil-
ity to learn from experience is a prime characteristic of intelligent behavior.
Yet for all its usefulness, experience has limitations as a source of knowledge.
How you are affected by an event depends on who you are. Two people will
have very different experiences in the same situation. The same forest that is a
delightful sanctuary to one person may be a menacing wilderness to another.
Two supervisors observing the same classroom at the same time could truthfully
compile very different reports if one focused on and reported the things that
went right and the other focused on and reported the things that went wrong.
Another shortcoming of experience is that you so frequently need to know
things that you as an individual cannot learn by experience. A child turned
loose to discover arithmetic alone might figure out how to add but would be
unlikely to find an efficient way to compute square roots. A teacher could learn
through experience the population of a classroom on a particular day but
could not personally count the population of the United States.
Authority
For things difficult or impossible to know by personal experience, people fre-
quently turn to an authority; that is, they seek knowledge from someone who
has had experience with the problem or has some other source of expertise.
People accept as truth the word of recognized authorities. We go to a physician
with health questions or to a stockbroker with questions about investments. To
learn the size of the U.S. population, we can turn to reports by the U.S. Bureau
of the Census. A student can look up the accepted pronunciation of a word in
a dictionary. A superintendent can consult a lawyer about a legal problem at
school. A beginning teacher asks an experienced one for suggestions and may
try a certain technique for teaching reading because the teacher with experi-
ence suggests that it is effective.
Throughout history you can find examples of reliance on authority for
knowledge, particularly during the Middle Ages when people preferred ancient
scholars such as Plato and Aristotle, and the early Fathers of the Church, as
sources of information—even over direct observation or experience. Although
authority is a very useful source of knowledge, you must always ask, How does
chapter 1 The Nature of Scientific Inquiry 3
Picture this
Joe Rocco
authority know? In earlier days, people assumed an authority was correct sim-
ply because of the position he or she held, such as king, chief, or high priest.
Today, people are reluctant to rely on an individual as an authority merely
because of position or rank. They are inclined to accept the assertions of an
authority only when that authority is indeed a recognized expert in the area.
Closely related to authority are custom and tradition, on which people
depend for answers to many questions related to professional as well as every-
day problems. In other words, people often ask “How has this been done in the
past?” and then use the answer as a guide for action. Custom and tradition
have been prominent influences in the school setting, where educators often
rely on past practices as a dependable guide. However, an examination of the
history of education reveals that many traditions that prevailed for years were
later found to be erroneous and had to be rejected. For generations, it was
considered good practice to humiliate students who made mistakes with dunce
caps and the like. It is wise to appraise custom and tradition carefully before
you accept them as reliable sources.
Authority is a quick and easy source of knowledge; however, it has short-
comings that you must consider. First, authorities can be wrong. People often
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apám bíró volt, az övé még csak nem is aktív tiszt, nos, melyik ér
többet? És mit ér ő maga, a trónörökös úr? Van a vidéken egy
kastélya! És mi lehet belőle? Azt egy jóstól kérdezzétek! Igy persze
könnyű dolga van az embernek, ha nem sikerül valamelyik vizsgája,
akkor otthagy csapot-papot és hazatér a vidéki birtokára. Ott mindig
akad valami öreg szolgáló, az majd ellátja. Az utódnak, a nemesi
sarjnak semmi gondja, megvan az öreg szolgálója, akit örökölt és a
szolgálónak csinos főkötője van és jóságos szeme. Ha a nagyságos
úr reggel sokáig hever az ágyban, akkor bejön s megkérdezi, hogy
nem beteg-e, ha sokáig ül a nagyságos úr egy széken, ő ráveszi,
hogy keljen fel, nehogy a hosszú ülés meg találjon ártani. És aztán
meghal. Akkor a szolgáló virágot ültet a sírjára. Ez a nóta vége. És
bizony, ők a legjobb utódok és nemesi ivadékok, ők: – a halottak.
Azok rezignáltak és szerények! Bizony, Willatz Holmsen úr, csak
amelyik jelentéktelen és haszontalan, az dacol a halállal és akar
továbbélni mindenáron!
De hát mindenkinek megvannak a maga szempontjai, és
Holmengraa úr is a maga gondolatait követte. Lehet, hogy a
fiatalember beszédében az apjára, a hadnagyra emlékeztette
valami, annak is hasonló nézetei voltak, ez meglátszott minden
szaván és cselekedetén. Holmengraa úr fülében még mindig ott
csengett az egykori hadnagy hangja, de annak minden szava keserű
volt és igaz, a fia szájában viszont valahogy veszélytelenül hangzott.
Lehet, hogy volt valami igaz abban, amit mondott: a
nagyembereknek nem szabad fiút nemzeni.
Holmengraa úr csak rámondta, hogy igen, igen, bólintott és
odahallgatott, gondolni azonban csak önmagára gondolt. Vajjon az
ifjú Willatz nem vette észre a lebzselő munkásokat, és a sok
rendetlenséget? Apja, a hadnagy, rájukmeresztette volna a szürke
szemét és lett volna hozzájuk egy rövid kérdése.
A két úr némán haladt egymás mellett még egy darabig.
Az ön munkásaival találkoztunk odalent? kérdezte Willatz.
Igen.
Nem szoktak azok köszönni?
De igen, néha, felelte Holmengraa úr. Némelyikük köszön.
Hogy lehet az, hogy nem mind köszön, hiszen ön végre is a
főnökük.
Hát ez csak úgy lehet, hogy a természet, mikor úrrá tesz valakit,
nem mindig adja meg neki az úri föllépés kellékeit, mondta
Holmengraa úr.
Ön így magyarázza? kérdezte Willatz.
A maga apja, az bezzeg úr volt. Gyakran gondolok rá, – meg a
lovára. Ha csak a kezével intett, már szót fogadtak az emberei.
Próbálták volna csak meg szót nem fogadni!
És azért mégis helyén volt a szíve. Keményen állt a lábán, mert
tudta, hogy sok ember sorsa függ rajta, és tudta jól: ha ő meginog,
akkor százan zuhannak a porba.
Bizony, úgy volt az, mondta Willatz. Na, itt jön egy másik, –
lássuk köszön-e ez.
Holmengraa úr feltekintett, mintha csak most venné észre az
emberét, és azt mondta:
Ez Konrad, – ez biztosan nem köszön.
Miféle Konrad? Az, amelyik elvitte az ön cipőit?
Holmengraa úr szomorúan mosolygott.
Igen, ez csak egyike a sok gonosz csinyjeinek.
És ön mégis megtartja a szolgálatában?
Igen, meg kell tartanom, különben a többi társa összefog vele és
sztrájka lép.
Hát hadd sztrájkoljanak! mondta Willatz.
Konrad elsomfordált a két férfi mellett. Begombolta a mellényét
és ez a foglalkozás szemmelláthatólag tökéletesen lekötötte a
figyelmét.
Csakugyan nem köszönt, állapította meg Willatz. De hova
mennek ilyenkor sorjában az ön munkásai?
Nem tudom, munkaszünetet tartanak, ők maguk honosították
meg így. Néhánya úgy látom, ott szemben üldögél az erdőben.
Willatz Holmengraa úrra nézett és egyszeriben megértette, hogy
a mesebeli király mennyire megroskadt. Látta, amint az ajka
könnyen megremeg és az írisz a szemében fénytelen és színtelen
lett. Bizony, megvénült már ez az ember.
Ifjú Willatz megállt és azt mondta:
Ugyan hívja vissza azt az embert! Kérdezze meg tőle, hová
megy!
Holmengraa úr engedelmeskedett és nagyot kiáltott:
Konrad! Gyere csak ide kérlek, egy pillanatra!
Willatz meglepődött ezen a kérő formán és azon is, hogy a
malomtulajdonos néhány lépést tett a munkása felé. Azt gondolta
talán, hogy ezzel könnyít a dolgán? Ettől ugyan Konrad nem
szaporázta a lépteit. Mikor végre nagynehezen odacammogott, nem
várta be a parancsot, hanem maga kérdezte meg:
Tessék?
Hová mégy?
Hova megyek? mondta Konrad. Sehova.
Hát nem munka ideje van most?
A többiek elmentek, hogy egy kicsit kiszuszogják magukat. Hát
én is elmentem.
Menj vissza a munkádhoz! mondta Holmengraa úr.
Konrad nagyon furcsállotta a hangot és szokatlannak találta.
Valami különös történhetett, egy egész váratlan fordulat, mert a
malomtulajdonos visszanyerte a hangját, nemcsak néhány szót
vetett oda, hogy aztán elfordúljon, mintha el akarna rejtőzni. De meg
aztán nem is volt egyedül, hanem a kastély tulajdonosa ment az
oldalán, – hét ez ugyan mit jelentsen?
Én is visszamegyek majd, mikor a többi, mondta Konrad és
megfordult.
No, mi baj, Konrad? hangzott az erdő széléről.
Hogy álljunk rögtön munkába, felelte Konrad.
Gyertek, fiúk, ezt már én is szeretném látni! hangzott ismét az
erdő felől.
És azzal kilépett Aslak, hatalmas, szélesvállú férfi, szájában az
elmaradhatatlan pipa. A fején ellenzős sapka, zöld zekét viselt, a
lábát pedig magas csizmába dugta, ennek a szárán csattok voltak.
Két másik munkás is ment vele, ingujjban, de szalmakalappal a
fejükön és cigarettával a szájukban.
A malom felé indultak. Konrad csatlakozott a társaihoz és heves
beszélgetés indult meg köztük.
Azt szeretném csak látni! mondta Aslak.
Holmengraa úr lehajtott fővel ment az úton és gondolkozott.
Lehajtott fővel! Így igazán nem járhat egy király!
Lehet, hogy valami kész terve volt már és ütni akarta a vasat,
amíg meleg. Mikor a malom elé érkeztek, megkérdezte a sagvikai
Bertelt:
Nincs talán szükségünk az emberekre, Bertel, hogy így
elkószálnak a munkaidő közepén?
De igen, szükségünk van rájuk, mondta Bertel.
Ole Johant is odahajtotta a mértéktelen kíváncsisága.
Persze, hogy szükség van rájuk, mondta.
De hiszen elkóborolnak!
Igen, azt gyakran megteszik.
Igenis, gyakran megtesszük, hangzott fel az Aslak szava.
Holmengraa úr a munkások felé fordult és azt mondta:
Ezentúl nem tesszük többször.
Nem? kérdezte Aslak. És azt hiszi, hogy ezt Holmengraa úr
egyedül fogja meghatározni?
Igen.
Ejha! Én pedig úgy képzeltem, hogy ahhoz még nekünk is lesz
szavunk.
Nem lesz.
Nem-e? Hát csak látszik, hogy ki született úrnak.
Halljátok? Azt akarja, hogy befogjuk a szánkat! mondta Konrad.
Általános mormogás. Mind több munkás szakította meg az
őgyelgést és sietett oda. Látták, hogy ott történik valami. Aslak
szipákolt és köpködött. Mikor a pipája kialudt, egyszerre több
gyufával akarta meggyújtani és a gyufákat aztán nem taposta el,
hagyta, hogy égjenek a földön. Nagy, behemót ember volt, most
pedig különösen bízott magában.
Mindenki a munkájához, emberek! parancsolta a
malomtulajdonos. Aki dolgozni akar, azonnal munkába áll, a többi
mehet ahova akar.
Rövid hallgatás.
Ejnye, hát már rabszolgák lettünk? kérdezte Aslak.
A malomtulajdonos el akarta hallgattatni és rászólt:
Téged mindenesetre elbocsátalak, Aslak.
Aslak még sohasem hallott ilyen beszédet a malomtulajdonos
szájából. Még a pipáját is elfelejtette szívni, annyira leverte a lábáról
ez a hihetetlen fordulat. Mikor kicsit észbekapott, azonnal
magyarázkodni kezdett és kijelentette, hogy ezt a külön pihenőt már
évekkel ezelőtt honosították meg és nem hajlandók lemondani róla.
Végül azt mondta, ha őt elbocsátják, akkor alighanem mások is
leteszik a kalapácsot.
Mindannyian letesszük, helyeselték a többiek.
Ez a támogatás megerősítette Aslakot. Most már biztos lett a
fellépése, haragos volt, tiszteletlenül beszélt a főnökével, tegezte és
Tóbiásnak nevezte.
Tudjuk jól, hogy honnan származol, mondta neki, egy jött-ment
vagy és Tóbiás a neved, ne tégy úgy, mintha te lennél a római pápa.
Ha még egy szót szólsz, itt hagyunk faképnél valamennyien!
Rendben van, menj csak a kikötőmesterhez, ő majd kifizeti a
béredet, mondta Holmengraa úr.
De Aslaknak még egy ütőkártya lehetett a kezében, hatalmas
ütőkártya, mert haragos, sértődött mosoly ült ki az ajkára. Az ifjú
Willatzra nézett, aki közömbös arccal egy kissé távolabb állt, – és
azt mondta:
Ez az ember az oka, hogy ma olyan nagy a hangod, Tóbiás?
Most visszatér mindenki a munkájához, vagy valamennyiteket
elbocsájtalak! kiáltja a malomtulajdonos és csakúgy zeng a hangja.
Téged, Konrad, mindenesetre elbocsátlak.
Aslak azonban már valahogy összeköttetésbe hozta az ifú
Willatzot a katasztrófával és ezt a szálat nem volt hajlandó olyan
könnyen elejteni.
Talán a vőd az ottan? kérdezte a malomtulajdonostól. Hozd csak
ide, hogy illő módon üdvözölhessük!
Végül nagynehezen mégis megértette, hogy Konradot is
elbocsátották a malom szolgálatából és erre még jobban fölragyogott
az arca, mintha még jobb fegyver akadt volna a kezébe.
Ahá, ez csak kettőnknek szól, Konrad!
A döntő szó azonban már elhangzott. Holmengraa úr és a
kísérője tehát ismét elindultak lefelé az úton. A malomtulajdonoson
egyébként nem látszott meg, hogy öröme lett volna az energikus
fellépésben, még mindig összegörnyedt háttal haladt az útján.
Megfoghatatlan dolog volt ez, egy királynak végre is magasba emelt
fővel kellene távoznia, az öreg tengerészhez és kalandorhoz nem is
illett úgy elhagynia a helyet, hogy legalább egy-két revolverlövéssel
ne könnyítsen a lelkén. De ő csak nézett, az ifjú Willatzra emelte
vizenyős kék öreg szemét és azt mondta:
Évek óta nincs már nekem semmi örömöm.
Illett vajjon ez az őszinte kitörés egy fölényes, uralkodásra
termett emberhez?
Aslak ott kiabált a háta mögött:
Veszem észre, hogy Konrad nem fér a bögyödbe, hahaha,
felhúzta a cipőidet a tánchoz, ez csakugyan hallatlan! De vajjon
milyen táncra jársz te magad éjszakánként, Tóbiás? Azt hiszed,
hogy valami nagy tisztelet jár ki neked, te híres szabadkőműves?
Tudjuk jól, hogy belopózol a házakba és titkos találkákra jársz a
szénapadlásokon. Elég ember állítja, elég tanu látta! Jársz táncolni
te is, csak kettesben és az ágyba!
Aslakból csak úgy ömlött tovább a szitkok árja. Ez volt az ő
ütőkártyája. A munkások mögötte csoportosultak és nyerítő
nevetésüktől visszhangzott a levegő. Holmengraa úr
szemmelláthatóan szerette volna siettetni a lépteit, hogy gyorsabban
elkerüljön erről az átkozott helyről, alázatosan mosolygott és a fejét
rázta, mintha azt mondaná: Hát hallottak már valaha ilyen galád
rágalmakat?
De az ifjú Willatz elsápadt és megállt. Egy pillanat! mondta és
sarkon fordult. Aztán elindult visszafelé és menetközben lehúzta a
kezéről a keztyűt.
Itt jön a vőmuram! mondja Aslak. Várjatok csak, majd méltó
fogadtatásban részesítjük!
Willatz odamegy hozzá, egy ütés a levegőben és Aslak a földön
fekszik. Hogyan? – kezet emelt rá? Úristen, micsoda ököl ez.
Kemény és angolos! Az áldozat se kiáltott föl, csak összecsuklott a
teste, mintha a végórája érkezett volna el.
Aslak mögött bomladozik a munkáscsoport. Néhányan nyiltan
hátrálnak és az ifjú Willatz követi őket.
Engem hiába szemelt ki, mert én már megyek is innen, mondja
Konrad siralmas hangon.
Amint a társai meghallják az alázatos szavakat, fölvillan bennük,
hogy miről is van itt szó voltaképen: azt parancsolták nekik, hogy
rögtön vissza a munkához, – vagy azonnal elhagyni a malmot. És
már jön vissza a malomtulajdonos is, a főnök, minden mehet úgy,
mint eddig, csak a helyükre kell visszatérniök. Nem a
malomtulajdonos ütött meg valakit, a malomtulajdonos sohasem
szokott senkit megütni…
A könyökükkel taszigálják egymást és összedugják a fejüket,
aztán párosával elindulnak, vissza a munkahelyükre. A gézengúz
Konradot cserbenhagyják. Konrad pelig Aslakot hagyja faképnél. És
most ujra a napfényre villan a helyzetük minden nyomorúsága: –
hiába kerékpároznak, hiába járnak csattos csizmában és veszik a
legdivatosabb ruhákat Theodor boltjából, hiába szedték magukra
minden külső és felszínes fejlődését ennek a virágzó helynek: a
jellemük változatlan maradt. És változatlan az egész nyomorúságuk
is.
Holmengraa úgy tett, mintha nagyon csodálkoznék, de azért
ostoba lett volna, ha az eredmény nem elégíti ki. Pedig Holmengraa
úr nem volt ostoba, ezt az ellenségei se foghatták volna rá. De
bizonyos, hogy teljesen kijött a sodrából.
Bocsássa meg, hogy kénytelen-kelletlen tanujává lettem ennek a
jelenetnek, mondja neki Willatz.
Most Aslak megvonaglik, felül, a fejéhez kap, föltápászkodik,
megkeresi a sapkáját és elindul. Néhány lépést tesz, visszafordul,
még egyszer végignéz a két úron és azzal szépen tovább baktat
lefelé az úton. Odalent utóléri Konradot. Most bizonyára a
kikötőmesterhez mennek és fölveszik a bérüket.
Bizony, így van ez, mormogja Holmengraa úr maga elé. Mit is
akartam mondani… mondja aztán. Éveken át parancsolgattam nekik
és ők dacoltak velem. Bertel, hol vannak? A munkahelyükre
mentek?
Igen, úgy látszik.
Félnek a korbácstól, mondja az ifjú Willatz és összeráncolja a
homlokát.
Holmengraa úr a fejét csóválja, a tengerész, aki a lelkében él,
bizonyára örül most magában. De a malomtulajdonos kénytelen
tovább látni az orránál: hiszen három nap mulva mgismétlődhetik az
egész história! Aslak nem halt meg és a szelleme se veszett ki a
munkásokból!
Mennek lefelé az úton és az ifjú Willatz azt mondja:
Bocsásson meg, hisz a dolog tulajdonképen nem tartozik énrám.
De ez az ember többször is emlegette, hogy szeretne velem
közelebbről megismerkedni, hát én a magam felelősségére
odamentem hozzá, hogy kivánsága szerint bemutatkozzam neki.
Igen, persze! mondja rá Holmengraa úr.
Vajjon gyáva volt-e, vagy ravasz? Nem mert-e odaállni a saját
legjobb támasza mellé, vagy pedig nem is akart? Nem tesz az jót
egy mesebeli királynak, ha túlságosan világos vonalakban
mutatkozik meg, a legjobb, ha körülveszi magát a monda
homályával. Csak az volt feltünő, hogy Holmengraa úr hirtelen
tüntetni és dicsekedni kezdett.
Ezek azt hiszik, hogy nem vagyok már elég gazdag, azért nem
respektálnak eléggé. Néhányszor megszorítottam már az üzemet és
a lisztárakat fölemeltem, egyszer-kétszer, ezt aztán rossz jelnek
vették. Pedig hát, mondja, és ebben a pillanatban fiatalon és
energikusan áll ott, én tehetem, hogy itt akár az életem végéig
veszteségeket szenvedjek. Persze nem mondhatom meg magának,
hogy miért. De azért mégis tehetem.
Most már ismét király volt! Igen, ez volt Holmengraa, világos
fénycsíkot vágott a sötétben, úgy tudott feltűnni a monda
éjszakájából, aztán ismét alábukni és egy nagyszerű pálya aranyos
ívét hagyni maga után!
Most háború van a keleten, mondta. És Japán csengő arannyal
méri fel a hajók rakományát.
Willatz Holmengraa úrra nézett. Vajjon józanul beszél ez az
ember? És csak úgy, udvariasságból, megkérdezte:
Hát ön Japánnal is összeköttetésben áll?
Az én kezem hosszú, felelte Holmengraa úr és mosolygott.
Annak idején Kubával is volt dolgom, Puerto-Ricoval, a Filippinákkal,
az Antillákkal, Jamaikával.
Ez már a monda világa. És ez már Holmengraa úr, a király.
Hozzá is tette mindjárt:
De ezt persze nem mondhatom el az embereimnek, azért hiszik
ők, hogy lekicsinyelhetnek! De egy szó mint száz, már régóta
forgatok egy tervet a fejemben és arról szerettem volna beszélni
önnel, de most, ezután a jelenet után nem szívesen terhelném vele.
Pedig éppen ellenkezőleg, most még jobban érdekel…
Ez a terv még a maga apja ura idejéből származik, de egész a
haláláig nem volt rá érkezésem, hogy megbeszéljem vele.
Maguknak hatalmas területeik vannak még, fensíkok és zöld legelők.
Ezeket bérbeadhatná vagy eladhatná nekem.
Hiszen nincs is vad odafönn, felelte Willatz.
Nem, vad az nincsen és éppen ezért a maga számára nincs is
haszna a földnek. Én azonban jószágot legeltetnék ottan, hatalmas
ökörcsordákat.
Willatz a fejével intett. Igaz, az öreg Coldevinéknek bizonyára
van néhány száz ökrük.
Én valamivel többet szereznék be. Kicsinyben kezdeném el,
mondjuk egyezerrel csupán, de aztán megszaporítanám a
számukat. Esetleg kétezerrel is kezdeném, de mindenesetre
egészen kis arányokban, hiszen Mexikóban milyen más
ökörcsordákat láttam én! Amint maga mondja, a hegyek közt
nincsen vad, se farkas, se medve, az állatok tehát pásztor nélkül is
ellegelnének. Víz van a közelben, védőtető is akad a hegyek közt. A
hely nagyon megfelelő. Kérem, gondolkozzék a dolgon, és aztán
közölje velem az elhatározását.
Jó, majd gondolkozom róla.
És a két úr elbúcsúzott egymástól. Willatz hazafelé indult. Most
végigláthatott az egész birtokon, nyugat felé a sziklás ormokon és a
szántóföldeken, amint legyűrűztek a víz partjáig. Valamikor, a régi
nagy időkben az ő hazája volt ez a Segelfoss…
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(eBook PDF) Introduction to Research

in Education 9th Edition

(eBook PDF) How to Design and Evaluate Research in

(eBook PDF) Action Research in Education: A Practical

(eBook PDF) Introduction to Qualitative Research

Special Education in Contemporary Society: An

(eBook PDF) Introduction to Music Education 4th Edition

(eBook PDF) Human Diversity in Education 9th Edition

Progress in Heterocyclic Chemistry Volume 29 1st

How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education, 11th

Part One Summary 21

Language of Research 39 Chapter 4

References 89 Scales of Measurement 113

Types of Hypotheses 100 The Normal Curve 136

Steps in Sampling 162 The Two-Variable Chi Square

Bipolar Adjective Scales 229 Reliability Coefficients 259

Summary 237 Validity and Reliability Compared 275

Research in the Public Eye 275

Random Assignment 306 Design 7: Solomon Four-Group

Alternative Explanations Determining Sample Size 384

Directly Administered Explanation 447

Distinguishing Qualitative Inquiry Historical Studies 496

Narrative Research 498 Consistent Findings 537

Analyzing Qualitative Data 513 Defining Action Research 548

Rigor in Qualitative Research 531 Data Collection for

Coding 567 Strengths and Weaknesses

Data Interpretation Summary 603

Research Procedure 620 Introduction 642

This edition of Introduction to Research in N e w a n d U p d at e d

C o m p a n i o n We b S i t e Joseph Ciechalski, East Carolina University

careful and systematic investigations.

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