ISOLATED AND COMBINED FOOTING

What is a Footing?
The bottom part of a foundation is
called the footing. Footings in
construction are critical, as the
footing distributes the weight of the
building evenly across the entire
structure so that it doesn't sink into
the ground.
What is the purpose of a footing?
Footings are an important part of
foundation construction. They are
typically made of concrete with rebar
reinforcement that has been poured into an
excavated trench. The purpose of footings
is to support the foundation and prevent
settling.
What is the difference between a footing and a foundation?

The footing is what's actually in contact with

the ground, while the foundation is the
structure that transfers the load to the earth.
 ISOLATED FOOTING
For shallow foundations, isolated
footings—also called pad or spread
footings—are frequently utilized to support
and distribute concentrated loads, such as
those produced by columns or pillars.

Isolated Footing
What is an isolation foundation?
A common vibration isolation technique in
the building, power generating, and
industrial sectors is the use of isolated
foundations. Depending on the use,
machinery or equipment is attached to the
system's concrete inertia block either tightly
or gently.
What are the types of isolated footings?

There are three types of isolated footing:

● Isolated spread footing

● Isolated sloped footing
● Isolated stepped footing
Isolated Spread Footing
It is constructed independently under each column
and is typically square, rectangular, or circular in
shape. This type of footing has a uniform thickness.
Isolated spread footing reduces bending moments
and shearing forces at critical sections. Concrete is
added with or without reinforcement, i.e., RCC or
PCC respectively to increase its ultimate Isolated Spread Footing
load-bearing capacity. Isolated spread flooring is
also known as isolated flat, pad footings, etc.
Isolated Sloped Footing
It is also called isolated trapezoidal footing. It is
designed with ultimate attention to maintain an
angle of 45 degrees from all sides. As compared
to PCC and RCC footing, the requirement of
concrete and steel is lesser, and hence this type
of footing is rather a cost-effective option.
Isolated Sloped Footing
Isolated Stepped Footing
In the early days of civil engineering, this type of
footing was very popular. But with the
advancement of technology, the application of
stepped footing has declined. This is primarily
because of economic concerns. Isolated stepped
footing is commonly used in residential projects.
Isolated Stepped Footing
Usually 3 concrete cross-sections are stacked
upon each other to give it the shape of a step.
What is the difference between isolated and combined footing?
Isolated footing is another common type of
footing. It is used to support individual columns
or isolated loads. Isolated footing is often used in
conjunction with continuous wall footing to
provide additional support. Combined footing is
used when two or more columns are close
together and need to be supported. It is on a
single spread footing.
Different Shapes of Isolated Footings
There are mainly 3 shapes which are very common.
They are pictured below:

● Square
● Rectangular
● Circular
Design of Isolated Footing Design Requirements of Isolated
Footing:
The objective behind designing isolated footing
is ○ Safe bearing capacity of soil
underneath
○ To find out the dimensions of footing
○ Grade of concrete, for e.g., M20,
including length, width, and thickness
M30, etc.
○ Calculation of reinforcement required
○ Grade of steel, for e.g., Fe415,
in terms of area of steel (Ast)
Fe500, etc.
○ Calculation of development length
○ Column load
○ Calculation of bearing stresses
○ Column size
Design Steps as per IS Code
As per IS 456:2000, the following are the steps involved in designing an isolated
footing:

● Area of footing is calculated based on the factored column load

● Net soil pressure is then calculated, and net factored soil pressure is found.
● The effective depth of footing is calculated
● Critical sections for bending moment and shear forces are found.
● One-way and two-way shear checks are done
● Calculation of bending moment is done
● Area of steel, both main and distribution, is calculated
● Development length and bearing stress check is applied.
Reinforcement Detailing of Isolated Footing
The detailing of reinforcement used to strengthen the isolated footing comprises of
following parameters:

● Reinforcement bars
● Distribution of reinforcement
● Concrete covers as per specifications
● Dowel action
● Lap splices
1. Diameter of Reinforcement Bars
The minimum diameter of reinforcement to be used should be
more than 10 mm. The total reinforcement should not be less than
0.12 % of the total cross-sectional area of the footing in the case of
HYSD (High Yield Strength Deformed) bars and 0.15 % in the
case of mild steel
2. Distribution of Reinforcement
The reinforcement in one-way RCC footing is distributed uniformly across the entire width of the
footing. The reinforcement extending in both directions is distributed uniformly across the entire
width of the footing in two-way square footings. However, reinforcement in two-way rectangular
footings is distributed across the entire width of the footing in a long direction. Reinforcement in the
short direction is distributed in the central band according to the calculations below.

Reinforcement in central band Total reinforcement in short direction =2(𝑦𝑥)+1

where, “y” is the long side of the footing and “x” is the shorter side.
3. Concrete Covers
According to IS 456:2000, the concrete cover to isolated footing is provided as follows:

○ More than 50 mm if the footing is in direct contact with the earth's surface
○ 40 mm in case of PCC levelled surface
○ 75 mm in case of the uneven surface of excavation.

You can learn in detail about Portland Cement

4. Dowel Bars
Dowel bars are used to transfer loads coming from the
columns to footings and finally to the soil stratum. When
concrete alone is not strong enough to withstand the loads,
dowel bars come into the picture. The dowel bars should
extend into the column to a length equal to the development
length required.
5. Lap Splices
Splice length of dowel and column reinforcement
shall be clearly shown. Anchorage of both flexural
and dowel reinforcement lengths shall be checked
to prevent bond failure of the dowels in the footing
and to prevent failure of the lap splices between the
dowels and the column bars.
How are isolated foundations classified?
There are various types of isolated footings such as spread footing, stepped footing, sloped
footing etc. They are usually square, rectangular or circular in shape. Each type of footing
is selected based on the soil condition and configuration of imposed loads.
Why use isolated footing?

An isolated footing is one of the most used types of

foundation to support single-columns when they are
arranged at a long distance. An isolated footing must
be designed to avoid exceeding its bearing capacity
and provide safety against overturning or sliding
while preventing the ground from settling.
What is the depth of isolated footing?
What is the depth and thickness required for isolated footing? The depth for an
isolated footing can be a minimum of 500 mm, while the thickness at the edge can
be more than 150 mm.
Advantages Disadvantages

Affordable Needs a firm ground

Easy to construct Bulky

Requires less labour Susceptible to uneven settling

Requires no expertise Not suitable for heavy structures

What are the advantages of isolated foundations?
Overall, isolated pad foundations offer cost-saving benefits and improved load
carrying capacity, but careful mesh selection and prevention of excessive
deformation are important considerations.

What is the factor of safety in footing design?

The factor of safety for shallow foundation against overturning shall be not less than 1.5
when a dead load, live load, and earth pressures are considered together with wind load
or seismic forces.
What material is used in isolated footing?
Isolated footings are commonly used in building construction and can be made from
various materials, including concrete or steel. This illustrative article will inculcate all
aspects of isolated footing, including its types, shapes, uses, and reinforcement details.
Combined Footing

Combined footing is a construction method

utilized when building a structure with
multiple columns and overlapping bases. It
involves the use of a foundation or footing to
transmit the building's weight to the earth
beneath
Combined Footing
What are the different types of combined footings?
The combined footing's plan shape might be trapezoidal, rectangular, or tee-shaped.

What are the design considerations for combined footings?

In the design of combined footings, the centre of gravity of the two-column loads should,
as practically as possible, coincide with the centre of area of the base. The base should
preferably be rectangular in plan and symmetrically disposed about the line of loads.
What is the purpose of combined footing?
Combined footing is used while construction of two or more columns when they are close
to each other and their foundations overlap. The main purpose of using combined footing
is to distribute uniform pressure under the footing.
What is the main reinforcement in
the combined footing?

The main reinforcements lie at the bottom of the

mesh and control the flexural behavior of the
section. In the floor slab, the main reinforcement
is laid parallel to the shorter span. However, the
main reinforcement in a footing slab is layered
parallel to the longer span.
Why top reinforcement is provided in combined footing?
Solution: Top reinforcement is required when the bending moment calculated for loaded
footing is negative. It results in tension in the top footing layer for verified load
combinations. While moment calculation, the footing part beyond the pier is regarded as
cantilever.
Types of Combined Footing
There are different types of combined footing.
They are:

Rectangular Combined Footing

Rectangular combined footing is designed
when two columns carry equal loads.
Trapezoidal Combined Footing
Combined footing for two columns becomes
essential when the heavily loaded column is
near the property line or when there is some
restriction on the total length of the footing, or
when one column carries a heavy load
compared to others.
Strap Combined Footing
This footing is useful when the external column is very near to the property line. A strap
footing is a combination of spread footings of two columns connected by a strap beam.

Beam connecting two spread footings does not transfer any load to the soil. The function
of the strap beam is to transfer a load of the heavily loaded column to the inner column.
Raft Combined Footing
Raft footing is a type of combined footing
that covers the entire area beneath the
structures and supports all the walls and
columns.
Combined Footing: When to Use
Following are the scenarios where an isolated footing fails to serve the purpose and
combined footing comes into play:

○ When two columns are very close enough to each other such that their footing
overlaps.
○ When the load-bearing capacity of the soil is low, the requirement for more area
under the individual footing.
○ When the column is close to the property line, footing cannot be spread in that
direction and the centre of gravity of the column will not coincide with the centre of
gravity of the footing.
Combined Footing: Considerations to Make
Area of the Footing
The footing's area is determined by soil's bearing capacity and column's axial load, with increased area
potentially decreasing pressure. Careful selection is crucial, especially in low bearing soil.

Ground Improvements
Improved soil for bearing capacity is crucial in geotechnical inquiry, especially for low-rise constructions.
Structural engineer supervision is essential to prevent incorrectly improved weak ground failure.

Consolidation Settlement
Identifying soil type early in project design is crucial for foundation settlement prevention. Various
foundation types, combined and isolated, should be considered to avoid persistent issues.
Application of Combined Footing
The main purpose of combined footing is to distribute uniform pressure under the footing,
ensuring the center of gravity is equal to the two columns' center of gravity. If outside
columns carry heavier loads, trapezoidal footing is necessary to maintain the center of
gravity, while rectangular footings can be used. Additional points should be considered
when providing combined footings.
○ This type of footing is considered as an inverted floor, where the footing load is
carried by the columns and loaded from underneath by uniform earth reaction.
○ The area enclosed by combined footing should be equivalent to or more than that
acquired by dividing the total combined load into the columns by the safe bearing
capacity of the soil.
○ The shape of the combined footings should be selected in such a manner that it
concurs the centre of gravity with the centre of gravity of soil reaction.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Combined Footing
Some of its main advantages and disadvantages are as follows.

Advantages of Combined Footing

○ Combined footing can be used in case 2 or more columns are constructed in a small
space.
○ It helps maintain the column’s centre of gravity.
○ We can use combined footing in the difficult construction sides.
○ We can use combined footing to equally distribute the load from the super-structure to
the sub-soil.
○ We can construct combined footing where the soil’s load-bearing capacity is low.
Disadvantages of Combined Footing
○ Sometimes the ground-water level rises, which causes the loss of contact of soil with
the foundation.
○ The issue may arise due to the heat difference in case the foundation raft thickness is
high.
○ Since a common footing is used for many columns, the footing area is reduced.
○ It is hard to maintain the columns’ centre of gravity in combined footing.
Different Types of Shallow Foundations in Combined Footing
Shallow foundations are constructed where a soil layer at a shallow depth (up to 1.5m) is
able to support the structural loads. The depth of shallow foundations is generally less than
its width.

The different types of shallow foundations are:

● Strip footing
● Spread or Isolated footing
● Combined footing
● Mat or Raft footing