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Grob’s Basic
Electronics
Grob’s Basic
Electronics
12th Edition

Mitchel E. Schultz
Western Technical College
GROB’S BASIC ELECTRONICS, TWELFTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-
Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2011, 2007,
and 2003. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Schultz, Mitchel E.
Grob’s basic electronics / Mitchel E. Schultz, Western Technical College.
-- 12th edition.
pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-07-337387-4 (alk. paper)
1. Electronics--Textbooks. I. Grob, Bernard. Basic electronics. II.
Title. III. Title: Basic electronics.
TK7816.G75 2016
621.381--dc23
2014042490

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does
not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com
Dedication
This textbook is dedicated to all of my students, both past and present.
 Brief Contents
I Introduction to Powers of 10 2
Chapter 1 Electricity 22
Chapter 2 Resistors 54
Chapter 3 Ohm’s Law 76
Chapter 4 Series Circuits 108
Chapter 5 Parallel Circuits 142
Chapter 6 Series-Parallel Circuits 174
Chapter 7 Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers 208
Chapter 8 Analog and Digital Multimeters 232
Chapter 9 Kirchhoff ’s Laws 264
Chapter 10 Network Theorems 288
Chapter 11 Conductors and Insulators 320
Chapter 12 Batteries 350
Chapter 13 Magnetism 386
Chapter 14 Electromagnetism 406
Chapter 15 Alternating Voltage and Current 440
Chapter 16 Capacitance 484
Chapter 17 Capacitive Reactance 524
Chapter 18 Capacitive Circuits 546
Chapter 19 Inductance 572
Chapter 20 Inductive Reactance 618
Chapter 21 Inductive Circuits 640
Chapter 22 RC and L/R Time Constants 668
Chapter 23 Alternating Current Circuits 702
Chapter 24 Complex Numbers for AC Circuits 732
Chapter 25 Resonance 762
Chapter 26 Filters 798
Chapter 27 Diodes and Diode Applications 842

vii
 Chapter 28 Bipolar Junction Transistors 890
Chapter 29 Transistor Amplifiers 924
Chapter 30 Field Effect Transistors 966
Chapter 31 Power Amplifiers 1006
Chapter 32 Thyristors 1038
Chapter 33 Operational Amplifiers 1056
Appendix A Electrical Symbols and Abbreviations 1108
Appendix B Solder and the Soldering Process 1111
Appendix C Listing of Preferred Resistance Values 1118
Appendix D Component Schematic Symbols 1119
Appendix E Using the Oscilloscope 1125
Appendix F Introduction to Multisim 1140
Glossary 1182
Answers Self-Tests 1191
Answers Odd-Numbered Problems and Critical Thinking Problems 1197
Photo Credits 1219
Index 1220

viii Brief Contents

 Contents
Preface xviii

I Introduction to Powers of 10 2
I–1 Scientific Notation 4 I–6 Reciprocals with Powers
I–2 Engineering Notation and of 10 13
Metric Prefixes 6 I–7 Squaring Numbers Expressed
I–3 Converting between Metric in Powers of 10 Notation 14
Prefixes 10 I–8 Square Roots of Numbers
I–4 Addition and Subtraction Expressed in Powers of
Involving Powers of 10 Notation 14
10 Notation 11 I–9 The Scientific Calculator 15
I–5 Multiplication and Division Summary 17
Involving Powers of
10 Notation 12

Chapter 1 Electricity 22
1–1 Negative and Positive 1–7 Resistance Is Opposition to
Polarities 24 Current 38
1–2 Electrons and Protons in the 1–8 The Closed Circuit 40
Atom 24 1–9 The Direction of Current 42
1–3 Structure of the Atom 27 1–10 Direct Current (DC) and
1–4 The Coulomb Alternating Current (AC) 45
Unit of Electric Charge 30 1–11 Sources of Electricity 46
1–5 The Volt Unit of Potential 1–12 The Digital Multimeter 47
Difference 33
Summary 49
1–6 Charge in Motion Is
Current 35

Chapter 2 Resistors 54
2–1 Types of Resistors 56 2–5 Power Rating of
2–2 Resistor Color Coding 59 Resistors 66
2–3 Variable Resistors 63 2–6 Resistor Troubles 68
2–4 Rheostats and Summary 70
Potentiometers 64

Chapter 3 Ohm’s Law 76

3–1 The Current I 5 V/R 78 3–5 Multiple and Submultiple
3–2 The Voltage V 5 IR 80 Units 82
3–3 The Resistance R 5 V/I 81 3–6 The Linear Proportion
between V and I 84
3–4 Practical Units 82

ix
 3–7 Electric Power 86 3–11 Electric Shock 95
3–8 Power Dissipation in 3–12 Open-Circuit and Short-
Resistance 90 Circuit Troubles 96
3–9 Power Formulas 91 Summary 99
3–10 Choosing a Resistor for a
Circuit 93

Chapter 4 Series Circuits 108

4–1 Why I Is the Same in All Parts 4–7 Series-Aiding and
of a Series Circuit 110 Series-Opposing
4–2 Total R Equals the Sum Voltages 119
of All Series 4–8 Analyzing Series Circuits
Resistances 112 with Random
4–3 Series IR Voltage Unknowns 120
Drops 114 4–9 Ground Connections in
4–4 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law Electrical and Electronic
(KVL) 115 Systems 122
4–5 Polarity of IR Voltage 4–10 Troubleshooting: Opens and
Drops 117 Shorts in Series
Circuits 124
4–6 Total Power in a Series
Circuit 118 Summary 131

Chapter 5 Parallel Circuits 142

5–1 The Applied Voltage VA Is the 5–6 Total Power in Parallel
Same across Parallel Circuits 155
Branches 144 5–7 Analyzing Parallel Circuits
5–2 Each Branch I Equals with Random
VA /R 145 Unknowns 156
5–3 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law 5–8 Troubleshooting: Opens and
(KCL) 146 Shorts in Parallel
5–4 Resistances in Parallel 148 Circuits 156
5–5 Conductances in Summary 165
Parallel 154

Chapter 6 Series-Parallel Circuits 174

6–1 Finding R T for Series-Parallel 6–5 Analyzing Series-Parallel
Resistances 176 Circuits with Random
6–2 Resistance Strings in Unknowns 181
Parallel 177 6–6 The Wheatstone Bridge 184
6–3 Resistance Banks in 6–7 Troubleshooting: Opens and
Series 179 Shorts in Series-Parallel
6–4 Resistance Banks and Strings Circuits 188
in Series-Parallel 180 Summary 194

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 1 to 6 206

x Contents
 Chapter 7 Voltage Dividers and Current
Dividers 208
7–1 Series Voltage Dividers 210 7–4 Series Voltage Divider
7–2 Current Divider with Two with Parallel Load
Parallel Resistances 214 Current 217
7–3 Current Division by Parallel 7–5 Design of a Loaded Voltage
Conductances 216 Divider 219
Summary 221

Chapter 8 Analog and Digital Multimeters 232

8–1 Moving-Coil Meter 234 8–7 Digital Multimeter
8–2 Meter Shunts 236 (DMM) 249
8–3 Voltmeters 239 8–8 Meter Applications 251
8–4 Loading Effect of a 8–9 Checking Continuity with
Voltmeter 242 the Ohmmeter 253
8–5 Ohmmeters 244 Summary 255
8–6 Multimeters 247

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 7 to 8 263

Chapter 9 Kirchhoff ’s Laws 264

9–1 Kirchhoff ’s Current Law 9–4 Node-Voltage Analysis 275
(KCL) 266 9–5 Method of Mesh
9–2 Kirchhoff ’s Voltage Law Currents 277
(KVL) 268 Summary 281
9–3 Method of Branch
Currents 271

Chapter 10 Network Theorems 288

10–1 Superposition Theorem 290 10–6 Thevenin-Norton
10–2 Thevenin’s Theorem 291 Conversions 300
10–3 Thevenizing a Circuit with Two 10–7 Conversion of Voltage and
Voltage Sources 294 Current Sources 302
10–4 Thevenizing a Bridge 10–8 Millman’s Theorem 304
Circuit 295 10–9 T or Y and p or D
10–5 Norton’s Theorem 297 Connections 306
Summary 311

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 9 to 10 319

Chapter 11 Conductors and Insulators 320

11–1 Function of the 11–4 Connectors 327
Conductor 322 11–5 Printed Circuit Board 328
11–2 Standard Wire Gage 11–6 Switches 329
Sizes 323
11–7 Fuses 331
11–3 Types of Wire
Conductors 325 11–8 Wire Resistance 333

Contents xi
 11–9 Temperature Coefficient
of Resistance 336
11–10 Ion Current in Liquids and
Gases 338
11–11 Insulators 340
Chapter 12 Batteries 350
12–1 Introduction to
Batteries 352
12–2 The Voltaic Cell 354
12–3 Common Types of Primary
Cells 356
12–4 Lead-Acid Wet Cell 360
12–5 Additional Types
of Secondary Cells 363
12–6 Series-Connected and
Parallel-Connected Cells 366
Cumulative Review Summary
Chapter 13 Magnetism 386
13–1 The Magnetic Field 388
13–2 Magnetic Flux (␾) 390
13–3 Flux Density (B ) 392
13–4 Induction by the Magnetic
Field 394
13–5 Air Gap of a Magnet 396
Chapter 14 Electromagnetism 406
14–1 Ampere-Turns of
Magnetomotive Force
(mmf ) 408
14–2 Field Intensity (H ) 409
14–3 B-H Magnetization
Curve 412
14–4 Magnetic Hysteresis 414
14–5 Magnetic Field around an
Electric Current 416
Chapter 15 Alternating Voltage and Current 440
15–1 Alternating Current
Applications 442
15–2 Alternating-Voltage
Generator 443
15–3 The Sine Wave 446
15–4 Alternating Current 447
15–5 Voltage and Current Values
for a Sine Wave 448
15–6 Frequency 451
xii
11–12 Troubleshooting Hints for
Wires and Connectors 342
Summary 345
12–7 Current Drain Depends
on Load Resistance 368
12–8 Internal Resistance
of a Generator 369
12–9 Constant-Voltage and
Constant-Current
Sources 372
12–10 Matching a Load Resistance
to the Generator ri 374
Summary 378
Chapters 11 to 12 383
13–6 Types of Magnets 397
13–7 Ferrites 398
13–8 Magnetic Shielding 399
13–9 The Hall Effect 399
Summary 401
14–6 Magnetic Polarity of a
Coil 418
14–7 Motor Action between Two
Magnetic Fields 419
14–8 Induced Current 421
14–9 Generating an Induced
Voltage 423
14–10 Relays 427
Summary 433
15–7 Period 453
15–8 Wavelength 454
15–9 Phase Angle 457
15–10 The Time Factor in Frequency
and Phase 460
15–11 Alternating Current Circuits
with Resistance 461
15–12 Nonsinusoidal AC
Waveforms 463
Contents
 15–13 Harmonic Frequencies 465 15–16 Three–Phase AC Power 470
15–14 The 60-Hz AC Power Summary 474
Line 465
15–15 Motors and Generators 468

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 13 to 15 482

Chapter 16 Capacitance 484

16–1 How Charge Is Stored 16–7 Parallel Capacitances 505
in a Dielectric 486 16–8 Series Capacitances 505
16–2 Charging and Discharging 16–9 Energy Stored in Electrostatic
a Capacitor 487 Field of Capacitance 507
16–3 The Farad Unit of 16–10 Measuring and Testing
Capacitance 489 Capacitors 508
16–4 Typical Capacitors 493 16–11 Troubles in Capacitors 511
16–5 Electrolytic Capacitors 498 Summary 515
16–6 Capacitor Coding 500

Chapter 17 Capacitive Reactance 524

17–1 Alternating Current 17–5 Applications of Capacitive
in a Capacitive Circuit 526 Reactance 532
17–2 The Amount of XC Equals 17–6 Sine-Wave Charge
1/(2␲fC ) 527 and Discharge Current 533
17–3 Series or Parallel Capacitive Summary 538
Reactances 531
17–4 Ohm’s Law Applied to XC 532

Chapter 18 Capacitive Circuits 546

18–1 Sine Wave vC Lags iC by 18–6 RF and AF Coupling
908 548 Capacitors 558
18–2 X C and R in Series 549 18–7 Capacitive Voltage
18–3 Impedance Z Triangle 551 Dividers 559
18-4 RC Phase-Shifter 18–8 The General Case of
Circuit 553 Capacitive Current iC 561
18–5 XC and R in Parallel 554 Summary 562

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 16 to 18 570

Chapter 19 Inductance 572

19–1 Induction by Alternating 19–7 Transformer Ratings 589
Current 574 19–8 Impedance
19–2 Self-Inductance L 575 Transformation 592
19–3 Self-Induced Voltage vL 578 19–9 Core Losses 596
19–4 How vL Opposes a Change 19–10 Types of Cores 597
in Current 579 19–11 Variable Inductance 598
19–5 Mutual Inductance L M 580 19–12 Inductances in Series or
19–6 Transformers 583 Parallel 599

Contents xiii
 19–13 Energy in a Magnetic Field 19–15 Measuring and Testing
of Inductance 601 Inductors 604
19–14 Stray Capacitive Summary 609
and Inductive Effects 602

Chapter 20 Inductive Reactance 618

20–1 How XL Reduces the Amount 20–5 Applications of XL for Different
of I 620 Frequencies 626
20–2 XL 5 2␲f L 621 20–6 Waveshape of vL Induced
20–3 Series or Parallel Inductive by Sine-Wave Current 627
Reactances 625 Summary 632
20–4 Ohm’s Law Applied to X L 625

Chapter 21 Inductive Circuits 640

21–1 Sine Wave iL Lags vL by 21–5 Q of a Coil 651
908 642 21–6 AF and RF Chokes 654
21–2 XL and R in Series 643 21–7 The General Case
21–3 Impedance Z Triangle 645 of Inductive Voltage 656
21–4 XL and R in Parallel 648 Summary 658

Chapter 22 RC and L/R Time Constants 668

22–1 Response of Resistance 22–8 Long and Short Time
Alone 670 Constants 681
22–2 L/R Time Constant 670 22–9 Charge and Discharge
22–3 High Voltage Produced by with a Short RC Time
Opening an RL Circuit 672 Constant 682
22–4 RC Time Constant 674 22–10 Long Time Constant for an RC
Coupling Circuit 683
22–5 RC Charge and Discharge
Curves 677 22–11 Advanced Time Constant
Analysis 685
22–6 High Current Produced by
Short-Circuiting an RC 22–12 Comparison of Reactance and
Circuit 678 Time Constant 688
22–7 RC Waveshapes 679 Summary 691

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 19 to 22 700

Chapter 23 Alternating Current Circuits 702

23–1 AC Circuits with Resistance 23–7 Series-Parallel Reactance
but No Reactance 704 and Resistance 713
23–2 Circuits with XL Alone 705 23–8 Real Power 714
23–3 Circuits with XC Alone 706 23–9 AC Meters 716
23–4 Opposite Reactances 23–10 Wattmeters 717
Cancel 707 23–11 Summary of Types of Ohms
23–5 Series Reactance and in AC Circuits 717
Resistance 709 23–12 Summary of Types of Phasors
23–6 Parallel Reactance and in AC Circuits 718
Resistance 711 Summary 723

xiv Contents
 Chapter 24 Complex Numbers for AC
Circuits 732
24–1 Positive and Negative 24–9 Converting Polar to
Numbers 734 Rectangular Form 743
24–2 The j Operator 734 24–10 Complex Numbers in Series
24–3 Definition of a Complex AC Circuits 745
Number 736 24–11 Complex Numbers in Parallel
24–4 How Complex Numbers Are AC Circuits 747
Applied to AC Circuits 736 24–12 Combining Two Complex
24–5 Impedance in Complex Branch Impedances 749
Form 737 24–13 Combining Complex
24–6 Operations with Complex Branch Currents 750
Numbers 739 24–14 Parallel Circuit with Three
24–7 Magnitude and Angle of a Complex Branches 751
Complex Number 740 Summary 753
24–8 Polar Form of Complex
Numbers 742

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 23 to 24 760

Chapter 25 Resonance 762

25–1 The Resonance Effect 764 25–7 Tuning 783
25–2 Series Resonance 764 25–8 Mistuning 785
25–3 Parallel Resonance 768 25–9 Analysis of Parallel
25–4 Resonant Frequency Resonant Circuits 786
___
fr 5 1y(2␲ ÏLC ) 771 25–10 Damping of Parallel
Resonant Circuits 787
25–5 Q Magnification Factor
of a Resonant Circuit 775 25–11 Choosing L and C for a
Resonant Circuit 789
25–6 Bandwidth of a Resonant
Circuit 779 Summary 790

Chapter 26 Filters 798

26–1 Examples of Filtering 800
26–2 Direct Current Combined
with Alternating Current 800
26–3 Transformer Coupling 803
26–4 Capacitive Coupling 804
26–5 Bypass Capacitors 807
26–6 Filter Circuits 809
26–7 Low-Pass Filters 810
26–8 High-Pass Filters 811
26–9 Analyzing Filter Circuits 812
26–10 Decibels and Frequency
Response Curves 821
26–11 Resonant Filters 828
26–12 Interference Filters 830
Summary 832

Cumulative Review Summary Chapters 25 to 26 840

Chapter 27 Diodes and Diode Applications 842

27–1 Semiconductor 27–3 Volt-Ampere Characteristic
Materials 844 Curve 849
27–2 The p -n Junction Diode 846 27–4 Diode Approximations 852

Contents xv
 27–5 Diode Ratings 855 27–7 Special Diodes 874
27–6 Rectifier Circuits 856 Summary 882

Chapter 28 Bipolar Junction Transistors 890

28–1 Transistor 28–4 Transistor Ratings 900
Construction 892 28–5 Checking a Transistor
28–2 Proper Transistor with an Ohmmeter 903
Biasing 894 28–6 Transistor Biasing
28–3 Transistor Operating Techniques 905
Regions 898 Summary 917

Chapter 29 Transistor Amplifiers 924

29–1 AC Resistance of a 29–6 Common-Collector
Diode 926 Amplifier 939
29–2 Small Signal Amplifier 29–7 AC Analysis of an Emitter
Operation 928 Follower 941
29–3 AC Equivalent Circuit of 29-8 Emitter Follower
a CE Amplifier 932 Applications 946
29–4 Calculating the Voltage Gain, 29-9 Common-Base Amplifier 949
A V, of a CE Amplifier 932 29-10 AC Analysis of a Common-
29–5 Calculating the Input and Base Amplifier 950
Output Impedances in a CE Summary 956
Amplifier 937

Chapter 30 Field Effect Transistors 966

30–1 JFETs and Their 30–5 MOSFET Biasing
Characteristics 968 Techniques 993
30–2 JFET Biasing 30–6 Handling MOSFETs 995
Techniques 973 Summary 997
30–3 JFET Amplifiers 979
30–4 MOSFETs and Their
Characteristics 987

Chapter 31 Power Amplifiers 1006

31–1 Classes of Operation 1008 31–4 Class C Amplifiers 1025
31–2 Class A Amplifiers 1009 Summary 1031
31–3 Class B Push-Pull
Amplifiers 1018

Chapter 32 Thyristors 1038

32–1 Diacs 1040 32–4 Unijunction
32–2 SCRs and Their Transistors 1047
Characteristics 1040 Summary 1051
32–3 Triacs 1045

xvi Contents
 Chapter 33 Operational Amplifiers 1056
33–1 Differential Amplifiers 1058 33–4 Popular Op-Amp
33–2 Operational Amplifiers and Circuits 1082
Their Characteristics 1065 Summary 1098
33–3 Op-Amp Circuits with
Negative Feedback 1072

Appendix A Electrical Symbols and Abbreviations 1108

Appendix B Solder and the Soldering Process 1111
Appendix C Listing of Preferred Resistance Values 1118
Appendix D Component Schematic Symbols 1119
Appendix E Using the Oscilloscope 1125
Appendix F Introduction to Multisim 1140
Glossary 1182
Answers Self-Tests 1191
Answers Odd-Numbered Problems and Critical Thinking Problems 1197
Photo Credits 1219
Index 1220

Contents xvii
 Preface
The twelfth edition of Grob’s Basic Electronics provides students and instruc-
tors with complete and comprehensive coverage of the fundamentals of electricity
and electronics. The book is written for beginning students who have little or no
experience and/or knowledge about the field of electronics. A basic understanding
of algebra and trigonometry is helpful since several algebraic equations and right-
angle trigonometry problems appear throughout the text.
The opening material in the book, titled “Introduction to Powers of 10,”
prepares students to work with numbers expressed in scientific and engineering
notation as well as with the most common metric prefixes encountered in elec-
tronics. Students learn how to add, subtract, multiply, divide, square, and take the
square root of numbers expressed in any form of powers of 10 notation.
Chapters 1 through 12 cover the basics of atomic structure, voltage, current,
resistance, the resistor color code, Ohm’s law, power, series circuits, parallel cir-
cuits, series-parallel (combination) circuits, voltage and current dividers, analog
and digital meters, Kirchhoff’s laws, network theorems, wire resistance, switches,
insulators, primary and secondary cells, battery types, internal resistance, and
maximum transfer of power. The first 12 chapters are considered DC chapters
because the voltages and currents used in analyzing the circuits in these chapters
are strictly DC.
Chapters 13 through 26 cover the basics of magnetism, electromagnetism, re-
lays, alternating voltage and current, capacitance, capacitor types, capacitive reac-
tance, capacitive circuits, inductance, transformers, inductive reactance, inductive
circuits, RC and L/R time constants, real power, apparent power, power factor,
complex numbers, resonance, and filters. Chapters 13–26 are considered the AC
chapters since the voltages and currents used in analyzing the circuits in these
chapters are primarily AC.
Chapters 27 through 33 cover the basics of electronic devices, which include
semiconductor physics; diode characteristics; diode testing; half-wave and full-
wave rectifier circuits; the capacitor input filter; light-emitting diodes (LEDs);
zener diodes; bipolar junction transistors; transistor biasing techniques; the
common-emitter, common-collector, and common-base amplifiers; JFET and
MOSFET characteristics; JFET amplifiers; MOSFET amplifiers; class A, class B
and class C amplifiers; diacs; SCRs; triacs; UJTs; op-amp characteristics; invert-
ing amplifiers; noninverting amplifiers; and nonlinear op-amp circuits. These
seven additional chapters covering electronic devices may qualify this text for
those who want to use it for DC fundamentals, AC fundamentals, as well as
electronic devices.
Appendixes A through F serve as a resource for students seeking additional
information on topics that may or may not be covered in the main part of the
text. Appendix A lists all of the electrical quantities and their symbols. It also
includes a listing of the most popular multiple and submultiple units encountered
in electronics as well as a listing of all the Greek letter symbols and their uses.
Appendix B provides students with a comprehensive overview of solder and the
soldering process. Appendix C provides a list of preferred values for resistors. The
list of preferred values shows the multiple and submultiple values available for a
specified tolerance. Appendix D provides a complete listing of electronic compo-
nents and their respective schematic symbols. Appendix E provides students with
an introduction on how to use an oscilloscope. Both analog and digital scopes

xviii
 are covered. Appendix F provides an extensive overview on the use of Multisim,
which is an interactive circuit simulation software package that allows students
to create and test electronic circuits. Appendix F introduces students to the main
features of Multisim that directly relate to their study of DC circuits, AC circuits,
and electronic devices.

What’s New in the Twelfth Edition

of Grob’s Basic Electronics?
• The twelfth edition of Grob’s Basic Electronics continues to provide
students and instructors with a Laboratory Application Assignment at the
end of every chapter in the book! In the twelfth edition, many of the lab
application assignments have been modified and/or expanded based on
the recommendations of several reviewers. Each laboratory application
assignment is a hands-on lab exercise in which students build and test
circuits in a laboratory environment. Each lab application assignment
reinforces one or more of the main topics covered within the chapter.
The labs are short and concise yet thorough and complete. With the
inclusion of the lab application assignments, additional lab supplements
may not be necessary. Never before has an electronics book of this
magnitude provided a laboratory activity as part of the main text.
• Multisim continues to be a key component in the twelfth edition of
Grob’s Basic Electronics. All of the Multisim files for use with this
textbook have been updated to version 12.1, the latest version of
Multisim software available at the time of publication. Appendix F,
Introduction to Multisim, has also been completely updated to reflect the
latest changes in version 12.1 of the software.
• The Good to Know feature, appearing in the margins of the text, has once
again been expanded in several chapters of the book.
• In Chapter 3, Ohm’s Law, coverage of the inverse relation between I and
R has been expanded. Also, a streamlined approach for calculating energy
costs has been included.
• Chapter 7, Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers, has been expanded to
include variable voltage dividers. Also, increased emphasis has been placed
on the voltage divider rule (VDR) and the current divider rule (CDR).
• Also new to the twelfth edition is a much heavier emphasis of real-world
applications. At the end of several chapters throughout the book, new
sections including real-world applications have been added. These real-
world applications bring to life the concepts covered in a specific chapter.
In Chapter 3, Ohm’s Law, calculating the current drawn by several
different home appliances is discussed. In Chapters 4 and 5, Series
Circuits and Parallel Circuits, respectively, the wiring and characteristics
of holiday lights are thoroughly discussed. In Chapter 11, Conductors
and Insulators, the electrical wire used in residential house wiring is
explained in detail. Extension cords and speaker wire are also discussed.
In Chapter 12, Batteries, lead-acid battery ratings are covered along with
information on charging, testing, storage, and disposal. In Chapter 14,
Electromagnetism, solenoids and solenoid valves are discussed. In
Chapter 15, Alternating Voltage and Current, the 120-V duplex
receptacle is thoroughly covered. In Chapter 16, Capacitance, an
emerging new type of capacitor, known as a supercapacitor, is thoroughly
explained. Several of its applications are also discussed. In Chapter 19,
Inductance, isolation transformers and their advantages are carefully
examined. And finally, in Chapter 23, Alternating Current Circuits, the
different types of power in AC circuits are explained as well as power
factor and the need for power factor correction.

Preface xix
 Ancillary Package
The following supplements are available to support Grob’s Basic Electronics,
twelfth edition.

Problems Manual for use with Grob’s

Basic Electronics
This book, written by Mitchel E. Schultz, provides students and instructors with
hundreds of practice problems for self-study, homework assignments, tests, and
review. The book is organized to correlate chapter by chapter with the textbook.
Each chapter contains a number of solved illustrative problems demonstrating
step-by-step how representative problems on a particular topic are solved. Fol-
lowing the solved problems are sets of problems for the students to solve. The
Problems Manual is a must-have for students requiring additional practice in
solving circuits.

Experiments Manual for Grob’s Basic Electronics

This lab book, written by Wes Ponick, provides students and instructors with
easy-to-follow laboratory experiments. The experiments range from an introduc-
tion to laboratory equipment to experiments dealing with operational amplifiers.
All experiments have been student tested to ensure their effectiveness. The lab
book is organized to correlate with topics covered in the text, by chapter.
All experiments have a Multisim activity that is to be done prior to the actual
physical lab activity. Multisim files are part of the Instructor’s Resources on Con-
nect. This prepares students to work with circuit simulation software, and also to
do “pre-lab” preparation before doing a physical lab exercise. Multisim coverage
also reflects the widespread use of circuit simulation software in today’s electron-
ics industries.

Digital Resources
Connect Engineering
The online resources for this edition include McGraw-Hill Connect®, a web-
based assignment and assessment platform that can help students perform better
in their coursework and master important concepts. With Connect®, instructors
can deliver assignments, quizzes, and tests easily online. Students can prac-
tice important skills at their own pace and on their own schedule. Ask your
McGraw-Hill Representative for more details, and check it out at www.mc-
grawhillconnect.com.

McGraw-Hill LearnSmart®
McGraw-Hill LearnSmart® is an adaptive learning system designed to help stu-
dents learn faster, study more efficiently, and retain more knowledge for greater
success. Through a series of adaptive questions, Learnsmart® pinpoints concepts
the student does not understand and maps out a personalized study plan for suc-
cess. It also lets instructors see exactly what students have accomplished, and it
features a built-in assessment tool for graded assignments. Ask your McGraw-
Hill Representative for more information, and visit www.mhlearnsmart.com for
a demonstration.

McGraw-Hill SmartBook™
Powered by the intelligent and adaptive LearnSmart engine, SmartBook™
is the first and only continuously adaptive reading experience available today.

xx Preface
 Distinguishing what students know from what they don’t, and honing in on con-
cepts they are most likely to forget, SmartBook personalizes content for each
student. Reading is no longer a passive and linear experience but is an engaging
and dynamic one, where students are more likely to master and retain important
concepts, coming to class better prepared. SmartBook includes powerful reports
that identify specific topics and learning objectives that students need to study.
These valuable reports also provide instructors with insight into how students are
progressing through textbook content and are useful for identifying class trends,
focusing precious class time, providing personalized feedback to students, and
tailoring assessment. How does SmartBook work? Each SmartBook contains
four components: Preview, Read, Practice, and Recharge. Starting with an initial
preview of each chapter and key learning objectives, students read the material
and are guided to topics for which they need the most practice based on their
responses to a continuously adapting diagnostic. Read and practice continue until
SmartBook directs students to recharge important material they are most likely to
forget to ensure concept mastery and retention.

Electronic Textbooks
This text is available as an eBook at www.CourseSmart.com. At CourseSmart,
your students can take advantage of significant savings off the cost of a print text-
book, reduce their impact on the environment, and gain access to powerful web
tools for learning. CourseSmart eBooks can be viewed online or downloaded to
a computer. The eBooks allow students to do full text searches, add highlighting
and notes, and share notes with classmates. CourseSmart has the largest selection
of eBooks available anywhere. Visit www.CourseSmart.com to learn more and to
try a sample chapter.

McGraw-Hill Create™
With McGraw-Hill Create™, you can easily rearrange chapters, combine material
from other content sources, and quickly upload content you have written, such as
your course syllabus or teaching notes. Find the content you need in Create by
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book to fit your teaching style. Create even allows you to personalize your book’s
appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and course in-
formation. Order a Create book and you’ll receive a complimentary print review
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(eComp) via e-mail in minutes. Go to www.mcgrawhillcreate.com today and reg-
ister to experience how McGraw-Hill Create empowers you to teach your students
your way.

Preface xxi
Before you read . . .

Chapter Introductions briefly outline

the main chapter topics and concepts.

I
Chapter Outlines guide you through
Introduction to
the material in the chapter ahead. The
outlines breakdown the individual topics Powers of 10
covered, and each outline is tied to a
main heading to emphasize important
topics throughout the chapter. T he electrical quantities you will encounter while working in the field of
electronics are often extremely small or extremely large. For example, it is
not at all uncommon to work with extremely small decimal numbers such as
0.000000000056 or extremely large numbers such as 1,296,000,000. To enable us
to work conveniently with both very small and very large numbers, powers of 10
notation is used. With powers of 10 notation, any number, no matter how small or

Chapter Outline
1–1 Negative and Positive Polarities 1–8 The Closed Circuit
1–2 Electrons and Protons in the Atom 1–9 The Direction of Current
1–3 Structure of the Atom 1–10 Direct Current (DC) and Alternating
Current (AC)
1–4 The Coulomb Unit of Electric Charge
1–11 Sources of Electricity
1–5 The Volt Unit of Potential Difference
1–12 The Digital Multimeter
1–6 Charge in Motion Is Current
1–7 Resistance Is Opposition to Current

Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
■ List the two basic particles of electric ■ Describe the difference between voltage and Chapter Objectives organize and
charge. current.
■ Describe the basic structure of the atom. ■ Define resistance and conductance and list highlight the key concepts covered within
the unit of each.
■ Define the terms conductor, insulator, and
semiconductor and give examples of each ■ List three important characteristics of an
the chapter text.
term. electric circuit.
■ Define the coulomb unit of electric charge. ■ Define the difference between electron flow
sch73874_intro_002-021.indd 2 09/12/14 2:59 PM
■ Define potential difference and voltage and and conventional current.
list the unit of each. ■ Describe the difference between direct and
■ Define current and list its unit of measure. alternating current.

Important Terms
alternating current conductor electron valence ohm
(AC) conventional current element potential difference Important Terms help students
ampere
atom
coulomb
current
free electron
insulator
proton
resistance
identify key words at the beginning of
atomic number dielectric ion semiconductor each chapter. They are defined in the
circuit direct current (DC) molecule siemens
compound electron neutron static electricity
text, at the end of the chapter, and in the
conductance electron flow nucleus volt glossary.

xxii
sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 23 09/12/14 11:22 AM
While you read . . .

Figure 1–5 Physical force between electric charges. (a) Opposite charges attract. (b) Two
negative charges repel each other. (c) Two positive charges repel.

Pioneers in Electronics offer Opposite Like  Like 

charges charges charges
background information on the scientists attract repel repel

and engineers whose theories and      

discoveries were instrumental in the (a) (b) (c)

development of electronics.

repel in Fig. 1–5b, and two positive charges of the same value repel each other in
Fig. 1–5c.

PIONEERS
Good to Know boxes provide IN ELECTRONICS Polarity of a Charge
French natural philosopher Charles- An electric charge must have either negative or positive polarity, labeled 2Q or
additional information in the margins of Augustin Coulomb (1736–1806) 1Q, with an excess of either electrons or protons. A neutral condition is considered
the text. developed a method for measuring zero charge. On this basis, consider the following examples, remembering that the
electron is the basic particle of charge and the proton has exactly the same amount,
the force of attraction and
although of opposite polarity.
repulsion between two electrically
charged spheres. Coulomb
established the law of inverse
squares and defined the basic unit
of charge quantity, the coulomb.
Section Self-Reviews allow students to
check their understanding of the material Example 1-1
A neutral dielectric has 12.5 3 1018 electrons added to it. What is its charge in
just presented. They are located at the GOOD TO KNOW coulombs?
end of each section within a chapter, As an aid for determining the
ANSWER This number of electrons is double the charge of 1 C. Therefore,
added charge (6Q) to a neutral
with answers at the end of the chapter. 2Q 5 2 C.
dielectric, use the following
equation:
Number of electrons added or removed
oved
6Q 5 ________________________
6.25 3 1018 electrons/C
___

■ 1–1 Self-Review
GOOD TO KNOW Answers at the end of the chapter.

Electricity is a form of energy,

a. Is the charge of an electron positive or negative? Examples throughout the text expand
b Is the charge of a proton positive or negative?
where energy refers to the ability
to do work. More specifically,
c. Is it true or false that the neutral condition means equal positive and on key concepts and offer students a
negative charges?
electrical energy refers to the deeper understanding of complex
energy associated with electric
charges.
material.
1–2 Electrons and Protons in the Atom
Although there are any number of possible methods by which electrons and protons
might be grouped, they assemble in specific atomic combinations for a stable ar-
rangement. (An atom is the smallest particle of the basic elements which forms the

sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 31 09/12/14 11:22 AM

Multisim Icons, identify circuits for MultiSim Figure 1–8 Chemical cell as
a voltage source. (a) Voltage output is the
which there is a Multisim activity. potential difference between the two
terminals. (b) Schematic symbol of any
Multisim files can be found on the DC voltage source with constant polarity.
Longer line indicates positive side.
Instructor Resources section for
Connect.
p w w . ,
then, is a voltage source, or a source of electromotive force (emf). The schematic
symbol for a battery or DC voltage source is shown in Fig. 1–8b.
Sometimes the symbol E is used for emf, but the standard symbol V represents
any potential difference. This applies either to the voltage generated by a source or
to the voltage drop across a passive component such as a resistor.
It may be helpful to think of voltage as an electrical pressure or force. The higher
the voltage, the more electrical pressure or force. The electrical pressure of voltage is
in the form of the attraction and repulsion of an electric charge, such as an electron.
The general equation for any voltage can be stated as
W
V 5 __ (1–1)
Q
where V is the voltage in volts, W is the work or energy in joules, and Q is the charge
in coulombs.
Let’s take a look at an example.

sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 24 09/12/14 11:22 AM

Example 1-5
What is the output voltage of a battery that expends 3.6 J of energy in moving
0.5 C of charge?

ANSWER Use equation 1–1.

W
V 5 __
(a) Q

Guided Tour xxiii

After you’ve read . . .

Real world applications bring to

Application of Ohm’s Law and Power Formulas
HOME APPLIANCES
Every electrical appliance in our home has a nameplate attached
to it. The nameplate provides important information about the
appliance such as its make and model, its electrical specifications
and the Underwriters Laboratories (UL) listing mark. The
nameplate is usually located on the bottom or rear-side of the
appliance. The electrical specifications listed are usually its
power and voltage ratings. The voltage rating is the voltage at
which the appliance is designed to operate. The power rating is
the power dissipation of the appliance when the rated voltage is
applied. With the rated voltage and power ratings listed on the
nameplate, we can calculate the current drawn from the
appliance when it’s being used. To calculate the current (I) simply
divide the power rating (P) in watts by the voltage rating (V)
in volts. As an example, suppose you want to know how much
current your toaster draws when it’s toasting your bread. To
find the answer you will probably need to turn your toaster
life the concepts covered in a specific
chapter.
rating of 120 V and a power rating of 850 W, the current drawn
by the toaster is calculated as follows;
I 5 __ 850 W 5 7.083 A
P = _____
V 120 V
Some appliances in our homes have a voltage rating of 240 V
rather than 120 V. These are typically the appliances with very
high power ratings. Some examples include; electric stoves,
electric clothes dryers, electric water heaters and air
conditioning units. These appliances may have power ratings as
high as 7.2 kW or more. The reason the higher power appliances
have a higher voltage rating is simple. At twice the voltage you
only need half the current to obtain the desired power. With half
as much current, the size of the conductors connecting the
appliance to the power line can be kept much smaller. This is
important because a smaller diameter wire costs less and is
physically much easier to handle.

Each chapter concludes with a

Summary, a comprehensive recap
of the major points and takeaways. Summary
■ Electricity is present in all matter in
the form of electrons and protons.
■ The electron is the basic particle
of negative charge, and the proton
is the basic particle of positive
charge.
■ A conductor is a material in which
electrons can move easily from one
atom to the next.
■ An insulator is a material in which
electrons tend to stay in their own
orbit. Another name for insulator is
dielectric.
■ The atomic number of an element
gives the number of protons in the
nucleus of the atom, balanced by an
■ One coulomb (C) of charge is a
quantity of electricity
corresponding to 6.25 3 1018
electrons or protons. The symbol for
charge is Q.
■ Potential difference or voltage is an
electrical pressure or force that
exists between two points. The unit
of potential difference is the volt (V).
1J W.
1 V 5 ___ In general, V 5 ___
1C Q is considered conventional current.
■ Current is the rate of movement of
electric charge. The symbol for
current is I, and the basic unit of
measure is the ampere (A).
1 C In general, I 5 __Q.
1 A 5 ___
1s T because a DC voltage source has
■ Resistance is the opposition to the
■ An electric circuit is a closed path
for current flow. A voltage must be
connected across a circuit to
produce current flow. In the
external circuit outside the voltage
source, electrons flow from the
negative terminal toward the
positive terminal.
■ A motion of positive charges, in the
opposite direction of electron flow,
■ Voltage can exist without current,
but current cannot exist without
voltage.
■ Direct current has just one direction

Related Formulas are a quick, easy

Related Formulas
way to locate the important formulas
1 C 5 6.25 3 1018 electrons Q5I3T
from the chapter. R 5 1/G
W
V 5___
Q G 5 1/R

I 5 Q/T

Self-Test

Multiple-Choice Self-Tests at the Answers at the back of the book. 4. The electron valence of a neutral
copper atom is
7. In a metal conductor, such as a
copper wire,
end of every chapter allow for quick 1. The most basic particle of negative
charge is the
a. 11. a. positive ions are the moving
charges that provide current.
b. 0.
learning assessment. a. coulomb.
b. electron.
c. 64. b. free electrons are the moving
charges that provide current.
d. 21.
c. proton. c. there are no free electrons.
sch73874_ch03_076-107.indd 98 d. neutron. 09/12/14 11:23 AM
5. The unit of potential difference is d. none of the above.
the
2. The coulomb is a unit of a. volt. 8. A 100-V resistor has a conductance,
a. electric charge. G, of
b. ampere.
b. potential difference. a. 0.01 S.
c. siemens.
c. current. b. 0.1 S.
d. coulomb.
d. voltage. c. 0.001 S.

Essay Questions
1. Name two good conductors, two good insulators, and 7. List three important characteristics of an electric The Essay Questions at the end of
two semiconductors. circuit.

2. In a metal conductor, what is a free electron? 8. Describe the difference between an open circuit and a
each chapter are great ways to spark
3. What is the smallest unit of a compound with the same
short circuit. classroom discussion, and they make
chemical characteristics? 9. Is the power line voltage available in our homes a DC or
an AC voltage? great homework assignments.
4. Define the term ion.
10. What is the mathematical relationship between
5. How does the resistance of a conductor compare to that resistance and conductance?
of an insulator?
11. Briefly describe the electric field of a static charge.
6. Explain why potential difference is necessary to produce
sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 50 09/12/14 11:22 AM
current in a circuit.

sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 49 09/12/14 11:22 AM

xxiv Guided Tour

sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 51 09/12/14 11:22 AM

End-of-Chapter Problems,
organized by chapter section, provide
another opportunity for students to
check their understanding, and for
instructors to hone in on key concepts.
Critical Thinking Problems for each
chapter provide students with more
challenging problems, allowing them to
polish critical skills needed on the job.
Laboratory Application Assignment
In your first lab application assignment you will use a DMM to
measure the voltage, current, and resistance in Fig. 1–18.
Refer to Sec. 1–12, “The Digital Multimeter,” if necessary.
Equipment: Obtain the following items from your instructor.
• Variable DC power supply
• 1-kV, ½-W resistor
• DMM
• Connecting leads
Measuring Voltage
Set the DMM to measure DC voltage. Be sure the meter leads
are inserted into the correct jacks (red lead in the VV jack and
the black lead in the COM jack). Also, be sure the voltmeter
range exceeds the voltage being measured. Connect the
DMM test leads to the variable DC power supply as shown in
Fig. 1–18a. Adjust the variable DC power supply voltage to any
value between 5 and 15 V. Record your measured voltage.
V 5 __________ Note: Keep the power supply voltage set to
this value when measuring the current in Fig. 1-18c.
Figure 1–18 Measuring electrical quantities. (a) Measuring voltage. (b) Measuring resistance. (c) Measuring current.
(red)
 R
Variable DC
V DMM 1 k
power supply 
(black) (b) Measuring resistance.
(a) Measuring voltage.
sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 53
Troubleshooting Challenges appear
in selected chapters to give students a
feel for troubleshooting real circuits,
again providing real-world applications of
chapter content.
Guided Tour
Problems
SECTION 1–4 THE COULOMB UNIT OF ELECTRIC SECTION 1–6 CHARGE IN MOTION IS CURRENT
CHARGE 1–11 A charge of 2 C moves past a given point every 0.5 s.
1–1 If 31.25 3 1018 electrons are removed from a How much is the current?
neutral dielectric, how much charge is stored in
1–12 A charge of 1 C moves past a given point every 0.1 s.
coulombs?
How much is the current?
1–2 If 18.75 3 1018 electrons are added to a neutral 1–13 A charge of 0.05 C moves past a given point every 0.1 s.
dielectric, how much charge is stored in coulombs?
How much is the current?
1–3 A dielectric with a positive charge of 15 C has 18.75 3 1–14 A charge of 6 C moves past a given point every 0.3 s.
1018 electrons added to it. What is the net charge of the How much is the current?
dielectric in coulombs?
1–4 If 93.75 3 1018 electrons are removed from a
1–15 A charge of 0.1 C moves past a given point every 0.01 s.
How much is the current?
neutral dielectric, how much charge is stored in
coulombs? 1–16 If a current of 1.5 A charges a dielectric for 5 s, how
much charge is stored in the dielectric?
1–5 If 37.5 3 1018 electrons are added to a neutral 1–17 If a current of 500 mA charges a dielectric for 2 s, how
dielectric, how much charge is stored in coulombs? much charge is stored in the dielectric?
1–18 If a current of 200 ␮A charges a dielectric for 20 s, how
SECTION 1–5 THE VOLT UNIT OF POTENTIAL much charge is stored in the dielectric?
DIFFERENCE
1–6 What is the output voltage of a battery if 10 J of energy SECTION 1–7 RESISTANCE IS OPPOSITION TO
is expended in moving 1.25 C of charge?
CURRENT
1–19 Calculate the resistance value in ohms for the following
1–7 What is the output voltage of a battery if 6 J of energy is
expended in moving 1 C of charge? conductance values: (a) 0.001 S (b) 0.01 S (c) 0.1 S (d) 1 S.
1–8 What is the output voltage of a battery if 12 J of energy 1–20 Calculate the resistance value in ohms for the following
conductance values: (a) 0.002 S (b) 0.004 S (c) 0.00833
is expended in moving 1 C of charge?
S (d) 0.25 S.
1–9 How much is the potential difference between two 1–21 Calculate the conductance value in siemens for each of
points if 0.5 J of energy is required to move 0.4 C of
charge between the two points?
the following resistance values: (a) 200 V (b) 100 V
(c) 50 V (d) 25 V.
1–10 How much energy is expended, in joules, if a voltage 1–22 Calculate the conductance value in siemens for each of the
of 12 V moves 1.25 C of charge between two following resistance values: (a) 1 V (b) 10 k V (c) 40 V
points? (d) 0.5 V.
Critical Thinking
1–23 Suppose that 1000 electrons are removed from a 1–25 Assume that 6.25 3 1015 electrons flow past a given
neutral dielectric. How much charge, in coulombs, is point in a conductor every 10 s. Calculate the current I
stored in the dielectric? in amperes.
1–24 How long will it take an insulator that has a charge 1–26 The conductance of a wire at 100°C is one-tenth its
of 15 C to charge to 130 C if the charging current value at 25°C. If the wire resistance equals 10 V at 25°C
is 2 A? calculate the resistance of the wire at 100°C.
sch73874_ch01_022-053.indd 52 09/12/14 11:22 AM
Measuring Resistance
Disconnect the meter leads from the power supply terminals.
Set the DMM to measure resistance. Keep the meter leads in
the same jacks you used for measuring voltage. Connect the
DMM test leads to the leads of the 1 kV resistor, as shown in
Fig. 1–18b. Record your measured resistance.
R 5 __________ (The measured resistance will most likely be
displayed as a decimal fraction in kV.)
Measuring Current
Set the DMM to measure DC current. Also, move the red test
lead to the appropriate jack for measuring small DC currents Laboratory Application
(usually labeled mA). Turn off the variable DC power supply.
Connect the red test lead of the DMM to the positive (1) Assignments, reinforce one or more
terminal of the variable DC power supply as shown in Fig.
1–18c. Also, connect the black test lead of the DMM to one lead of the chapter’s main topics by asking
of the 1 kV resistor as shown. Finally, connect the other lead of
the resistor to the negative (2) terminal of the variable DC students to build and test circuits in a
power supply. Turn on the variable DC power supply. Record
your measured current. laboratory environment.
I 5 __________
(red) (black)
A
 DMM 
Variable DC
R = 1 k
power supply 
(c) Measuring current.
Troubleshooting Challenge
Table 4–1 shows voltage measurements taken in Fig. 4–50. The first row shows the normal values that exist when the circuit is
operating properly. Rows 2 to09/12/14
15 are11:22
voltage
AM
measurements taken when one component in the circuit has failed. For each row,
identify which component is defective and determine the type of defect that has occurred in the component.
Figure 4–50 Circuit diagram for Troubleshooting Challenge. Normal values for V1, V2, V3,
V4, and V5 are shown on schematic.
3V 5.4 V
R1  100  R2  180 
   
V1 V2


V T  24 V

6.6 V V 3 R3  220 

5.4 V
V5
3.6 V
V4
 
R5  180 
 
R4  120 
xxv
sch73874_ch04_108-141.indd 138 09/12/14 11:24 AM
 Acknowledgments
The twelfth edition of Grob’s Basic Electronics would not have been possible
without the help of some very dedicated people. I would first like to thank the
highly professional staff of the McGraw-Hill Higher Education Division, espe-
cially Vincent Bradshaw, Kelly Hart, and Raghu Srinivasan. Thank you for your
patience and understanding during the long period of manuscript preparation.

Eleventh and Twelfth Russ Leonard Mark Winans

Ferris State University, MI Central Texas College, TX
Edition Reviewers Wang Ng Keith Casey
Phillip Anderson Sacramento City College, CA Wilkes Community College
Muskegon Community College, MI Brian Ocfemia Walter Craig
Michael Beavers Wichita Technical Institute, KS Southern University and A & M
Lake Land College, IL Robert Pagel College
Jon Brutlag Chippewa Valley Technical Kenneth James
Chippewa Valley Tech College, WI College, WI California State Long Beach
Bruce Clemens William Phillips Marc Sillars
Ozarks Technical Community Madison Area Technical College, WI Oakton Community College
College, MO Constantin Rasinariu Thomas Jones
Brian Goodman Columbia College Chicago, IL Randolph Community College
Chippewa Valley Technical LouEllen Ratliff Christopher Ritter
College, WI Pearl River Community College, MS Cochise College
Mohamad Haj-Mohamadi Phillip Serina Michael Parker
Alamance Community College, NC Kaplan Career Institute, OH Los Medanos College
Patrick Hoppe James Stack Garrett Hunter
Gateway Technical College, WI Boise State University, ID Western Illinois University
Ali Khabari Andrew Tubesing
Wentworth Institute of New Mexico Tech, NM
Technology, MA

I would also like to extend a very special thank you to Bill Hessmiller, and Pat
Hoppe. Thank you, Bill, for the work you did on the supplements. Also, thank
you, Pat, for your work in updating Appendix F, “Introduction to Multisim,” to
version 12.1. My hat goes off to both of you!
Mitchel E. Schultz

xxvi Acknowledgments
About the Author
Mitchel E. Schultz is an instructor at Western Technical College in La

Crosse, Wisconsin, where he has taught electronics for the past

26 years. Prior to teaching at Western, he taught electronics for 8 years

at Riverland Community College in Austin, Minnesota. He has also

provided training for a variety of different electronic industries over the

past 34 years.

Before he began teaching, Mitchel worked for several years as an

electronic technician. His primary work experience was in the field of

electronic communication, which included designing, testing, and

troubleshooting rf communications systems. Mitchel graduated in

1978 from Minnesota State, Southeast Technical College, where he

earned an Associate’s Degree in Electronics Technology. He also

attended Winona State University, Mankato State University, and the

University of Minnesota. He is an ISCET Certified Electronics

Technician and also holds his Extra Class Amateur Radio License.

Mitchel has authored and/or co-authored several other electronic

textbooks which include Problems Manual for use with Grob’s

Basic Electronics, Electric Circuits: A Text and Software

Problems Manual, Electronic Devices: A Text and Software

Problems Manual, Basic Mathematics for Electricity and

Electronics, and Shaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of

Electronic Communication.

xxvii
Grob’s Basic
Electronics
I
Introduction to
Powers of 10
T he electrical quantities you will encounter while working in the field of
electronics are often extremely small or extremely large. For example, it is
not at all uncommon to work with extremely small decimal numbers such as
0.000000000056 or extremely large numbers such as 1,296,000,000. To enable us
to work conveniently with both very small and very large numbers, powers of 10
notation is used. With powers of 10 notation, any number, no matter how small or
large, can be expressed as a decimal number multiplied by a power of 10. A power of
10 is an exponent written above and to the right of 10, which is called the base. The
power of 10 indicates how many times the base is to be multiplied by itself. For
example, 103 means 10 3 10 3 10 and 106 means 10 3 10 3 10 3 10 3 10 3 10.
In electronics, the base 10 is common because multiples of 10 are used in the metric
system of units.

Scientific and engineering notation are two common forms of powers of 10 notation.
In electronics, engineering notation is generally more common than scientific
notation because it ties in directly with the metric prefixes so often used. When a
number is written in standard form without using any form of powers of 10 notation,
it is said to be written in decimal notation (sometimes referred to as floating decimal
notation). When selecting a calculator for solving problems in electronics, be sure to
choose one that can display the answers in decimal, scientific, and engineering
notation.
 Chapter Outline
I–1 Scientific Notation I–6 Reciprocals with Powers of 10
I–2 Engineering Notation and Metric I–7 Squaring Numbers Expressed in
Prefixes Powers of 10 Notation
I–3 Converting between Metric Prefixes I–8 Square Roots of Numbers Expressed
in Powers of 10 Notation
I–4 Addition and Subtraction Involving
Powers of 10 Notation I–9 The Scientific Calculator
I–5 Multiplication and Division Involving
Powers of 10 Notation

Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
■ Express any number in scientific or
engineering notation.
■ List the metric prefixes and their
corresponding powers of 10.
■ Change a power of 10 in engineering
notation to its corresponding metric prefix.
■ Convert between metric prefixes.
■ Add and subtract numbers expressed in
powers of 10 notation.
■ Multiply and divide numbers expressed in
powers of 10 notation.
■ Determine the reciprocal of a power of 10.
■ Find the square of a number expressed in
powers of 10 notation.
■ Find the square root of a number expressed
in powers of 10 notation.
■ Enter numbers written in scientific and
engineering notation into your calculator.

Important Terms
decimal notation metric prefixes scientific notation
engineering notation powers of 10

Introduction to Powers of 10 3
 I–1 Scientific Notation
Before jumping directly into scientific notation, let’s take a closer look at powers
Table I–1 Powers of 10 of 10. A power of 10 is an exponent of the base 10 and can be either positive or
negative.
1,000,000,000 5 109
100,000,000 5 108
10,000,000 5 107
1,000,000 5 106 Exponent
Base 10X
100,000 5 105
10,000 5 104
1,000 5 103
100 5 102 Positive powers of 10 are used to indicate numbers greater than 1, whereas negative
powers of 10 are used to indicate numbers less than 1. Table I–1 shows the powers
10 5 101 of 10 ranging from 10212 to 109 and their equivalent decimal values. In electronics,
1 5 100 you will seldom work with powers of 10 outside this range. From Table I–1, notice
that 100 5 1 and that 101 5 10. In the case of 100 5 1, it is important to realize
0.1 5 1021
that any number raised to the zero power equals 1. In the case of 101 5 10, it is
0.01 5 1022 important to note that any number written without a power is assumed to have a
power of 1.
0.001 5 1023
0.0001 5 1024
Expressing a Number in Scientific Notation
0.00001 5 1025
The procedure for using any form of powers of 10 notation is to write the original
0.000001 5 1026 number as two separate factors. Scientific notation is a form of powers of 10 nota-
0.0000001 5 1027 tion in which a number is expressed as a number between 1 and 10 times a power
of 10. The power of 10 is used to place the decimal point correctly. The power of
0.00000001 5 1028 10 indicates the number of places by which the decimal point has been moved to
0.000000001 5 1029 the left or right in the original number. If the decimal point is moved to the left in
the original number, then the power of 10 will increase or become more positive.
0.0000000001 5 10210 Conversely, if the decimal point is moved to the right in the original number then
0.00000000001 5 10211 the power of 10 will decrease or become more negative. Let’s take a look at an
example.
0.000000000001 5 10212

Example I-1
Express the following numbers in scientific notation: (a) 3900 (b) 0.0000056.

ANSWER (a) To express 3900 in scientific notation, write the number as a number between 1 and 10, which is 3.9 in this
case, times a power of 10. To do this, the decimal point must be shifted three places to the left. The number of places by
which the decimal point is shifted to the left indicates the positive power of 10. Therefore, 3900 5 3.9 3 103 in scientific
notation.
(b) To express 0.0000056 in scientific notation, write the number as a number between 1 and 10, which is 5.6 in this case,
times a power of 10. To do this, the decimal point must be shifted six places to the right. The number of places by which the
decimal point is shifted to the right indicates the negative power of 10. Therefore, 0.0000056 5 5.6 3 1026 in scientific
notation.

4 Introduction
 When expressing a number in scientific notation, remember the following rules.

Rule 1: Express the number as a number between 1 and 10 times a power

of 10.

Rule 2: If the decimal point is moved to the left in the original number, make
the power of 10 positive. If the decimal point is moved to the right in
the original number, make the power of 10 negative.

Rule 3: The power of 10 always equals the number of places by which the
decimal point has been shifted to the left or right in the original
number.

Let’s try another example.

Example I-2
Express the following numbers in scientific notation: (a) 235,000 (b) 364,000,000 (c) 0.000756 (d) 0.00000000000016.

ANSWER (a) To express the number 235,000 in scientific notation, move the decimal point five places to the left, which
gives us a number of 2.35. Next, multiply this number by 105. Notice that the power of 10 is a positive 5 because the decimal
point was shifted five places to the left in the original number. Therefore, 235,000 5 2.35 3 105 in scientific notation.
(b) To express 364,000,000 in scientific notation, move the decimal point eight places to the left, which gives us a number of
3.64. Next, multiply this number by 108. Notice that the power of 10 is a positive 8 because the decimal point was shifted eight
places to the left in the original number. Therefore, 364,000,000 5 3.64 3 108 in scientific notation.
(c) To express 0.000756 in scientific notation, move the decimal point four places to the right, which gives us a number of
7.56. Next, multiply this number by 1024. Notice that the power of 10 is a negative 4 because the decimal point was shifted four
places to the right in the original number. Therefore, 0.000756 5 7.56 3 1024.
(d) To express 0.00000000000016 in scientific notation, move the decimal point 13 places to the right, which gives us
a number of 1.6. Next, multiply this number by 10213. Notice that the power of 10 is a negative 13 because the decimal
point was shifted thirteen places to the right in the original number. Therefore, 0.00000000000016 5 1.6 3 10213 in scientific
notation.

Decimal Notation
Numbers written in standard form without using any form of powers of 10 notation
are said to be written in decimal notation, sometimes called floating decimal nota-
tion. In some cases, it may be necessary to change a number written in scientific
notation into decimal notation. When converting from scientific to decimal notation,
observe the following rules.

Rule 4: If the exponent or power of 10 is positive, move the decimal point

to the right, the same number of places as the exponent.

Rule 5: If the exponent or power of 10 is negative, move the decimal point to

the left, the same number of places as the exponent.

Introduction to Powers of 10 5
 Example I-3
Convert the following numbers written in scientific notation into decimal
notation: (a) 4.75 3 102 (b) 6.8 3 1025.

ANSWER (a) To convert 4.75 3 102 into decimal notation, the decimal
point must be shifted 2 places to the right. The decimal point is shifted to the
right because the power of 10, which is 2 in this case, is positive. Therefore;
4.75 3 102 5 475 in decimal notation.
(b) To convert 6.8 3 1025 into decimal notation, the decimal point must
be shifted 5 places to the left. The decimal point is shifted to the left
because the power of 10, which is 25 in this case, is negative. Therefore,
6.8 3 1025 5 0.000068 in decimal notation.

■ I–1 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Are positive or negative powers of 10 used to indicate numbers less
than 1?
b. Are positive or negative powers of 10 used to indicate numbers
greater than 1?
c. 100 5 1. (True/False)
d. Express the following numbers in scientific notation: (a) 13,500
(b) 0.00825 (c) 95,600,000 (d) 0.104.
e. Convert the following numbers written in scientific notation into
decimal notation: (a) 4.6 3 1027 (b) 3.33 3 103 (c) 5.4 3 108
(d) 2.54 3 1022.

I–2 Engineering Notation

and Metric Prefixes
Engineering notation is another form of powers of 10 notation. Engineering notation
is similar to scientific notation except that in engineering notation, the powers of 10
are always multiples of 3 such as 10212, 1029, 1026, 1023, 103, 106, 109, 1012, etc.
More specifically, a number expressed in engineering notation is always expressed
as a number between 1 and 1000 times a power of 10 which is a multiple of 3.

Example I-4
Express the following numbers in engineering notation: (a) 27,000 (b) 0.00047.

ANSWER (a) To express the number 27,000 in engineering notation, it must be written as a number between 1 and
1000 times a power of 10 which is a multiple of 3. It is often helpful to begin by expressing the number in scientific
notation: 27,000 5 2.7 3 104. Next, examine the power of 10 to see if it should be increased to 106 or decreased to 103. If
the power of 10 is increased to 106, then the decimal point in the number 2.7 would have to be shifted two places to the left.

6 Introduction
Because 0.027 is not a number between 1 and 1000, the answer of 0.027 3 106 is not representative of engineering
notation. If the power of 10 were decreased to 103, however, then the decimal point in the number 2.7 would have to be
shifted one place to the right and the answer would be 27 3 103, which is representative of engineering notation. In
summary, 27,000 5 2.7 3 104 5 27 3 103 in engineering notation.
(b) To express the number 0.00047 in engineering notation, it must be written as a number between 1 and 1000 times a
power of 10 which is a multiple of 3. Begin by expressing the number in scientific notation: 0.00047 5 4.7 3 1024. Next,
examine the power of 10 to see if it should be increased to 1023 or decreased to 1026. If the power of 10 were increased to
1023, then the decimal point in the number 4.7 would have to be shifted one place to the left. Because 0.47 is not a number
between 1 and 1000, the answer 0.47 3 1023 is not representative of engineering notation. If the power of 10 were decreased
to 1026, however, then the decimal point in the number 4.7 would have to be shifted two places to the right and the answer
would be 470 3 1026 which is representative of engineering notation. In summary, 0.00047 5 4.7 3 1024 5 470 3 1026 in
engineering notation.

When expressing a number in engineering notation, remember the following

rules:

Rule 6: Express the original number in scientific notation first. If the power
of 10 is a multiple of 3, the number appears the same in both
scientific and engineering notation.

Rule 7: If the original number expressed in scientific notation does not use a
power of 10 which is a multiple of 3, the power of 10 must either be
increased or decreased until it is a multiple of 3. The decimal point in
the numerical part of the expression must be adjusted accordingly to
compensate for the change in the power of 10.

Rule 8: Each time the power of 10 is increased by 1, the decimal point in

the numerical part of the expression must be moved one place to
the left. Each time the power of 10 is decreased by 1, the decimal
point in the numerical part of the expression must be moved one
place to the right.

You know that a quantity is expressed in engineering notation when the original
number is written as a number between 1 and 1000 times a power of 10 which is a
multiple of 3.

Metric Prefixes
The metric prefixes represent those powers of 10 that are multiples of 3. In the field
of electronics, engineering notation is much more common than scientific notation
because most values of voltage, current, resistance, power, and so on are specified in
terms of the metric prefixes. Once a number is expressed in engineering notation, its
power of 10 can be replaced directly with its corresponding metric prefix. Table I–2
lists the most common metric prefixes and their corresponding powers of 10.

Introduction to Powers of 10 7
 Table I–2 Metric Prefixes
GOOD TO KNOW
Power of 10 Prefix Abbreviation
The uppercase letter K is not
used as the abbreviation for the 1012 tera T
metric prefix kilo because its use 10 9
giga G
is reserved for the kelvin unit of
106 mega M
absolute temperature.
103 kilo k
1023 milli m
1026 micro m
1029 nano n
10212 pico p

Notice that uppercase letters are used for the abbreviations of the prefixes involving
positive powers of 10, whereas lowercase letters are used for negative powers of 10.
There is one exception to the rule however; the lowercase letter “k” is used for kilo
corresponding to 103. Because the metric prefixes are used so often in electronics, it
is common practice to express the value of a given quantity in engineering notation
first so that the power of 10, which is a multiple of 3, can be replaced directly with
its corresponding metric prefix. For example, a resistor whose value is 33,000 V can
be expressed in engineering notation as 33 3 103 V. In Table I–2, we see that the
metric prefix kilo (k) corresponds to 103. Therefore, 33,000 V or 33 3 103 V can
be expressed as 33 kV. (Note that the unit of resistance is the ohm abbreviated V.)
As another example, a current of 0.0000075 A can be expressed in engineering
notation as 7.5 3 1026 A. In Table I–2, we see that the metric prefix micro (m)
corresponds to 1026. Therefore, 0.0000075 A or 7.5 3 1026 A can be expressed as
7.5 mA. (The unit of current is the ampere, abbreviated A.)
In general, when using metric prefixes to express the value of a given quantity,
write the original number in engineering notation first and then substitute the ap-
propriate metric prefix corresponding to the power of 10 involved. As this technique
shows, metric prefixes are direct substitutes for the powers of 10 used in engineering
notation.
Table I–3 lists many of the electrical quantities that you will encounter in your
study of electronics. For each electrical quantity listed in Table I–3, take special note

Electrical Quantities with Their

Table I–3
Units and Symbols
Quantity Unit Symbol
Current Ampere (A) I
Voltage Volt (V) V
Resistance Ohm (V) R
Frequency Hertz (Hz) f
Capacitance Farad (F) C
Inductance Henry (H) L
Power Watt (W) P

8 Introduction
 of the unit and symbol shown. In the examples and problems that follow, we will use
several numerical values with various symbols and units from this table. Let’s take
a look at a few examples.

Example I-5
Express the resistance of 1,000,000 V using the appropriate metric prefix from
Table I–2.

ANSWER First, express 1,000,000 V in engineering notation: 1,000,000 V 5

1.0 3 106 V. Next, replace 106 with its corresponding metric prefix. Because
the metric prefix mega (M) corresponds to 106, the value of 1,000,000 V can be
expressed as 1 MV. In summary, 1,000,000 V 5 1.0 3 106 V 5 1 MV.

Example I-6
Express the voltage value of 0.015 V using the appropriate metric prefix from
Table I–2.

ANSWER First, express 0.015 V in engineering notation: 0.015 V 5 15 3

1023 V. Next, replace 1023 with its corresponding metric prefix. Because the
metric prefix milli (m) corresponds to 1023, the value 0.015 V can be expressed
as 15 mV. In summary, 0.015 V 5 15 3 1023 V 5 15 mV.

Example I-7
Express the power value of 250 W using the appropriate metric prefix from
Table I–2.

ANSWER In this case, it is not necessary or desirable to use any of the

metric prefixes listed in Table I–2. The reason is that 250 W cannot be expressed
as a number between 1 and 1000 times a power of 10 which is a multiple of 3.
In other words, 250 W cannot be expressed in engineering notation. The closest
we can come is 0.25 3 103 W, which is not representative of engineering
notation. Although 103 can be replaced with the metric prefix kilo (k), it is
usually preferable to express the power as 250 W and not as 0.25 kW.
In summary, whenever the value of a quantity lies between 1 and 1000, only the
basic unit of measure should be used for the answer. As another example, 75 V
should be expressed as 75 V and not as 0.075 kV or 75,000 mV, and so forth.

■ I–2 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Express the following numbers in engineering notation:
(a) 36,000,000 (b) 0.085 (c) 39,300 (d) 0.000093.

Introduction to Powers of 10 9
 b. List the metric prefixes for each of the powers of 10 listed:
(a) 1029 (b) 106 (c) 10212 (d) 103 (e) 104.
c. Express the following values using the appropriate metric prefixes:
(a) 0.000010 A (b) 2,200,000 V (c) 0.000000045 V (d) 5600 V (e) 18 W.

I–3 Converting between Metric Prefixes

As you have seen in the previous section, metric prefixes can be substituted for
powers of 10 that are multiples of 3. This is true even when the value of the original
quantity is not expressed in proper engineering notation. For example, a capaci-
tance value of 0.047 3 1026 F could be expressed as 0.047 mF. Also, a frequency of
1510 3 103 Hz could be expressed as 1510 kHz. Furthermore, the values of like
quantities in a given circuit may be specified using different metric prefixes such as
22 kV and 1.5 MV or 0.001 mF and 3300 pF, as examples. In some cases, therefore,
it may be necessary or desirable to convert from one metric prefix to another when
combining values. Converting from one metric prefix to another is actually a change
in the power of 10. When the power of 10 is changed, however, care must be taken to
make sure that the numerical part of the expression is also changed so that the value
of the original number remains the same. When converting from one metric prefix
to another observe the following rule:

Rule 9: When converting from a larger metric prefix to a smaller one,

increase the numerical part of the expression by the same factor by
which the metric prefix has been decreased. Conversely, when
converting from a smaller metric prefix to a larger one, decrease the
numerical part of the expression by the same factor by which the
metric prefix has been increased.

Example I-8
Make the following conversions: (a) convert 25 mA to mA (b) convert 2700 kV
to MV.

ANSWER (a) To convert 25 mA to mA, recall that the metric prefix milli
(m) corresponds to 1023 and that metric prefix micro (m) corresponds to 1026.
Since 1026 is less than 1023 by a factor of 1000 (103), the numerical part of the
expression must be increased by a factor of 1000 (103). Therefore, 25 mA 5
25 3 1023 A 5 25,000 3 1026 A 5 25,000 mA.
(b) To convert 2700 kV to MV, recall that the metric prefix kilo (k)
corresponds to 103 and that the metric prefix mega (M) corresponds to 106. Since
106 is larger than 103 by a factor of 1000 (103), the numerical part of the
expression must be decreased by a factor of 1000 (103). Therefore, 2700 kV 5
2700 3 103 V 5 2.7 3 106 V 5 2.7 MV.

■ I–3 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Converting from one metric prefix to another is actually a change in
the power of 10. (True/False)
b. Make the following conversions: (a) convert 2.2 MV to kV
(b) convert 47,000 pF to nF (c) convert 2500 mA to mA
(d) convert 6.25 mW to mW.

10 Introduction
 I–4 Addition and Subtraction Involving
Powers of 10 Notation
When adding or subtracting numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation, observe
the following rule:

Rule 10: Before numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation can be added

or subtracted, both terms must be expressed using the same power
of 10. When both terms have the same power of 10, just add or
subtract the numerical parts of each term and multiply the sum or
difference by the power of 10 common to both terms. Express the
final answer in the desired form of powers of 10 notation.

Let’s take a look at a couple of examples.

Example I-9
Add 170 3 103 and 23 3 104. Express the final answer in scientific notation.

ANSWER First, express both terms using either 103 or 104 as the common
power of 10. Either one can be used. In this example we will use 103 as the
common power of 10 for both terms. Rewriting 23 3 104 using 103 as the
power of 10 gives us 230 3 103. Notice that because the power of 10 was
decreased by a factor of 10, the numerical part of the expression was increased
by a factor of 10. Next, add the numerical parts of each term and multiply the
sum by 103 which is the power of 10 common to both terms. This gives us
(170 1 230) 3 103 or 400 3 103. Expressing the final answer in scientific
notation gives us 4.0 3 105. In summary (170 3 103) 1 (23 3 104) 5
(170 3 103) 1 (230 3 103) 5 (170 1 230) 3 103 5 400 3 103 5 4.0 3 105.

Example I-10
Subtract 250 3 103 from 1.5 3 106. Express the final answer in scientific
notation.

ANSWER First, express both terms using either 103 or 106 as the common
power of 10. Again, either one can be used. In this example, we will use 106 as
the common power of 10 for both terms. Rewriting 250 3 103 using 106 as the
power of 10 gives us 0.25 3 106. Notice that because the power of 10 was
increased by a factor 1000 (103), the numerical part of the expression was
decreased by a factor of 1000 (103). Next, subtract 0.25 from 1.5 and multiply
the difference by 106, which is the power of 10 common to both terms. This
gives us (1.5 2 0.25) 3 106 or 1.25 3 106. Notice that the final answer is
already in scientific notation. In summary, (1.5 3 106) 2 (250 3 103) 5
(1.5 3 106) 2 (0.25 3 106) 5 (1.5 2 0.25) 3 106 5 1.25 3 106.

Introduction to Powers of 10 11
 ■ I–4 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Add the following terms expressed in powers of 10 notation. Express
the answers in scientific notation. (a) (470 3 104) 1 (55 3 106)
(b) (3.5 3 1022) 1 (1500 3 1025).
b. Subtract the following terms expressed in powers of 10 notation.
Express the answers in scientific notation. (a) (65 3 104) 2
(200 3 103) (b) (850 3 1023) 2 (3500 3 1024).

I–5 Multiplication and Division

Involving Powers of 10 Notation
When multiplying or dividing numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation, observe
the following rules.

Rule 11: When multiplying numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation,

multiply the numerical parts and powers of 10 separately. When
multiplying powers of 10, simply add the exponents to obtain the
new power of 10. Express the final answer in the desired form of
powers of 10 notation.

Rule 12: When dividing numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation, divide

the numerical parts and powers of 10 separately. When dividing
powers of 10, subtract the power of 10 in the denominator from
the power of 10 in the numerator. Express the final answer in the
desired form of powers of 10 notation.

Let’s take a look at a few examples.

Example I-11
Multiply (3 3 106) by (150 3 102). Express the final answer in scientific
notation.

ANSWER First, multiply 3 3 150 to obtain 450. Next, multiply 106 by 102
to obtain 106 3 102 5 10612 5 108. To review, (3 3 106) 3 (150 3 102) 5
(3 3 150) 3 (106 3 102) 5 450 3 10612 5 450 3 108. The final answer
expressed in scientific notation is 4.5 3 1010.

Example I-12
Divide (5.0 3 107) by (2.0 3 104). Express the final answer in scientific notation.

ANSWER First, divide 5 by 2 to obtain 2.5. Next, divide 107 by 104 to

5.0 3 107 5 __
obtain 10724 5 103. To review, ________ 107 5 2.5 3 103.
5 3 ___
2.0 3 104 2 104
Notice that the final answer is already in scientific notation.

12 Introduction
 ■ I–5 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Multiply the following numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation.
Express your answers in scientific notation. (a) (3.3 3 1022) 3
(4.0 3 1023) (b) (2.7 3 102) 3 (3 3 1025).
b. Divide the following numbers expressed in powers of 10 notation.
Express your answers in scientific notation. (a) (7.5 3 108) ÷
(3.0 3 104) (b) (15 3 1026) ÷ (5 3 1023).

I–6 Reciprocals with Powers of 10

Taking the reciprocal of a power of 10 is really just a special case of division using
powers of 10 because 1 in the numerator can be written as 100 since 100 5 1. With
zero as the power of 10 in the numerator, taking the reciprocal results in a sign
change for the power of 10 in the denominator. Let’s take a look at an example to
clarify this point.

Example I-13
Find the reciprocals for the following powers of 10: (a) 105 (b) 1023.

ANSWER (a) ___ 100 5 100–5 5 1025; therefore, ___

1 5 ___ 1 5 1025.
105 105 105
1 5 ____
(b) ____ 100 5 1002(23) 5 103; therefore, ____
1 5 103.
23
10 1023 1023
Notice that in both (a) and (b), the power of 10 in the denominator is
subtracted from zero, which is the power of 10 in the numerator.

Here’s a simple rule for reciprocals of powers of 10.

Rule 13: When taking the reciprocal of a power of 10, simply change the
sign of the exponent or power of 10.

Negative Powers of 10
Recall that a power of 10 indicates how many times the base, 10, is to be mul-
tiplied by itself. For example, 104 5 10 3 10 3 10 3 10. But you might ask
how this definition fits with negative powers of 10. The answer is that nega-
tive powers of 10 are just reciprocals of positive powers of 10. For example,
1 5 _________________
1024 5 ___ 1 .
104 10 3 10 3 10 3 10

■ I–6 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Take the reciprocals of each of the powers of 10 listed.
(a) 1024 (b) 109 (c) 10218 (d) 100.

Introduction to Powers of 10 13
 I–7 Squaring Numbers Expressed
in Powers of 10 Notation
When squaring a number expressed in powers of 10 notation, observe the follow-
ing rule.

Rule 14: To square a number expressed in powers of 10 notation, square

the numerical part of the expression and double the power of 10.
Express the answer in the desired form of powers of 10 notation.

Example I-14
Square 3.0 3 104. Express the answer in scientific notation:

ANSWER First, square 3.0 to obtain 9.0. Next, square 104 to obtain
(104)2 5 108. Therefore, (3.0 3 104)2 5 9.0 3 108.

■ I–7 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Obtain the following answers and express them in scientific notation.
(a) (4.0 3 1022)2 (b) (6.0 3 105)2 (c) (2.0 3 1023)2.

I–8 Square Roots of Numbers Expressed

in Powers of 10 Notation
When taking the square root of a number expressed in powers of 10 notation,
observe the following rule.

Rule 15: To find the square root of a number expressed in powers of 10

notation, take the square root of the numerical part of the
expression and divide the power of 10 by 2. Express the answer
in the desired form of powers of 10 notation.

Example I-15
Find the square root of 4 3 106. Express the answer in scientific notation.
_______ __ ___
ANSWER Ï4 3 106 5 Ï4 3 Ï106 5 2 3 103
Notice that the answer is already in scientific notation.

14 Introduction

Figure I–1 Scientific calculator
(Sharp EL–531 X).
GOOD TO KNOW
When entering the number
25 3 1026, do not press the
multiplication (3) key and then
enter the number 10 prior to
pressing the EXP key. If you do,
the number you are intending to
enter (25 3 1026) will be larger
than it should be by a factor of
10. Since pressing the EXP key is
equivalent to entering 31000, you
do not have to duplicate these
steps! If you enter 310 prior to
pressing the EXP key, this is
what you have actually entered:
25 3 10 3 1026 which is
equivalent to 250.000 3 1026.
Introduction to Powers of 10
sch73874_intro_002-021.indd 15
Example I-16
Find the square root of 90 3 105. Express the answer in scientific notation.
ANSWER The problem can be simplified if we increase the power of 10
from 105 to 106 and decrease the_______
________ numerical part
__ of the___
expression from 90 to 9.
This gives us ​Ï90 3 105 ​ 5 ​Ï9 3 106 ​ 5 ​Ï9 ​ 3 ​Ï106 ​ 5 3.0 3 103. Again,
the answer is already in scientific notation.
■ I–8 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. Obtain________
the following __________
answers and express them in scientific notation.
_________
​ 160 3 1025 ​(c) ​Ï25 3 1028 ​.
(a) ​Ï36 3 104 ​(b) Ï
I–9 The Scientific Calculator
Throughout your study of electronics, you will make several calculations involving
numerical values that are expressed in decimal, scientific, or engineering notation.
In most cases, you will want to use a scientific calculator to aid you in your calcula-
tions. Be sure to select a calculator that can perform all of the mathematical func-
tions and operations that you will encounter in your study of electronics. Also, make
sure the calculator you select can store and retrieve mathematical results from one
or more memory locations. If the school or industry responsible for your training
does not recommend or mandate a specific calculator, be sure to ask your instructor
or supervisor for his or her recommendation on which calculator to buy. And finally,
once you have purchased your calculator, carefully read the instructions that are in-
cluded with it. At first, you may not understand many of your calculators functions
and features, but as you progress in your studies, you will become more familiar
with them. Figure I–1 shows an example of a typical scientific calculator.
Entering and Displaying Values
Scientific calculators typically have four notation systems for displaying calculation
results: floating decimal notation, fixed decimal notation (FIX), scientific notation
(SCI), and engineering notation (ENG). The calculator display typically shows the
current notation system being used. When the FIX, SCI, or ENG symbol is dis-
played, the number of digits to the right of the decimal point can usually be set to any
value from 0 to 9. With floating decimal notation, however, there is no set number of
digits displayed for any given answer. For the examples that follow, assume that the
calculator has been set to display three digits to the right of the decimal point.
Most scientific calculators have a key labeled EXP   , EE , or 310^ for entering
the exponents associated with scientific and engineering notation. When entering a
number expressed in any form of powers of 10 notation, always enter the numeri-
cal part of the expression first, followed by the exponent or power of 10. Use the
change sign 1/2 key for entering negative exponents or for changing the sign of
an existing exponent. To illustrate an example, the keystrokes involved in entering
the number 25 3 1026 would be as follows:
2   5 EXP 1/2 6
(Some calculators require that you press the 1/2 key after the exponent is entered.)
It must be understood that pressing the EXP key is the same as entering 31000.
After the EXP key is pressed, the exponent in 1000 can be changed to any desired
15
6/12/17 7:18 PM
 value, which is 10206 in this case. Most calculators will display the value just entered
as either
25.000 3 10206 or 25E-06
For 25E-06, the base 10 is implied by the uppercase letter E.
Most students, like yourself, are very comfortable with decimal notation because
you have been exposed to it your entire life. In contrast, this chapter may be your
first exposure to engineering notation. As a result, you may be tempted to enter and
display all the values in decimal notation rather than engineering notation. For ex-
ample, you may find yourself entering 47 kV as
4 7 0 0 0 (decimal notation)
instead of
4 7 EXP 3 (engineering notation)
Entering and displaying values in decimal notation is a bad habit to get into for two
reasons:
1. Very small and very large values cannot be entered in decimal notation
because most calculators have only an 8- or 10-digit display.
2. Mentally converting between decimal and engineering notation is
cumbersome and time-consuming, not to mention the fact that this
practice is prone to error.
The main argument against using decimal notation is that most calculations encoun-
tered in electronics involve the use of the metric prefixes and hence engineering
notation. By entering and displaying all values in engineering notation, you will be
forced to learn the metric prefixes and their corresponding powers of 10.
When entering and displaying values in engineering notation remember that:
10212 5 pico (p) 103 5 kilo (k)
1029 5 nano (n) 106 5 mega (M)
1026 5 micro (m) 109 5 giga (G)
1023 5 milli (m) 1012 5 tera (T)

Example I-17
Show the keystrokes for multiplying 40 3 1023 by 5 3 106.

ANSWER The keystrokes would be as follows:

4 0 EXP 1/ 2 3 3 5 EXP 6 5
In engineering notation, the answer would be displayed as either
200.000 3 1003 or 200E03
As mentioned earlier, take the time to read the instruction manual for your calculator and keep it with you for future reference.
I guarantee you, it will come in handy!

■ I–9 Self-Review
Answers at the end of the chapter.
a. When using a scientific calculator for the calculations encountered in
electronics, decimal notation is the preferred notation system when
entering and displaying values. (True/False)
b. Which key on a scientific calculator is used to enter the exponents
associated with scientific and engineering notation?

16 Introduction
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
assez que cette unité, naturelle chez nous et qui date de loin, ne
pouvait être brusquement imposée à la grande diversité suisse. Le
Directoire pencha trop exclusivement pour ceux-ci. La haute faveur
surtout que Berne, Bâle, Genève, montraient à nos ennemis, Anglais
et émigrés, l’indisposait. Sauf la Réveillère, ex-girondin, toujours
fédéraliste, les directeurs furent pour le gouvernement unitaire de la
Suisse, et en même temps mirent la main sur Genève, dont on fit un
département.
Acte injustifiable, certes, si à ce moment même on n’eût vu venir
une nouvelle coalition qui pour premier poste aurait pris Genève. Par
le grand débouché du Rhône sur notre frontière, Genève semble
une porte de la France.
Nous ne raconterons pas ces événements ni l’enlèvement du
petit trésor de Berne, que Bonaparte prit pour l’Égypte. En revanche,
le Directoire montra sa confiance à la nouvelle Berne, régénérée, en
lui rendant son magnifique parc d’artillerie. Ce gouvernement des
Laharpe, des Stapfer, unificateurs de la Suisse, ne fut pas populaire,
et on lui a gardé rancune, même de ses bienfaits. On a trop oublié
qu’il aida à repousser de la Suisse, de l’Europe, l’invasion des
Russes, alors si rudes et si barbares avec leur barbare Suvarow. On
a trop oublié aussi que ce gouvernement fut le protecteur, le premier
promoteur, à Stanz, à Berne, des écoles de Pestalozzi, qui, plus
tard, d’Yverdon, débordèrent, fécondèrent le monde de leur vivant
esprit.
La Hollande, non moins diverse de races et d’éléments que la
Suisse, provoquait les mêmes questions. La majorité était-elle pour
l’incohérence et la diversité antique, ou pour l’unification moderne
qui se produisit alors sous la forme de la république batave ? C’était
un grand problème et nullement de ceux où le nombre seul fait le
droit.
Dans tous les temps, ce pays mixte a offert les deux partis, de la
mer, de la terre, peut-être également nombreux. Mais il y a cette
grande différence : le premier a fait la gloire du pays, c’est celui de la
république, alors maîtresse des mers ; le second parti, celui du
stathouder, est celui de la décadence, et c’est par lui que la Hollande
ne va plus qu’à la remorque de l’Angleterre, comme une chaloupe
derrière un vaisseau.
Moi, je décide ici, comme dans le procès des deux mères devant
Salomon. Il faut d’abord que l’enfant vive. Or ce n’était pas vivre
pour la Hollande, que d’être une province anglaise, labourant,
sillonnant la terre, au lieu de sillonner la mer, son élément.
Dans un admirable tableau de Van der Helst qui est à
Amsterdam, on voit merveilleusement la question. C’est un repas
municipal où figurent les deux partis. Rien de plus saisissant. Ceux
qui donnent le repas, les bons gros marins, à cheveux noirs, figures
réjouies, et fortes mains calleuses, offrent avec bonhomie cette
franche main aux cavaliers, hommes plus fins, à cheveux blonds, qui
viennent sous la jaune livrée de la maison d’Orange. Ceux-ci osent à
peine s’asseoir, se sentant là trop déplacés. On a envie de crier à
ces noirs, à ces figures ouvertes et franches de marins : « Défiez-
vous de ces fins cavaliers et de ces blanches mains !… Ils ne
montrent que leurs rapières. Mais qui sait si, dessous, ils n’ont pas
de stylet ? »
En effet, ces beaux gentilshommes, la veille de notre révolution,
trahissaient deux fois la Hollande, en appelant l’Anglais d’un côté, la
Prusse de l’autre [113] .
[113] J’ajourne le triomphe de Nelson à Naples, les
honteuses fêtes et les tragédies qui suivirent. J’ajourne
les courses conquérantes de Championnet en Italie, puis
la mort de Joubert, — Joubert vengé par Masséna dans
sa grande bataille de Zurich et sa victoire sur Suvarow.
Bataille immense qui fut gagnée sur un théâtre de
cinquante lieues de long. Ces objets si importants me
détourneraient trop de l’intrigue intérieure, mon sujet
principal, jusqu’ici si peu éclairci.
 CHAPITRE II
PIÉMONT. — DE MAISTRE. — MANIFESTE SANGLANT DE LA

CONTRE-RÉVOLUTION.

La débonnaireté de Carnot et l’astuce de Bonaparte avaient,

comme on a vu, sauvé Turin, le vrai centre des émigrés. Par cette
première faute l’Italie fut manquée. Il fallut Fructidor et la grande
explosion qu’il amena en Europe pour donner une nouvelle
impulsion, surtout pour arracher de sa base immobile le Piémont, le
vrai roi de la contre-révolution.
La Sodome de Rome n’était que pourriture. Et la sanglante
bacchanale de Naples, avec sa barbarie lubrique, n’en laissait pas
moins soupçonner une autre Naples. Mais à voir la face morne de
Turin, qui eût cru qu’il y eût rien autre que la mort en dessous.
C’était le centre de l’émigration, beaucoup plus que Vérone et la
cour bavarde du prétendant. Il y avait là une vraie passion, toujours
vivante, inextinguible, celle de madame Adélaïde. Ici, c’était tout
autre chose que la frivole Marie-Antoinette et la débridée Caroline. Il
y avait un vrai démon. La Polonaise incestueuse, qui, pendant dix
années, eut cette étrange royauté, n’y renonça jamais, attendit la
mort d’Antoinette et n’y vit qu’une délivrance. Personne, par ses
libelles et sa haine toujours éveillée, n’y contribua davantage. Le
temps ne faisait rien sur celle terrible femme. A soixante et soixante-
dix ans, elle était jeune de haine.
Elle avait trouvé à Turin des âmes dignes d’elle. Le bigotisme
militaire, durci de siècle en siècle, les avait trempées pour le crime.
Les persécutions toujours renouvelées des innocents Vaudois des
Alpes leur inoculaient dans le sang un génie de bourreaux. De
pieuses dames surtout poussaient leurs maris, leurs amants, à cette
bonne œuvre de laver du sang hérétique les péchés de libertinage.
Et ces fureurs barbares du versant italien se retrouvaient au nord
des Alpes, au versant savoyard. La Savoie, peuple ardent sous un
climat glacé, au seizième siècle, dans les douces missions de saint
François de Sales, s’était massacrée elle-même. Au dix-huitième
siècle, les victimes manquaient, ayant passé à Genève, à Lausanne.
Mais les fureurs ne manquaient pas. Voltaire, avec finesse, avait vu
et prédit, que les derniers barbares dans ce siècle de tolérance se
trouveraient dans les magistrats. C’est une maladie en effet chez
ceux qui, de père en fils, ont l’habitude de juger, condamner,
disposer de la vie humaine, c’est une maladie d’éprouver le besoin
de toujours exercer cette terrible fonction. Et je ne parle pas du
plaisir sanguinaire qu’y pouvaient prendre certains hommes, mais
plutôt de l’orgueil d’exercer une si haute autorité.
Après le pouvoir de Dieu, qui est créer, le pouvoir le plus haut,
sans doute, est de tuer. Voilà pourquoi il devient nécessaire à ceux
qui légalement l’ont eu une fois.
Ce fut le génie du plus grand écrivain de la Restauration, de
Maistre, juge de Chambéry, dont l’audacieux petit livre, nullement
défensif, prit au contraire la Raison à partie, et la somma de se
défendre.
Pour faire un pareil livre, exclure à ce point la lumière, il fallait
être non pas ignorant, mais bien cultivé de fausse science et
d’absurdité, avoir toujours vécu dans une prétendue science
scolastique et de séminaires.
Ainsi dans certaines vallées des Alpes où le soleil n’atteint pas à
midi, il y a non un faible jour, mais, ce qui est pis, un jour faux, des
apparences, des brouillards ; sur des endroits glacés, au plus stérile,
des pointes aiguës, brillantes, qui font illusion.
L’auteur a si bien réussi, que, même à midi, le soleil n’atteint pas
sa vallée. Depuis Bossuet et la fin de Louis XIV, il ignore tout,
partant, méprise tout, rejette tout d’ensemble et sans contestation.
 Tout ce qu’il sait du monde, c’est la chute, et la belle justice
chrétienne où l’innocent expie pour le coupable.
« Ne nous affligeons pas des grands massacres d’innocents qui
ont toujours lieu sur la terre. » C’est la méthode par laquelle le
jardinier céleste, en élaguant les branches, les rend fécondes. Là,
l’auteur énumère les massacres immenses qu’a permis Dieu ; il
semble qu’il y ait plaisir, et que (comme dans le taurobole antique) il
se ravive au bain de sang.
Ce livre était fait pour avoir beaucoup plus de succès que
l’Homme de désir et autres productions du doux mystique Saint-
Martin. La Terreur blanche du Midi, de la Vendée, y trouvait des
arguments à son usage, et dut croire qu’elle aussi entrait aux vues
de Dieu.
L’ouvrage parut en 96 pendant la brillante campagne d’Italie.
L’auteur visiblement pense déjà à Bonaparte, et remarque que les
plus brillants capitaines de la république sont des nobles ou des
anoblis.
Mais là, la prévision prophétique, qu’il a l’air de revendiquer,
l’abandonne visiblement. Il ne parle que de Monk, de la restauration
anglaise. Il ne fait nullement la différence entre notre révolution et la
leur. Il ne voit pas plus loin que M. Pitt et autres politiques, qui
croyaient que Bonaparte s’en tiendrait au rôle de Monk.
L’endroit où il faiblit, c’est justement celui où il veut rassurer sur la
vengeance royaliste. Il vante la clémence du Roi, et la douceur des
émigrés, en avouant pourtant qu’on sera juste. Ce qui revient au mot
du temps : « Le Roi pardonnera ; mais les tribunaux feront justice. »
En attendant, triomphait sur le Rhône la justice du poignard. Au
Piémont, des exécutions militaires s’exerçaient sur les patriotes ou
les libres penseurs, malgré les réclamations du ministre français
Ginguené. Un savant ecclésiastique s’était marié à Turin, et passait
pour avoir les opinions hardies, quoique modérées. On le fusille,
malgré le ministre de France.
Le livre de De Maistre, qui semblait promettre Bonaparte, fut en
réalité le manifeste de la contre-révolution.
 CHAPITRE III
LE DIRECTOIRE DÉCIMÉ. — PRAIRIAL 1799.

Tout Dieu naît d’un nuage.

Excellent axiome mythologique.
Il y faut ajouter les mirages, les fausses lueurs qui donnent au
nuage l’apparence d’un corps.
Mais comment cette œuvre de fraude peut-elle se perpétuer, et
quels sont les moyens de continuer, de refaire l’œuvre d’illusion ?
Grave question politique.
Je l’avais étudiée, mais je croyais que cela avait un terme, et
que, surtout après 1870, on y renoncerait, qu’on laisserait la vérité
captive si longtemps percer le nuage.
Nulle époque dans l’histoire n’est plus obscure, je veux dire plus
savamment obscurcie, que 1800, la fin du Directoire.
Des révélations attendues, une seule paraît enfin, cette année
1872 : les Mémoires de la Réveillère-Lepeaux. Mais ce grand
citoyen, admirable narrateur pour Fructidor, est moins clair et fort
bref pour les temps qui suivent ; il mentionne trop sommairement ce
qu’il appelle « les intrigues des frères Bonaparte, » etc.
Nous attendions aussi les Mémoires de Barras (par Saint-Albin),
qui, je crois, a été trop sévèrement jugé.
Nous attendions les Mémoires de Réal, qui furent présentés sur
une épreuve unique au roi Louis-Philippe, si curieux d’histoire
contemporaine.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 Mais, indépendamment des causes latentes qui peu à peu se
révèlent, d’autres causes visibles menaient le Directoire à sa perte.
On prévoyait la guerre. La Réveillère lui-même, devant la
coalition qui se formait, grandie de l’alliance russe, avait dit : « La
guerre est nécessaire. »
Pour en payer les frais, on eut recours à une ressource fort
dangereuse : on rétablit l’octroi, avec les grotesques forteresses des
fameuses barrières de Paris, dont plusieurs subsistent encore.
Au milieu de l’irritation causée par cette mesure, arriva la
nouvelle de l’assassinat de nos envoyés, tués par les Autrichiens à
Rastadt.
Déjà des traitements barbares, infligés aux prisonniers français
en Angleterre, indiquaient qu’aux yeux de nos ennemis, un Français
n’était plus un homme. Cette inhumanité nous fut très-profitable. Elle
remonta, tendit le nerf national. Nous retrouvâmes l’élan de 92. Une
nouvelle génération, surgit, non moins brave, et bien plus
disciplinée. A cette époque, le culte de la république était si fort
encore, qu’on l’opposait comme une autre religion aux barbares et
fanatiques soldats de Suvarow.
La loi de la conscription (réquisition perpétuelle) fut proposée par
Jourdan, votée avec enthousiasme. L’élan fut tel que le
gouvernement se trouva fort embarrassé de suivre un mouvement si
rapide.
Au milieu de cet élan guerrier, éclata le désastre d’Aboukir.
Le Directoire, apprenant ce malheur, causé surtout par la
négligence de Bonaparte, qui n’approvisionnait pas la flotte, ne
l’accusa pas en séance publique, mais assembla le Corps législatif
dans la Bibliothèque. Là eut lieu une vive contestation entre les
frères de Bonaparte et ses adversaires (certainement la Réveillère-
Lepeaux) [114] .
[114] Le roi Joseph, dans ses Mémoires, nous a
donné cette anecdote, t. I.
 Les frères virent désormais dans celui-ci leur principal obstacle,
et commencèrent contre lui une guerre singulière. Ils se plaignaient
des dépenses du Directoire, ils accusaient surtout le plus économe,
le plus sévère des Directeurs, celui qui ne dépensait rien.
Avec deux mots, déficit et octroi, plus d’impôt sur les choses
nécessaires à la vie du pauvre, — on commença une guerre terrible
contre les Directeurs, surtout contre la Réveillère, la vraie colonne, la
pierre de l’angle du Directoire. Lui tombé, on le savait bien, tout était
abattu.
Sa figure magnifique (voy. au Cabinet des Estampes) en donne
une grande idée. Et ses épaules un peu voûtées ne font qu’exagérer
l’impression d’indomptable résistance qu’exprime cette figure. — Lui
seul était la Loi.
La Réveillère n’avait qu’un tort, d’exiger qu’un moment si trouble
fût conduit par l’ordre rigoureux de la paix, et de vouloir soumettre
les généraux aux commissaires civils. — On destitue Championnet,
le conquérant de Naples, aimé de l’Italie, malgré les contributions
qu’il était obligé de demander aux Italiens.
La situation ne permettait guère cette rigoureuse austérité. —
Nos généraux, dans de telles circonstances, devaient avoir quelque
latitude, ne pas être gênés par les agents civils.
Derrière cette idée fort juste, beaucoup d’intrigues se cachaient.
Les bonapartistes hardiment, sous le masque patriotique, étaient
prêts à se porter à de grandes violences. Barras flottait, et, trop
heureux de rester au pouvoir, s’était mis du côté des violents.
Ici s’ouvrit une scène mémorable. Cet étourdi Barras, oubliant le
ferme courage de celui à qui il parlait, osa dire à la Réveillère : « Eh
bien, c’est fait ! les sabres sont tirés ! » et par là s’attira cette
foudroyante réponse : « Misérable ! que parles-tu de sabres ? Il n’y a
ici que des couteaux, et ils sont dirigés contre des hommes
irréprochables que vous voulez égorger ! »
Il résista tout le jour, ne céda que le soir, réfléchissant sans doute
qu’un massacre dans Paris encouragerait nos ennemis, refroidirait
l’élan des nôtres. Donc il céda au parti militaire, quoiqu’il vît bien
l’intrigue qui s’y mêlait, et qui en profiterait. — Il dit : « Je cède. Mais
la république est perdue ! »
Il se retira, nu et pauvre, en refusant les sommes qu’en cas de
retraite, on devait donner aux Directeurs.

Des nouveaux directeurs, un seul, Roger-Ducos, était dans les

intrigues des frères de Bonaparte et fut l’un des principaux
machinateurs de l’usurpation.
Les autres, Gohier, Moulins, étaient des hommes nuls, mais
assez estimés, et qui avaient un bon renom de patriotes. Au reste, la
faction, dans l’absence de Bonaparte, et loin encore de pouvoir
réaliser rien, devait à tout prix garder une apparence double, et
devant les armées, devant cette jeune conscription qui s’élançait, se
montrer révolutionnaire.
Ce fut une grande surprise, et qui charma les exaltés, qu’on fît
ministre de l’intérieur un des membres de l’ancien Comité de salut
public, le sage Lindet. Plus administrateur que politique, il ne pouvait
gêner les secrètes machinations. Le ministère de la guerre fut donné
fort utilement à Bernadotte, qui le réforma à merveille. Les jacobins
croyaient Bernadotte pour eux, quoiqu’il eût épousé une Clary et se
trouvât ainsi beau-frère de Joseph Bonaparte. Ce grand chasseur de
la fortune la poursuivait par deux voies à la fois, parent, ami, et
souvent ennemi de Napoléon, qui a fait sa grandeur tout en le
haïssant, par moments lui tendant des pièges.
Ce qui trompa le mieux, donna le change, c’est que, dans la
grande affaire où était le salut pour tous, le nouveau Directoire ne
prit pas le mot d’ordre de la belle société, des salons rétrogrades,
mais choisit l’homme qu’ils repoussaient le plus.
L’enthousiasme des aristocrates exaltait le Russe Suvarow,
vainqueur des Polonais, des Turcs et de nos armées d’Italie [115] , et
on ne portait à Paris que les bottes à la Suvarow, qu’avait mises à la
mode le hardi bottier Sakouski. Contre ces fanatiques Russes, si
braves et si barbares, nos conscrits de vingt ans pourraient-ils bien
tenir ? La chose était douteuse. Le Directoire, quel qu’il fût, ici était
obligé de marcher droit, de prendre le général qui, plus que
personne, avait fait les prodigieux succès de Bonaparte, de prendre
Masséna.
[115] Voir pour les détails de cette victoire, le tome III
du XIXe Siècle.

Ce choix extrêmement odieux à la haute société, qui avait fait

nommer Bonaparte en 96, était d’autant plus surprenant en 99, que
le même gouvernement venait, par le coup d’État de Prairial, de
chasser l’intime ami de Masséna, la Réveillère-Lepeaux, qui resta
son ami jusqu’à la mort [116] .
[116] Noble amitié, pour le dire en passant, et qui lave
suffisamment le grand capitaine des imputations que les
bonapartistes ont artificieusement portées contre lui,
employant à ces calomnies des hommes estimés,
censeurs aveugles qu’on trompait.
 CHAPITRE IV
LE MONDE EN 99. — LE SALON DE LA RUE DU BAC. —

MADAME DE STAËL. — JOSÉPHINE DANS SA PETITE MAISON

DE LA RUE CHANTEREINE.

Il eût été à désirer que madame de Staël, dans ses

Considérations, au lieu de parler de la Suisse, qu’elle connaît peu,
eût essayé de fixer par quelques coups de crayons le brillant pêle-
mêle qui s’agitait chez elle dans son hôtel, fréquenté de tous les
partis. On en sait les traits généraux et les figures marquantes. Je ne
dirai pas les meneurs. L’homme brillant, en 90, avait été l’aimable M.
de Narbonne, grand seigneur patriote. En 99, madame de Staël,
plus mûre, avait un ami plus jeune, le caustique Benjamin Constant,
républicain sincère, dont elle aimait la fine langue, les principes, et
les cheveux blonds.
Mais la porte n’était pas fermée. On recevait des hommes de
toute autre couleur. De jeunes émigrés alors peu connus,
Chateaubriand entre autres, y étaient accueillis avec bonté. —
Même des personnages suspects, le grand propriétaire Vendéen
que nous avons vu à Paris en Fructidor. Comment fermer sa porte à
un homme tellement titré ?
Ce qui m’étonne davantage, c’est d’y voir à côté de celui qui
comprima Fructidor, le héros jacobin Augereau. De cet enfant du
faubourg Saint-Marceau on cite une jolie réponse, si fine, que
personne ne la comprit, mais qui est remarquable comme
condescendance flatteuse du jacobin à la société aristocratique.
Madame de Staël demandait : « Bonaparte se fera-t-il roi ? »
Augereau dit : « Madame, c’est un jeune homme trop bien élevé
pour cela. » (C’est-à-dire : pour prendre la place du roi son maître et
ancien bienfaiteur ?)
Dans cette foule, il n’y avait pas combat d’opinions. La brillante et
candide maîtresse de maison, quoique sincèrement patriote,
justement à ce titre, exaltait Bonaparte.
Dans l’incertitude où l’on était encore des succès de Masséna,
tout le public attendait, appelait l’heureux retour du héros de Syrie.
Le gouvernement publiait, et tout le monde croyait ses bulletins
quels qu’ils fussent. Quoiqu’on pût s’informer par les petites barques
grecques qui, en tout temps, traversent la mer, on aimait bien mieux
croire aux flatteuses nouvelles : on célébrait la destruction de Saint-
Jean d’Acre, on changeait la petite bataille d’Aboukir, la dernière qu’il
livra avant de rentrer en France (25 juillet 99) en une grande défaite
des armées anglo-turques.
Qui n’y croyait était suspect, et sans doute mauvais citoyen.
On faisait mille romans, mille vaines conjectures sur l’avenir
possible du héros. La grande majorité croyait, d’après les
vraisemblances, et les idées si bien indiquées par M. de Maistre,
qu’il restaurerait le Roi, et que comme connétable ou autrement, il
tâcherait de régner, comme un arbitre armé nécessaire entre les
partis.
Et pour lequel pencherait-il dans la question essentielle ? dans la
question souveraine dont les intéressés parlaient d’autant moins
qu’ils y pensaient le plus : la question des biens nationaux. Là, le
pêle-mêle apparent du monde était tranché, et chacun au dedans
jugeait des projets de Bonaparte, selon des intérêts divers. On
regardait ses frères, et on en tirait quelque augure. A juger par
Lucien et d’après la jeunesse jacobine de Bonaparte lui-même, on
augurait qu’il favoriserait le parti révolutionnaire, les acquéreurs de
biens nationaux. Mais sa sage conduite en Italie, où il avait si
fermement empêché le partage des propriétés de l’Église, faisait
croire qu’il aurait plutôt l’esprit de Joseph, et qu’il pourrait ménager
un traité, peut-être une restitution partielle aux émigrés, anciens
propriétaires.
 Bref, tout le monde espérait en lui.

A l’autre bout de Paris, chez Joséphine, dans un petit salon de la

rue Chantereine, aux dernières heures de la soirée, on laissait partir
les dissidents, surtout les frères de Bonaparte bavards, peu
bienveillants pour la maîtresse de la maison qu’ils jalousaient. Vers
minuit, il ne restait guère que les gens les plus sûrs, surtout des
royalistes émigrés de Londres, à qui on pouvait tout dire. Je crois
entendre parler la créole expansive à cette heure. Ses sentiments
étaient ceux de la réaction depuis l’échec de Fructidor. L’espoir des
royalistes commençait à se porter sur Bonaparte qui ne manquait
aucune occasion de leur donner des assurances secrètes. En son
absence, Joséphine et ses plus intimes faisaient mesurer la distance
où l’on était de l’année précédente, du moment où Bonaparte avait
quitté la France, et l’énorme pas que, par la guerre, avait fait le parti
jacobin. Un million d’hommes allait se lever, ne sentait-on pas la
terre trembler ? Par sa nouvelle loi de conscription, la France
devenait un terrible foyer de guerre.
Il fallait, non pas le roi seulement, mais sous lui une main ferme
qui assistée des amis, des Anglais, permît au roi de contenir tous
ces éléments dangereux.
« Ah ! pourquoi Bonaparte n’est-il pas ici, soupirait Joséphine.
C’est à lui seul que je me fierais, contre l’Europe et surtout contre
ces généraux jacobins qui, bien loin de contenir l’incendie, vont le
répandre, Augereau m’effraye par ses liaisons avec les faubourgs.
Et ce rusé Bernadotte, quoique parent et ami n’en est pas moins
disposé à jouer à Bonaparte le plus mauvais tour. Bernadotte est
peut-être le plus dangereux.
« Le Directoire craint que Bonaparte ne soit trop fort. Moi je
crains qu’il ne soit trop faible, une fois tombé dans ce guêpier de
généraux. Qui sait si on ne lui prépare pas son rival heureux
Masséna, dans le cas où Masséna serait vainqueur des Russes ?
Mais Bonaparte reviendra-t-il jamais ! Si j’étais le roi d’Angleterre, je
n’écouterais pas ce fou de Nelson qui veut empêcher son retour.
Revenu ici, il prêterait au roi, et aux Anglais son épée victorieuse.
Lui seul est capable d’écarter, de subordonner ces dangereux
rivaux, opposer des digues à cet océan de feu qu’en appelle la
Révolution [117] . »
[117] Ces paroles prêtées à madame Bonaparte ne
sont nullement fictives. Madame de Rémusat dit, dans
ses Mémoires, que Joséphine était « expansive et même
souvent un peu indiscrète dans ses confidences. Et que,
pour se tirer d’affaire pendant la campagne d’Égypte, elle
se compromettait par d’imprudentes relations. »
Bonaparte à son retour l’obligea de rompre avec la
société du Directoire, mais non avec le parti de la
réaction. Au contraire, lorsqu’il fut devenu consul « il
profita des qualités douces et gracieuses de sa femme
pour attirer à sa cour ceux que sa rudesse naturelle aurait
effarouchés ; il lui laissa le soin du retour des émigrés.
Presque toutes les radiations passaient par les mains de
madame Bonaparte. »
M. Michelet par son génie d’intuition semble avoir été
témoin et auditeur autant que madame de Rémusat. La
concordance des deux récits est frappante.

A. M.
 CHAPITRE V
COMMENT BONAPARTE OBTINT DE SORTIR D’ÉGYPTE.

C’est en 1839 seulement que ce mystère a été révélé à l’Europe

par un livre arabe que peu de gens ont lu, quoique traduit par M.
Desgranges, professeur au Collège de France.
Jusque-là, ni les Français ni les Anglais n’ont voulu ébruiter ce
secret, les premiers par amour-propre national, les seconds de peur
qu’on ne prît pour une trahison de leurs ministres et de leurs
amiraux, ce qui ne fut qu’une combinaison politique, astucieuse,
mais malheureuse en résultat pour l’Angleterre et pour la France.
Le narrateur mérite la plus grande confiance. C’est un homme
simple, honnête, qui avait le plus grand intérêt à savoir et être bien
informé, de plus, partisan de Bonaparte et des Français, près
desquels il résida trois années. Il s’appelait Nakoula ; c’était un
Syrien que le chef des Druses tenait près de nos généraux pour être
informé de tous les actes de ceux dont il espérait la délivrance de
son pays. Le départ de Bonaparte fut un événement terrible pour les
Syriens, et celui de tous dont ils tinrent certainement à savoir le
détail.
Bonaparte, d’abord, craignant de ne pouvoir sortir d’Égypte, avait
fait au Caire, devant les Ulémas, un discours violent contre le
Christianisme, disant : « qu’après avoir renié et détruit cette religion,
il était bien loin d’embrasser de nouveau la foi chrétienne [118] . »
[118] Nakoula, quoique chrétien, rapporte ceci sans
réflexion, p. 50.

Mais peu après, Bonaparte, sans doute averti des événements

de la France par les petites barques grecques qui, en tout temps,
parcourent la Méditerranée, conçut un autre plan, espéra son
retour [119] .
[119] Bonaparte dit, lui-même : « Je reçus des lettres
de France ; je vis qu’il n’y avait pas un instant à perdre. »
(Mém. de madame de Rémusat, t. I, p. 274).

« A peine arrivé à Alexandrie, il se disposa à partir ; on prépara

trois bâtiments sur lesquels il fit porter, pendant la nuit, des coffres
remplis de pierres précieuses, d’armes magnifiques, de
marchandises, d’étoffes et d’objets qu’il avait gagnés dans la guerre.
Il avait aussi avec lui de jeunes Mamelucks attachés à son service,
et qu’il avait richement habillés.
« Ces préparatifs terminés, il donna un grand dîner au général
Smith, général en chef des Anglais. Ce dernier, à l’époque où les
Français avaient levé le siège de Saint-Jean d’Acre, était venu avec
des vaisseaux devant Alexandrie. Il est d’usage parmi les
Européens, lorsqu’ils ne sont point en position de se livrer des
combats, de se voir réciproquement, quoique d’ailleurs ils soient en
guerre. Bonaparte témoigna donc au général Smith toutes sortes de
prévenances, et lui fit des cadeaux de prix. Il lui demanda ensuite, et
obtint la permission d’expédier trois petits bâtiments en France. Le
général Smith étant retourné la nuit même sur ses vaisseaux,
Bonaparte s’embarqua avec sa suite et sortit du canal par un vent
violent. Deux jours après, le général Smith apprit son départ. Cette
nouvelle lui fit une grande impression ; il mit sur-le-champ à la voile
pour le poursuivre ; mais il ne put en apprendre aucune nouvelle.
Bonaparte saisissant l’occasion, s’était envolé, comme un oiseau de
sa cage [120] . »
[120] Nakoula, trad. par Desgranges, p. 150.

Selon un auteur Anglais [121] , Sidney Smith, pour s’éloigner et ne

point garder Bonaparte, prit le prétexte d’aller chercher en Chypre
son approvisionnement d’eau douce.
 [121] Que suit Mario Proth dans sa piquante histoire
qui, quoique satirique, est souvent très exacte.

Il était généreux, et un peu romanesque. Justement parce qu’il

avait à se plaindre de Bonaparte, qui naguère avait, avec insulte,
dédaigné son défi, il put avoir la tentation d’être magnanime.
Cependant, il est difficile de croire qu’il eût fait un tel acte qui pouvait
être accusé de trahison, sans être approuvé de son gouvernement.
Il est certain que les Anglais étaient fort indécis et divisés. Tandis
que les uns croyaient, comme Nelson, qu’il fallait le prendre, le
garder à tout prix, d’autres croyaient, d’après les royalistes de
France, qu’il ne pouvait revenir que pour rétablir les Bourbons. Mais
ce qui domina certainement, ce fut la crainte que Malte et l’Égypte
ne restassent à la France.
Bonaparte mit quarante-cinq jours pour faire cette petite
traversée, et dit, pour expliquer ce retard, qu’il avait pris le plus long,
par les côtes d’Afrique. Mais on peut croire aussi qu’il attendit le
laisser-passer. Si les Anglais l’accordèrent à la longue, c’est qu’ils y
avaient intérêt pour empêcher nos républicains de prévaloir
décidément sur les royalistes. Le général du parti révolutionnaire,
Masséna, qui, depuis un mois, avait gagné la grande bataille de
Zurich, vaincu les Russes [122] , n’avait qu’à revenir (même seul)
pour donner l’ascendant à son parti. Et dès lors toute la France était
jacobine, et Jourdan, Augereau, même Bernadotte eussent été avec
lui. — C’étaient eux probablement qui, abusant de la simplicité
héroïque de Masséna, l’avaient détourné de venir sur-le-champ, et
de paraître à Paris avec l’éclat de sa victoire.
[122] Voir le t. III du XIXe Siècle.

Dans cette situation menaçante pour les Anglais et la Coalition

vaincue, ils pouvaient croire habile d’accorder le retour à ce favori de
l’opinion, Bonaparte, qui, écartant Masséna et tous les généraux,
donnerait dans Paris et en France la victoire au parti des honnêtes
gens et des royalistes. Il est assez probable que Joséphine, si bonne
royaliste, ainsi que je l’ai dit, l’avait fait espérer.
 Après avoir relâché à Ajaccio, enfin il aborda à Fréjus (8 octobre
99). En France, il trouva la partie plus belle qu’il n’avait espéré lui-
même. Cette surprise subite, l’adresse ou la magie qui l’avaient fait
passer invisible à travers les flottes anglaises, sa conquête d’Égypte,
sa victoire supposée de Syrie, qu’il affirmait dans ses bulletins ; tout
cela porta l’enthousiasme jusqu’au délire.
Ce peuple, sauvé par la défaite des Russes, appelait, implorait
Bonaparte comme sauveur, et ne voulait devoir son salut qu’à lui.
C’est le grand thaumaturge qui va guérir d’un mot les plaies de la
patrie [123] .
[123] « Le Directoire frémit de mon retour ; je
m’observais beaucoup ; c’est une des époques de ma vie
où j’ai été le plus habile. Je voyais Sieyès et lui
promettais l’exécution de sa verbeuse constitution ; je
recevais les chefs des jacobins, les agents des
Bourbons ; je ne refusais de conseils à personne, mais je
n’en donnais que dans l’intérêt de mes plans. Je me
cachais au peuple parce que je savais que lorsqu’il en
serait temps la curiosité de me voir le précipiterait sur
mes pas. Chacun s’enferrait dans mes lacs », etc. (Mém.
de madame de Rémusat, t. I, p. 275.)

Bonaparte, en se retirant précipitamment de Saint-Jean d’Acre,

avait adressé à sa petite armée, mutilée et malade, une fort belle
proclamation qui la releva :
« Nous avons attaqué en vain l’Orient, nous partons pour
défendre la France contre l’Occident, etc. »
Ce noble discours, qui ravit les soldats, était celui de la situation.
Le nouveau Directoire semblait arrivé au dernier degré
d’impuissance. Personne ne soupçonnait les résultats grandioses et
terribles de la conscription. Des armées, non payées, peu nourries,
composées en partie de jeunes soldats, frappèrent deux coups
épouvantables sur deux armées très aguerries. D’une part, Brune,
sur les Anglais et le duc d’York, sur ces troupes si bien armées et si
fermes, qu’on citait pour modèles, avait reconquis la Hollande, tant
convoitée par eux, qu’ils estimaient déjà comme leur plus précieuse
province, comme Kent ou Essex. Ce n’est pas tout, il les réduisit à
cette extrémité de ne pouvoir échapper que par une capitulation.
Terrible mortification, et la plus forte qu’aient eue les Anglais depuis
un siècle.
D’autre part, Masséna, profitant à Zurich de ce que l’Autriche
avait séparé ses troupes, et porté l’archiduc au nord, plus à la portée
des Anglais, Masséna, dis-je, avait pris, divisé encore les
Autrichiens, les Russes, et en avait fait un grand massacre. Ces
barbares fanatiques, très braves et qui avaient vaincu les nôtres en
Italie, il les réduisit à chercher des passages inaccessibles, à passer
par un trou d’aiguille, je veux dire par un défilé si étroit, qu’un
homme seul pouvait y passer à la fois. Les canons, la cavalerie,
restèrent là, et presque toute l’infanterie, pour combler de cadavres
les profondes vallées des Alpes.
Ces prodigieux événements qui eurent lieu en septembre, ne
pouvaient être prévus le 20 mars, jour où Bonaparte, levant le siège
d’Acre, fit sa belle proclamation, où il promettait aux soldats de les
mener aux guerres de France.
Mais ce qu’il savait, c’est que la mer et les flottes qui avaient si
bien gardé Acre, empêcheraient le retour de l’armée. Donc il
trompait celle-ci. Il ne trompait pas moins Paris, à qui il annonçait
qu’il n’avait quitté Acre qu’après n’y avoir pas laissé pierre sur pierre.
 CHAPITRE VI
LE CABINET DE LONDRES AU MOMENT DU RETOUR

D’ÉGYPTE.

Les Anglais sont crus et se croient obstinés. Mille faits prouvent

pourtant qu’ils ont des changements rapides en sens divers, comme
les flots furieux qui se battent au détroit.
On ne me croirait pas sur les brusques mutations qui se firent de
97 à 1801, si je ne tirais tous les faits d’un livre fort sérieux, de
grande autorité [124] , fondé uniquement sur les correspondances et
documents divers, émanés des hommes politiques de ce temps-là
(Pitt, Fox, Grenville, Eldon, Malmesbury, etc.). L’auteur, qui fut
ministre lui-même et chancelier de l’Échiquier, a copié ces
documents avec l’intelligence de l’esprit où ils furent écrits.
[124] Cornewall Lewis, Histoire gouvernementale de
l’Angleterre.

Déjà, d’après ce livre, j’ai dit au commencement de ce présent

volume, le miracle de Pitt ; comment, trouvant la Couronne au plus
bas, il la relève, change tout à coup le Parlement, et donne au roi un
monde, l’administration des Indes.
Ce don est fait par un tout jeune homme, ministre, dix-sept ans,
et dont le ministère, interrompu trois ans, reprendra sous d’autres
après lui. Le roi dominé par sa rancune contre l’Amérique et la
France, partagea très longtemps l’entrain haineux de Pitt dans la
grande lutte, voyant, malgré tant de dépenses, le crédit qui montait
et le monde empressé à prêter son argent à l’Angleterre. Mais
l’essor des manufactures, puis les revers de 97, changèrent fort ce
courant d’argent et refroidirent le roi. Georges crut de plus en plus