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Earth’s Outermost Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Atmosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Hydrosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The Biosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The Geosphere: Earth’s Internal Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Internal Structure Based on Chemical Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Internal Structure Based on Physical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Major Features of the Continents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Shields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Stable Platforms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Folded Mountains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Summary of the Continents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
State of the Art: Mapping the Continents from Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Major Features of the Ocean Basins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The Oceanic Ridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The Abyssal Floor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Seamounts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Continental Margins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
ix
x Contents
Chapter 3 Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Atoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Isotopes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Ions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Bonding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
The Nature of Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Natural Inorganic Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
The Structure of Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
State of the Art: X-Ray Diffraction and the Structure of Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
The Composition of Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
The Physical Properties of Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Stability Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
The Growth and Destruction of Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Crystal Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Destruction of Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Silicate Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Rock-Forming Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Felsic Silicate Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Mafic Silicate Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Clay Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Nonsilicate Minerals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
GeoLogic: Internal Structure of Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
Preface
Planet Earth was first photographed from space more than 40 years ago by the astronauts of
the Apollo mission to the Moon. Since then a variety of satellites have given us supernatural
eyes in space. With sophisticated sensors we can “see” through clouds, observe features on the
ocean floor, and selectively image temperature, water vapor, ocean currents, and even patterns
of ancient river systems now buried beneath the sand of the Sahara Desert. New t echnology
has permitted us to penetrate deep into the interior of our planet and effectively X-ray its
internal structure. We can now “see” hot material in the interior moving in huge convective
systems, creating ocean basins, volcanic islands, and mountain systems.
With this era of enlightenment comes an increased awareness of how our planet is continually
changing and a fresh awareness of how fragile it is. Earth is a finite sphere with limited resources, so it
is impossible for the population to grow indefinitely. We may find more oil, gas, and coal by improved
detection methods, yet nature requires more than a million years to concentrate the oil we consumed
in one year. We have created nuclear waste, yet are unsure how to dispose of it safely. What can we do
about the fact that rivers today transport more agricultural and industrial waste than natural sedi-
ment? Is greenhouse heating real? The answers to these questions can be found only if we understand
Earth’s dynamic geologic systems with their many interdependent and interconnected components.
There are two major pathways for the flow of energy and matter on the planet: (1) the hydrologic
system—the circulation of water over Earth’s surface and through its atmosphere powered by energy
from the Sun, and (2) the tectonic system—the movement of material powered by heat from Earth’s
interior. Everything discussed in this book is related to these unifying themes.
Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology introduces these systems and will help students
to understand and participate in the solutions to some of the problems our society faces. It is written
for students taking their first college course in physical geology at both two- and four-year schools.
The book is divided in four parts. In Part I, we present Earth’s materials and how they are created
by geologic systems. In Part II, we discuss the hydrologic system by examining subsystems chapter by
chapter. Plate tectonics is the theme of Part III, with separate chapters on divergent, transform, and
convergent boundaries, as well as mantle plumes—the subsystems of the tectonic system. In Part IV, we
look back and apply the principles learned to see how Earth’s resources formed and just how different
our home in space is when compared with other planets.
Special attention has been placed on the illustrations so that the student can more fully experience
the excitement and satisfaction of visualizing and understanding geology. Many of the photographs
were taken specifically for this book. Photographs not otherwise credited were taken by W. Kenneth
Hamblin. Ken traveled the world driven by his desire to photographically capture Earth’s geologic
wonders in ways that illuminate geologic processes and that are not just pretty pictures. We strive to
present a fuller perspective in visualizing geology by using panoramic photographs of the landscape.
Panoramic photographs begin each chapter and provide the student with a visual summary of the
theme of the chapter.
An important element in the book is the use of digital topographic maps. The flood of new data on
seafloor and continental topography by defense and other governmental agencies has opened a new
window through which we can see the continents and seafloor in a more accurate and detailed fashion
than ever before. These colored, shaded relief maps are a visual and intellectual feast for those who
carefully study them.
Preface xxiii
A major feature of this book is a series of short essays that illustrate the scientific method. We call
these summary messages GeoLogic, as we attempt to show the logic behind using simple observations
to come to important conclusions about the way Earth works. The illustrations in these sections are
designed to take students from “seeing” to “understanding.” In addition, we use “The State of the Art”
essays to distill the important techniques used in modern geology into a few words and couple them with
some of the most spectacular and informative images available today. In these short essays, we show
how geologists come to understand the world around us, emphasizing not just “what we know” but
“how we know” it as well.
The real test of any textbook is how well it helps the student learn. I welcome opinions from students
and instructors who have used this book. Please address your comments, criticisms, and suggestions to:
Instructor Resources
Compatible with Windows® and Macintosh® platforms, the Instructor’s Media CD provides instructors
with the following:
• The PowerPoint Image Bank provides the illustrations, photographs, and tables (to which Jones &
Bartlett Learning holds the copyright or has permission to reproduce digitally) inserted into
PowerPoint slides. You can quickly and easily copy individual images or tables into your existing
lecture presentations.
• The PowerPoint Lecture Outline presentation package provides lecture notes and images for each
chapter of Dynamic Earth. Instructors with the Microsoft PowerPoint software can customize the
outlines, art, and order of presentation.
The Test Bank, provided as text files (with LMS-compatible options available), is offered online as a
secure download. Please contact your sales representative for more information.
xxiv Preface
Acknowledgments
Special thanks are expressed to the following colleagues for their many helpful comments and suggestions.
Pedagogy
Outline of Major Concepts
To help you focus on the key points, we have
identified them at the beginning of each chapter
under the title of “Major Concepts.”
Thesis Statements
A brief statement of the main idea of each section
is in a colored box.
Guiding Questions
Experience has shown that the most success-
ful students are those who read with a specific
purpose—those who read to answer a question.
Consequently, we have developed guiding ques-
tions that are presented in the margins next to
the appropriate text material. The questions are
intended to guide you in your study, stimulate
your curiosity, and help focus attention on impor-
tant concepts.
xxvi To the Student: How to Use This Book
Illustrations
You will find that careful study of the figures and captions is
one of the most useful methods of reviewing the content of the
chapter.
Key Terms
Important terms are printed in bold type. In the
Key Terms section at the end of each chapter, the
terms are listed alphabetically, with the number of
the page on which each appears. These terms are
also defined in the glossary at the end of the book.
Review Questions
These discussion questions are intended to reinforce the main concepts and stimulate further investiga-
tion by pointing out some of the intriguing questions on which scientists are working.
Illustrated Glossary
At the end of the book there is an illustrated
glossary defining approximately 800 important
geologic terms. Many of the terms are accompa-
nied by an illustration that will help in visualiz-
ing the definition and meaning of the term. This
glossary, if properly used, can be a convenient
and significant aid in learning the basic vocabu-
lary of geology.
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