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 VI contents

21 salad dressings 24 bakeshop production:

and salads   457 basic principles and
ingredients  516
Salad Dressings   458
Ingredients  458 Basic Principles of Baking   517
Oil-and-Vinegar Dressings  460 Formulas and Measurement   517
Emulsified Dressings  461 Mixing and Gluten Development   520
Staling  521
salads  464
Ingredients  464 Ingredients  522
Arrangement and Presentation   474 Flours, Meals, and Starches   522
Recipes and Techniques   476 Fats  523
Sugars  524
Liquids  526
22 sandwiches and Eggs  527
Leavening Agents  527
hors d’oeuvres   490
Salt, Flavorings, and Spices   529
Sandwiches  491
Breads  491
Spreads  492
25 quick breads, cakes,
and cookies   531
Fillings  492
Types of Sandwiches   494 Quick Breads    532
Making Sandwiches  495 Mixing and Production Methods   532
Formulas  534
Hors d’Oeuvres   501
Serving Hors d’Oeuvres   502 Understanding Cake Making   536
Canapés  502 Basic Mixing Methods   536
Cocktails  505 Cake Formula Types   539
Relishes  506 Scaling and Panning   540
Dips  506 Baking and Cooling   542
Common Cake Faults and Their Causes   542
Altitude Adjustments  543
23 food presentation   508 Cake Formulas   544
Creaming Method  544
Hot Food Presentation   509
Two-Stage Method  545
Fundamentals of Plating   509
Foaming Methods  546
Cold Food Presentation and
Icings: Production and
Buffet Service   513
Buffet Arrangement and Appearance   513
Application  547
Producing and Handling Basic Types   547
Assembling and Icing Cakes   551
Cookies  554
Cookie Characteristics and Their Causes   554
Mixing Methods  555
Types and Makeup Methods   556
Panning, Baking, and Cooling   558

Appendix 1  Metric Conversion Factors   563

Appendix 2  Standard Can Sizes   563
Appendix 3  Approximate Weight-Volume
Equivalents of Dry Foods   564
Appendix 4  Kitchen Math Exercises:
Metric Versions   565
Appendix 5  Eggs and Safety   567
BIBLIOGRAPHY  568
Glossary AND COOKING VOCABULARY  570
Index  576
EULA

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 Preface
The Second Edition of Essentials of Professional Cooking presents a stream-
lined approach to the basics of professional food preparation. If you are fa-
miliar with my book Professional Cooking, you will know the basics of this
new and updated edition of Essentials. The fundamentals here are the same,
and the clear, systematic explanation of the principles and procedures that
form the core of Professional Cooking and that have made the text a stan-
dard in the industry also provide the foundation of Essentials. The stream-
lined approach in this new text is designed to extend the benefits of this
material to additional students of professional cooking as well as to students
in related fields such as hospitality management and nutrition and dietetics.
The needs of these different groups of students are varied, but the
focus on basic techniques in this book ensures that they will all find what
they need in these pages. Students of the culinary arts need a strong foun-
dation in basic techniques, procedures, and cooking theory. Students in
hospitality management programs need to understand the language
of the kitchen so they can communicate with kitchen workers, and they
must acquire a good understanding of kitchen procedures. Other stu-
dents, such as those in nutrition and dietetics programs, also need to mas-
ter a basic understanding of the processes and procedures used in the
kitchens of all types of food service operations.
The Procedures and the Recipes
The focus of the book is on procedures and techniques. This approach to
cooking is what distinguishes professional cooking from traditional casual
or amateur cooking, which is based on recipes, whether written or memo-
rized. A professional thinks in terms of fundamental procedures, such as
roasting, sautéing, braising, or grilling. Once the principles and guidelines
of these basic procedures are learned, the cook applies this knowledge
to the preparation of specific dishes, but instead of blindly following the
recipe, the cook understands the functions of the ingredients and the rea-
sons for and desired results of each step of the procedure. Understanding
basic procedures thus gives the cook maximum flexibility in the kitchen.
Attention to the basics has always been the hallmark of Professional
Cooking, and this is no less true of Essentials of Professional Cooking. Be-
cause the purpose of the text is to teach fundamental cooking techniques,
it is important to illustrate these techniques—and to allow the student to
experiment with them—with fundamental, straightforward recipes that
reveal the connection between the general theory and specific applica-
tions in the most direct way. The selection of recipes in this text focuses
only on those that show this connection most clearly. For ­students in such
programs as hospitality management and nutrition and dietetics, these
recipes will likely be all that are needed. For culinary arts programs, the in-
structor may wish to supplement the basics with his or her own additional
selection of recipes. This approach gives teachers maximum flexibility to
tailor their lab classes to their own goals.
There are four icons throughout the recipes in the book. They indi-
cate particular features of those recipes:
Core recipes, which Vegetarian recipes,
follow a procedure indicating recipes
and have been suitable for a
core recipes vegetarian vegetarian diet
chosen to reinforce
a fundamental recipes
technique
International recipes, Low in fat recipes,
which reflect the based on FDA
important role low in fat guidelines and
recipes labeling laws
international international and
recipes regional cuisines
play in the evolution
of North American
cooking
Gisslen2e_Procooking_FM_i-x_hr2_pv1.0.2.indd 7
Nutritional Information
Cooks and chefs are increasingly aware of the importance of preparing
healthful foods. To support this effort, nutritional analyses are included for
each main recipe. These analyses were done using the software program
Genesis R&D 8.4.0, which calculates nutrients based on ingredients. It is
important to realize that the actual nutrients in a prepared dish will vary
depending on many factors, just as the taste, texture, and appearance of
the dish will vary with the skill of the cook and the quality of the ingredi-
ents. The following factors should also be taken into account when read-
ing the nutritional analyses:
Where a portion size is indicated in the recipe, the analysis is per por-
tion. Where there is no portion size, as for stock and sauce recipes as well
as most of the recipes in the baking chapters, the analysis is usually per
ounce (28.35 g) or per fluid ounce (29.57 mL); for most hors d’oeuvre reci-
pes, analysis is per piece.
• The following ingredients are not included in the analyses: ingredients
listed “to taste” or “as needed”; ingredients in sachets and bouquets-
garnis; optional ingredients; garnishes such as parsley sprigs.
• Stocks are adjusted for removal of bones, mirepoix, and other ingredi-
ents that are strained out.
• Ingredients in mirepoix are not included, except for a small amount of
sodium.
• If a range is given for an ingredient quantity, the smaller number was
used for analysis.
• Adjustments are made for recipes in which the food is degreased or the
fat is skimmed off. The amount of fat remaining will vary depending on
how thoroughly the item is degreased.
• Fat was calculated for pan-fried and deep-fried foods based on a per-
centage of the total weight. The amount of fat actually absorbed will
vary depending on the temperature of the fat, the cooking time, and the
surface area of the food.
• For marinated foods, 10 percent of the marinade is included in the analy-
sis, unless the marinade is used to make a sauce, in which case all the
marinade is, of course, included.
• The amount of fat used for sautéing was estimated for the ­analysis.
• The numbers for each nutrient are rounded off according to FDA round-
ing rules for food labeling.
• The “(% cal.)” information following the fat content in each analysis
refers to percentage of calories from fat, and is required to determine
whether a recipe can be labeled as low in fat. It can’t be used to deter-
mine percentage of fat in the total diet.
Features
Pronunciation Guides and Glossaries
Much kitchen terminology is taken from French. Phonetic guides are in-
cluded for difficult words, giving the approximate pronunciation using
English sounds. (Exact rendering is impossible in many cases because
French and other foreign languages have sounds that don’t exist in Eng-
lish.) Because food-service workers must be able to communicate with
each other, definitions of terms introduced in the text are summarized in
the glossary at the end of the book.
Illustrations
Hundreds of clear, concise, full-color photographs illustrate basic manual
techniques shown from the point of view of the person performing them. Addi-
tional photographs illustrate ingredients and finished dishes. Numerous line
drawings also enhance the text, illustrating hundreds of pieces of equipment
you’ll encounter in the professional kitchen.
VII
2/4/15 1:03 PM
 VIII Preface
Realistic Procedures
Although supported by discussions of cooking theory, procedures given
here are based on actual practices in the industry. Attention is given not
just to quantity production but also to the special problems of cooking to
order. Presentation and service of the finished product are considered in
detail, as is pre-preparation, or mise en place—so essential to the organi-
zation of a working restaurant. At the same time, the major emphasis is on
quality, too often neglected in the quest for convenience.
Even a book as large as this one cannot possibly contain all a cook
needs to know. Other information is included if it has a direct bearing
on kitchen and bakeshop work. More specialized information, such as
stewarding and managerial skills, is necessarily omitted. Finally, although
much of what we talk about is strongly influenced by the cooking of other
nations, the practices discussed are primarily those of North American
food service.
Resources and Supplements
CulinarE-Companion™ Recipe Management
Software
CulinarE-Companion™ is now web-based. You can set up an account and
have instant access to this recipe management resource with a complete
database of recipes from Essentials of Professional Cooking, viewable
from any device’s browser, whether a laptop, desktop, tablet, or mobile device.
See page ix in this section for more information.
WileyPLUS Learning Space
A place where students can define their strengths and nurture their skills,
WileyPLUS Learning Space transforms course content into an online
learning community. WileyPLUS Learning Space invites students to
experience learning activities, work through self-assessment, ask ques-
tions and share insights. As students interact with the course content,
each other, and their instructor, WileyPLUS Learning Space creates a
personalized study guide for each student. Through collaboration, stu-
dents make deeper connections to the subject matter and feel part of a
community.
Through a flexible course design, instructors can quickly organize
learning activities, manage student collaboration, and customize your
course—having full control over content as well as the amount of interac-
tivity between students.
WileyPLUS Learning Space lets the instructor:
• Assign activities and add your own materials
• Guide your students through what’s important in the interactive
e-textbook by easily assigning specific content
• Set up and monitor group learning
• Assess student engagement
• Gain immediate insights to help inform teaching
Defining a clear path to action, the visual reports in WileyPLUS
Learning Space help both you and your students gauge problem areas
and act on what’s most important.
Additional Student and Instructor Resources
The following student and instructor supplements are also available:
Student Study Guide (978-1-119-01691-5) contains review materials,
practice problems, and exercises. (Answers are found in the Instructor’s
Manual.)
The online Instructor’s Manual includes teaching suggestions and
test bank questions and is available to qualified adopters from this book’s
web site at www.wiley.com/college/gisslen. Instructors who adopt
­Essentials of Professional Cooking can download the test bank free. In
addition, there is a wealth of Instructor support materials including the
Study Guide solutions, PowerPoint slides, and an image gallery. Please visit
the Instructor resource site on wiley.com.
Gisslen2e_Procooking_FM_i-x_hr2_pv1.0.2.indd 8
Acknowledgments
During a long and productive session of planning, photography, and recipe
testing, I was fortunate to have the expert assistance of Chef Tim Bucci of
Joliet Junior College. Tim is a master of modern culinary technique and the
creation of artistic food presentations. I am grateful for Tim’s participation, as
well as his friendship.
Our photography sessions benefited from the contributions of time
and talent by Chef Instructor Rick Forpahl of Minneapolis Community &
Technical College, as well as Eric Ervasti and Choden Bhutia, students of
Chef Instructor David Eisenreich of Hennepin Technical College. These
chefs have been valuable collaborators on several editions of my books,
and their suggestions and critiques have been significant in shaping each
revision project. In addition, Rick Elsenpeter of Lund’s market was untiring
in his responses to innumerable special requests for meats and seafood.
My wife, Meg, assisted our kitchen crew and helped with my research for
many of the text revisions. I am grateful to one and all for their help. They
were a pleasure to work with.
Photographer Jim Smith has been my partner in these texts for more
than 30 years. His hundreds of photographs are an indispensable part of
this book and valuable teaching tools. I can never thank him enough.
Thanks also to Michael Haight for his work in Jim’s studio and on the set
in my kitchen.
The technique videos available in WileyPLUS Learning Space could
not have been accomplished so successfully without the on-air talent of
Chef Ambarush Lulay, Chef Klaus Tenbergen, Chef Melina Kelson, and
most especially, Chef Lisa Brefere and Chef Andy Chlebana. Both Lisa and
Andy played an incalculable role in scripting, planning, executing, and en-
suring each video meets the professional kitchen standards. Many thanks
as well to Kendall College and the College of DuPage for the gracious use
of their kitchens in the filming of many of the technique videos.
Christin Loudon has provided analyses for the recipes in this edition,
for which I thank her most warmly. I would also like to thank Drew Appleby,
whose expertly written test questions form an important part of the sup-
port materials for this text. The list of culinary and hospitality professionals
who have provided support, guidance, advice, and constructive criticism
that have helped over the years to develop this new text has grown so long
that it isn’t possible to mention everyone in these paragraphs. I can only
hope I have not omitted many of them in the list of reviewers that follows.
I would also like to thank all those unnamed individuals who have corre-
sponded with me over the years to point out errors and to offer suggestions.
The updated and enhanced CulinarE-Companion™ and WileyPLUS
Learning Space accompany this new edition because of a coordinated
team effort. I am also grateful to the many beta testers who took time to
test our digital solutions. Their testing and feedback were instrumental
in the development and completion of these exciting new technologies.
Thanks also to Chef Jean Vendeville of Savannah Technical College for his
review and input for the audio pronunciations that is included in our digi-
tal products. Thank you to Chef Danielle Gleason, Chef Instructor, Sullivan
University, for creating the PowerPoints.
Finally, I would like to thank everyone at John Wiley & Sons who
worked so hard on this project: Andrea Brescia, Melissa Edwards, Jessica
Kinsella, James Metzger, Lynne Marsala, Jesse Adler, Suzanne Bochet, Jeff
Rucker, Maureen Eide, Bill Murray, and Harry Nolan. Special thanks are due
to Mary Cassells and Julie Kerr, who worked with me on the recent edition
of Professional Cooking, and to my editor, Pam Chirls.
2/4/15 2:32 PM
 p r e f a c e IX

TM
Wiley CulinarE-Companion Recipe Management Software
Supporting chefs and foodservice managers throughout their careers, CulinarE-Companion TM includes all recipes from Essentials of
Professional Cooking, Second Edition, plus hundreds of color photographs, audio pronunciations, and illustrated procedures.
Create shopping lists, resize recipes, perform metric conversions, and analyze nutritional content of ingredients and recipes with the
software. You can also add your own recipes and photos, link to external videos, and create your own cookbooks.
The software is now Web-based! Your personal registration code and instructions are included with your purchased copy of
Essentials of Professional Cooking, Second Edition. Go to cec.wiley.com to access the software. Once you create a user name and
password, you can log onto CulinarE-CompanionTM from your computer, tablet, or mobile device.

The Homepage
• Link directly to any of the cookbooks, including cookbooks you
created.
• View recipes that have been recently seen or all recipes by selecting
the RECIPES tab. Perform either a basic or an advanced search based on
specified criteria, such as recipe name or even part of a name, cookbook,
ingredients, and cooking method.
• View recipes and procedures organized by kitchen skill when you click
on the SKILLS tab.
• Select the GLOSSARY tab to access definitions from Essentials of
­ rofessional Cooking’s glossary, as well as hundreds of additional
P
­defined terms and audio pronunciations.

Recipe List
• Scroll through an alphabetical list of all recipes in the application.
• Refine the recipe listing by category, course, cuisine, main ingredient,
primary cooking method, or dietary considerations.
• Add recipes to your shopping list, as well as export and print
recipes.

Recipe Screen
• Resize recipes, perform metric conversions, show recipe notes,
variations, and more!
• View referenced procedures by simply clicking on the relevant
highlighted term.
• Click the IMAGES tab to see photos of plated dishes or to add your
own photos and links to external videos.

Costing Information
• Calculate food costs for a total recipe cost or a cost per portion of a recipe
by selecting the COSTING tab.
• Add or edit existing cost data for individual ingredients from a
shopping list or a recipe.

Nutritional Information
• View nutritional information for ingredients and recipes.
• Access the USDA Nutrient Data Laboratory if additional nutrition
information is necessary.

Gisslen2e_Procooking_FM_i-x_hr2_pv1.0.2.indd 9 2/4/15 1:03 PM

 W AY N E G I S S L E N

ESSENTIALS OF
PROFESSIONAL
COOKING

SECOND EDITION

Gisslen2e_Procooking_FM_i-x_hr3_pv1.0.2.indd 10 2/6/15 2:08 PM

 1 the food-service
industry

© Dan Lipow
This is an exciting time to begin a career in food service. Interest in dining and curios-
ity about new foods are greater than ever. More new restaurants open every year.
Many restaurants are busy every night, and restaurant chains number among the
nation’s largest corporations. The chef, once considered a domestic servant, is now
respected as an artist and skilled craftsperson.
The growth of the food-service industry creates a demand for thousands of
skilled people every year. Many people are attracted by a career that is challenging
and exciting and, above all, provides the chance to find real satisfaction in doing a
job well.
Unfortunately, many people see only the glamorous side of food service and
fail to understand that this is a tiny part of the picture. The public does not often see
the years of training, the long hours, and the tremendous pressures that lie behind
every success.
Before you start your practical studies, covered in later chapters, it is good to
know a little about the profession you are entering. This chapter gives you a brief
overview of modern food service, including how it got to where it is today and
where it is headed.

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

1. Name and describe four major 3. Explain how the size and type of an 4. Identify and describe three skill levels
­developments that significantly ­operation influence the organization of food production personnel.
changed the food-service industry in of the modern kitchen.
the twentieth century.
2. Identify seven major stations in a
­classical kitchen.

Gisslen2e_Procooking_C01_001-009hr2_pv2.1.indd 1 1/16/15 3:24 PM

 2 C h a p t e r 1 the food-service industry
The Origins of
Classical and
Modern Cuisine
Modern food service began shortly
after the middle of the 1700s, when
a Parisian named Boulanger began
selling dishes that he referred to as
“restoratives” (the French verb res-
taurant means “restoring”). Before
this time, guests had little choice of
foods and simply ate whatever meal
the innkeeper was serving, Boulan­
ger’s customers could choose from a
variety of selections.
Not long afterward, many private
chefs for aristocratic families found
themselves out of work, as a result of
the French Revolution, and opened
restaurants to support themselves.
The great chef following this era
was Marie-Antoine Carême (1784-
1833). He is credited as the founder
of classical cuisine. His many books
contain the first really systematic
account of cooking principles, reci-
pes, and menu making. He became
famous for elaborate and elegant
showpieces, but his practical and
theoretical work helped bring cook-
ing out of the Middle Ages and into
the modern period.
Georges-Auguste Escoffier. Courtesy of
Adjointe à la Conservation du Musée
Escoffier de l’Art Culinaire.
Gisslen2e_Procooking_C01_001-009hr1_pv2.1.indd 2
A History of Modern
Food ­Service
The value of history is that it helps us understand the present and the future. In food service,
knowledge of our professional heritage helps us see why we do things as we do, how our
cooking techniques have been developed and refined, and how we can continue to develop
and innovate in the years ahead.
An important lesson of history is that the way we cook now is the result of the work done
by countless chefs over hundreds of years. Cooking is as much science as it is art. Cooking
techniques are not based on arbitrary rules some chefs made up long ago. Rather, they are
based on an understanding of how different foods react when heated in various ways, when
combined in various proportions, and so on. The chefs who have come before us have already
done much of this work so we don’t have to.
This doesn’t mean there is no room for innovation and experimentation or that we should
never challenge old ideas. But it does mean a lot of knowledge has been collected over the
years, and we would be smart to take advantage of what has already been learned. Further-
more, how can we challenge old ideas unless we know what those old ideas are? Knowledge
is the best starting point for innovation.
Escoffier
Georges-Auguste Escoffier (1847–1935), the greatest chef of his time, is still revered by
chefs and gourmets as the father of twentieth-century cookery. His two main contributions
were (1) the simplification of classical cuisine and the classical menu, and (2) the reorganiza-
tion of the kitchen.
Escoffier’s books and recipes are still important reference works for professional chefs.
The basic cooking methods and preparations we study today are based on Escoffier’s work.
His book Le Guide Culinaire, which is still widely used, arranges recipes in a simple system
based on main ingredient and cooking method, greatly simplifying the more complex system
handed down from Carême. Learning classical cooking, according to Escoffier, begins with
learning a relatively few basic procedures and understanding basic ingredients.
Escoffier’s second major achievement, the reorganization of the kitchen, resulted in a
streamlined workplace better suited to turning out the simplified dishes and menus he insti-
tuted. The system of organization he established is still in use, especially in large hotels and
full-service restaurants, as we discuss later in this chapter.
Modern Technology
Today’s kitchens look much different from those of Escoffier’s day, even though our basic
cooking principles are the same. Also, the dishes we eat have gradually changed due to the
innovations and creativity of modern chefs. The process of simplification and refinement, to
which Carême and Escoffier made monumental contributions, is ongoing, adapting classical
cooking to modern conditions and tastes.
Before we discuss the changes in cooking styles that took place in the twentieth century,
let’s look at some of the developments in technology that affected cooking.
Development of New Equipment
We take for granted such basic equipment as gas and electric ranges and ovens and elec-
tric refrigerators. But even these essential tools did not exist until fairly recently. The easily
­controlled heat of modern cooking equipment, as well as motorized food cutters, mixers, and
other processing equipment, has greatly simplified food production.
Research and technology continue to produce sophisticated tools for the kitchen.
Some of these products, such as tilting skillets and steam-jacketed kettles, can do many
jobs and are popular in many kitchens. Others can perform specialized tasks rapidly and
11/24/14 6:46 PM
 A H i s t o r y o f M o d e r n F o o d ­S e r v i c e 3

efficiently, but their usefulness depends on volume because they are designed to do only
a few jobs.
Modern equipment has enabled many food-service operations to change their
production methods. With sophisticated cooling, freezing, and heating equipment, it is
possible to prepare some foods further in advance and in larger quantities. Some large
multiunit operations prepare food for all their units in a central commissary. The food is
prepared in quantity, packaged, chilled or frozen, and then heated or cooked to order in
the individual units.

Development and Availability of New Food Products

Modern refrigeration and rapid transportation caused revolutionary changes in eating habits.
For the first time, fresh foods of all kinds—meats, fish, vegetables, and fruits—became avail-
able throughout the year. Exotic delicacies can now be shipped from anywhere in the world
and arrive fresh and in peak condition.
The development of preservation techniques—not just refrigeration but also freezing,
canning, freeze-drying, vacuum-packing, and irradiation—increased the availability of most
foods and made affordable some that were once rare and expensive.
Techniques of food preservation have had another effect. It is now possible to do some
or most of the preparation and processing of foods before shipping rather than in the food-
service operation itself. Thus, convenience foods have come into being. Convenience foods
continue to account for an increasing share of the total food market.
Some developments in food science and agriculture are controversial. Irradiation, men-
tioned above, caused much controversy when it was introduced because it exposes foods to
radioactivity to rid them of organisms that cause spoilage and disease. Scientists say, how-
ever, that no traces of radioactivity remain in the foods, and the procedure is now used more
widely.
A more controversial technique is genetic engineering, which involves artificially chang-
ing the gene structure of a food to give it some desirable trait, such as resistance to disease,
drought, or insect damage.

Food Safety and Nutritional Awareness

The development of the sciences of microbiology and nutrition had a great impact on
food service. One hundred years ago, there was little understanding of the causes of
food poisoning and food spoilage. Food-handling practices have come a long way since
­Escoffier’s day.
Also, little knowledge of nutritional principles was available until fairly recently. Today,
nutrition is an important part of a cook’s training. Customers are also more knowledgeable
and therefore more likely to demand healthful, well-balanced menus. Unfortunately, nutrition
science is constantly shifting. Diets considered healthful one year become eating patterns to
be avoided a few years later. Fad diets come and go, and chefs often struggle to keep their
menus current. It is more important than ever for cooks to keep up to date with the latest
nutritional understanding.
Complicating the work of food-service professionals is a growing awareness of food aller-
gies and intolerances. Not only are chefs called upon to provide nutritious, low-fat, low-calorie
meals, they must also adapt to the needs of customers who must eliminate certain foods from
their diets, such as gluten, soy, dairy, or eggs.

Cooking in the Twentieth and

Twenty-first Centuries
All these developments have helped change cooking styles, menus, and eating habits. The
evolution of cuisine that has been going on for hundreds of years continues. Changes occur
not only because of technological developments, such as those just described, but also be-
cause of our reactions to culinary traditions.

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 4 C h a p t e r 1 the food-service industry

Two opposing forces can be seen at work throughout the history of cooking. One is the
urge to simplify, to eliminate complexity and ornamentation, and instead to emphasize the
plain, natural tastes of basic, fresh ingredients. The other is the urge to invent, to highlight the
creativity of the chef, with an accent on fancier, more complicated presentations and proce-
dures. Both these forces are valid and healthy; they continually refresh and renew the art of
cooking.
A generation after Escoffier, the most influential chef in the middle of the twentieth cen-
tury was Fernand Point (1897–1955). Working quietly and steadily in his restaurant, La Pyra-
mide, in Vienne, France, Point simplified and lightened classical cuisine. He was a perfectionist
who sometimes worked on a dish for years before he felt it was good enough to put on his
menu.
Point’s influence extended well beyond his own life. Many of his apprentices, including
Paul Bocuse, Jean and Pierre Troisgros, and Alain Chapel, later became some of the great-
est stars of modern cooking. They, along with other chefs in their generation, became best
known in the 1960s and early 1970s for a style of cooking called nouvelle cuisine. React-
ing to what they saw as a heavy, stodgy, overly complicated classical cuisine, these chefs
took Point’s lighter approach even further. They rejected many traditional principles, such
as the use of flour to thicken sauces, and instead urged simpler, more natural flavors and
preparations, with lighter sauces and seasonings and shorter cooking times. In traditional
classical cuisine, many dishes were plated in the dining room by waiters. Nouvelle cuisine,
however, placed a great deal of emphasis on artful plating presentations done by the chef in
the kitchen.

New Emphasis on Ingredients

Advances in agriculture and food preservation have had disadvantages as well as advantages.
Everyone is familiar with hard, tasteless fruits and vegetables developed to ship well and last
long, without regard for eating quality. Many people, including chefs, began to question not
only the flavor but also the health value and the environmental effects of genetically engi-
neered foods, of produce raised with chemical pesticides and fertilizers, and of animals raised
with antibiotics and other drugs and hormones.
A prominent organization dedicated to improving food quality is Slow Food, begun in
Italy in 1986 in reaction to the spread of fast-food restaurants. Slow Food has since become
a global movement, with chapters in cities around the world. It emphasizes fostering locally
grown food, using organic and sustainable farming practices, preserving heirloom varieties of
plants and animals, and educating consumers about the food they eat.
Concern for quality of ingredients has led many chefs to support and to purchase from
farmers who practice sustainable agriculture. This term refers to methods of raising
healthful food in a way that is profitable to farms and farming communities and that pro-
vides living wages and benefits to workers while at the same time preserving and enhanc-
ing the soil, water, and air. Sustainable farming treats workers justly and raises animals in
humane conditions. Farmers continually work to increase the fertility and conservation
of soil and avoid the use of synthetic pesticides and herbicides as much as possible. The
goal is to manage farmlands so that they not only will be profitable but will continue to be
­productive indefinitely.
Chefs can carry the concept of sustainability into their own operations by using renew-
able power sources, installing energy-efficient equipment, and recycling as many waste
­materials as possible.

International Influences
After the middle of the twentieth century, as travel became easier and as new waves of im-
migrants arrived in Europe and North America from around the world, awareness of and taste
for regional dishes grew. Chefs became more knowledgeable not only about the traditional
cuisines of other parts of Europe but about those of Asia, Latin America, and elsewhere. Many
of the most creative chefs have been inspired by these cuisines and use some of their tech-
niques and ingredients. For example, many North American and French chefs, looking for
ways to make their cooking lighter and more elegant, have found ideas in the cuisine of

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 t h e o r ga n i z a t i o n o f m o d e r n k i t c h e n s 5

Japan. In the southwestern United States, a number of chefs have transformed Mexican in-
fluences into an elegant and original cooking style. Throughout North America, traditional
dishes and regional specialties combine the cooking traditions of immigrant settlers and the
indigenous ingredients of a bountiful land. For many years, critics often argued that menus
in most North American restaurants offered the same monotonous, mediocre food. In re-
cent decades, however, American and Canadian cooks have rediscovered traditional North
­American dishes.
The use of ingredients and techniques from more than one regional, or international,
cuisine in a single dish is known as fusion cuisine. Early attempts to prepare fusion cuisine
often produced poor results because the dishes were not true to any one culture and were
too mixed up. This was especially true in the 1980s, when the idea of fu-
sion cuisine was new. Cooks often combined ingredients and techniques Key Points
without a good feeling for how they would work together. The result was to Review
sometimes a jumbled mess. But chefs who have taken the time to study
in depth the cuisines and cultures they borrow from have brought new • How have the following devel-
excitement to cooking and to restaurant menus. opments changed the food-
service industry: development
New Technologies of new equipment; availability
of new food products; greater
As described on pages 2–3, new technologies, from transportation to food
understanding of food safety
processing, had a profound effect on cooking in the twentieth century.
and nutrition?
Such changes continue today, with scientific developments that are only
beginning to have an effect on how cooks think about food and menus. • How have international cui-
One of these technologies is the practice of cooking sous vide (soo veed, sines influenced and changed
French for “under vacuum”). Sous vide began simply as a method for packaging and cooking in North America?
storing foods in vacuum-sealed plastic bags. Modern chefs, however, are exploring
ways to use this technology to control cooking temperatures and times with extreme precision.
As a result, familiar foods have emerged with new textures and flavors. (Sous vide cooking is
discussed further in Chapter 6.)

The Organization of
Modern Kitchens
The Basis of Kitchen Organization
The purpose of kitchen organization is to assign or allocate tasks so they can be done
­efficiently and properly and so all workers know what their responsibilities are.
The way a kitchen is organized depends on several factors.

1. The menu.
The kinds of dishes to be produced obviously determine the jobs that must be done. The
menu is, in fact, the basis of the entire operation. Because of its importance, we devote a
major section of Chapter 4 to a study of the menu.
2. The type of establishment.
The major types of food-service establishments are as follows:

• Hotels
• Institutional kitchens
Schools
Hospitals, nursing homes, and other health care institutions
Retirement community and assisted living facilities
Employee lunchrooms and executive dining rooms
Airline catering
Military food service
Correctional institutions

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 6 C h a p t e r 1 the food-service industry

• Private clubs
• Catering and banquet services
• Fast-food restaurants
• Carry-out or take-out food facilities, including supermarkets
• Full-service restaurants
• Private homes (personal chefs)
3. The size of the operation (the number of customers and the volume of food served).
4. The physical facilities, including the equipment in use.

The Classical Brigade

As you learned earlier in this chapter, one of Escoffier’s important achievements was the re-
organization of the kitchen. This reorganization divided the kitchen into departments, or
stations, based on the kinds of foods produced. A station chef was placed in charge of each
department. In a small operation, the station chef might be the only worker in the depart-
ment. But in a large kitchen, each station chef might have several assistants.
This system, with many variations, is still in use, especially in large hotels with traditional
kinds of food service. The major positions are as follows:

1. The chef is the person in charge of the kitchen. In large establishments, this person has
the title of executive chef. The executive chef is a manager who is responsible for all as-
pects of food production, including menu planning, purchasing, costing, planning work
schedules, hiring, and training.
2. If a food-service operation is large, with many departments (for example, a formal din-
ing room, a casual dining room, and a catering department), or if it has several units
in ­different locations, each kitchen may have a chef de cuisine. The chef de cuisine
reports to the executive chef.
3. The sous chef (soo shef ) is directly in charge of production and works as the assistant to
the executive chef or chef de cuisine. (The word sous is French for “under.”) Because the
executive chef’s responsibilities may require a great deal of time in the office, the sous
chef often takes command of the actual production and the minute-by-minute supervi-
sion of the staff.
4. The station chefs, or chefs de partie, are in charge of particular areas of production. The
following are the most important station chefs.

• The sauce chef, or saucier (so-see-ay), prepares sauces, stews, and hot hors
d’oeuvres, and sautés foods to order. This is usually the highest position of all the
stations.
• The fish cook, or poissonier (pwah-so-nyay), prepares fish dishes. In some kitchens,
this station is handled by the saucier.
• The vegetable cook, or entremetier (awn-truh-met-yay), prepares vegetables, soups,
starches, and eggs. Large kitchens may divide these duties among the vegetable cook,
the fry cook, and the soup cook.
• The roast cook, or rôtisseur (ro-tee-sur), prepares roasted and braised meats and
their gravies and broils meats and other items to order. A large kitchen may have a
separate broiler cook, or grillardin (gree-ar-dan), to handle the broiled items. The
broiler cook may also prepare deep-fried meats and fish.

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 t h e o r ga n i z a t i o n o f m o d e r n k i t c h e n s 7

• The pantry chef, or garde manger (gard mawn-zhay), is responsible for cold foods,
including salads and dressings, pâtés, cold hors d’oeuvres, and buffet items.
• The pastry chef, or pâtissier (pa-tees-syay), prepares pastries and desserts.
• The relief cook, swing cook, or tournant (toor-nawn), replaces other station heads.
• The expediter, or aboyeur (ah-bwa-yer), accepts orders from waiters and passes
them on to the cooks on the line. The expediter also calls for orders to be finished
and plated at the proper time and inspects each plate before passing it to the dining
room staff. In many restaurants, this position is taken by the head chef or the sous
chef.

5. Cooks and assistants in each station or department help with the duties assigned to
them. For example, the assistant vegetable cook may wash, peel, and trim vegetables.
With experience, assistants may be promoted to station cooks and then to station
chefs.

Modern Kitchen Organization

As you can see, only a large establishment needs a staff like the classical brigade just
described. In fact, some large hotels have even larger staffs, with other positions such
as separate day and night sous chefs, assistant chef, banquet chef, butcher, baker, and
so on.
Most modern operations, though, are smaller than this. The size of the classical brigade
may be reduced simply by combining two or more positions where the workload allows it. For
example, the second cook may combine the duties of the sauce cook, fish cook, soup cook,
and vegetable cook.
A typical medium-size operation may employ a chef, a second cook, a broiler cook, a
pantry cook, and a few cooks’ helpers.
A working chef is in charge of operations not large enough to have an executive chef.
In addition to being in charge of the kitchen, the working chef also handles one of the produc-
tion stations. For example, he or she may handle the sauté station, plate foods during service,
and help on other stations when needed.
Small kitchens may have only a chef, one or two cooks, and perhaps one or two assistants
to handle simple jobs such as washing and peeling vegetables. Cooks who prepare or finish
hot à la carte items during service in a restaurant may be known as line cooks. Line cooks are
said to be on the hot line, or simply on the line.
In many small operations, the short-order cook is the backbone of the kitchen dur-
ing service time. This cook may handle the broiler, deep fryer, griddle, sandwich production,
and even some sautéed items. In other words, the short-order cook’s responsibility is the
­preparation of foods that are quickly prepared to order.
One special type of short-order cook is the breakfast cook. This worker is skilled at
quickly and efficiently turning out egg dishes and other breakfast items to order.
By contrast, establishments such as school cafeterias may do no cooking to order at all.
Stations and assignments are based on the requirements of quantity preparation rather than
cooking to order.

Skill Levels
The preceding discussion is necessarily general because there are so many kinds of kitchen
organizations. Titles vary also. The responsibilities of the worker called the second cook, for
example, are not necessarily the same in every establishment. Escoffier’s standardized system
has evolved in many directions.

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 8 C h a p t e r 1 the food-service industry

One title that is often misunderstood and much abused is chef. The general public tends
to refer to anyone with a white hat as a chef, and people who like to cook for guests in their
homes refer to themselves as amateur chefs.
Strictly speaking, the term chef is reserved for one who is in charge of a kitchen or a part
of a kitchen. The word chef is French for “chief” or “head.” Studying this book will not make you
a chef. The title must be earned by experience not only in preparing food but also in manag-
ing a staff and in planning production. New cooks who want to advance in their careers know
they must always use the word chef with respect.
Skills required of food production personnel vary not only with the job level but also with
the establishment and the kind of food prepared. The director of a hospital kitchen and the
head chef in a luxury restaurant need different skills. The skills needed by a short-order cook
in a coffee shop are not exactly the same as those needed by a production worker in a school
cafeteria. Nevertheless, we can group skills into three general categories:

1. Supervisory. The head of a food-service kitchen, whether called executive chef, head chef,
working chef, or dietary director, must have management and supervisory skills as well as
a thorough knowledge of food production. Leadership positions require an individual
who understands organizing and motivating people, planning menus and production
procedures, controlling costs and managing budgets, and purchasing food supplies and
equipment. Even if he or she does no cooking at all, the chef must be an experienced
cook in order to schedule production, instruct workers, and control quality. Above all, the
chef must be able to work well with people, even under extreme pressure.
2. Skilled and technical. While the chef is the head of an establishment, the cooks are the
backbone. These workers carry out the actual food production. Thus, they must have
knowledge of and experience in cooking techniques, at least for the dishes made in their
own department. In addition, they must be able to function well with their fellow work-
ers and to coordinate with other departments. Food production is a team activity.
3. Entry level. Entry-level jobs in food service usually require no particular skills or experi-
ence. Workers in these jobs are assigned such work as washing vegetables and prepar-
ing salad greens. As their knowledge and experience increase, they may be given more
complex tasks and eventually become skilled cooks. Many executive chefs began their
careers as pot washers who got a chance to peel potatoes when the pot sink was empty.

Beginning in an entry-level position and working one’s way up with experience is the
traditional method of advancing in a food-service career. Today, however, many cooks are
graduates of culinary schools and programs. But even with such an education, many new
graduates begin at entry-level positions. This is as it should be and certainly should not be
seen as discouragement. Schools teach general cooking knowledge, while every food-service
establishment requires specific skills according to its own menu and its own procedures. Ex-
perience as well as theoretical knowledge is needed to be able to adapt to real-life working
situations. However, students who have studied and learned well should be able to work their
way up more rapidly than beginners with no knowledge at all.

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 questions for discussion 9

Other Professional Opportunities

Key Points
Not all those who train to be professional culinarians end up in restau- to Review
rant careers. Professional cooking expertise is valuable in many callings.
The following are just a few of the e­ mployment opportunities available in • What are the major stations in
addition to standard cooking positions. Most of these require ­advanced a classical kitchen? What are
training in other fields in addition to food production: their responsibilities?
• Hospitality management in hotels, restaurants, large catering • How do the size and type of a
companies, and other organizations with a food-service compo- food-service operation affect
nent how the kitchen is organized?
• Product development and research for food manufacturers • What are the three basic skill
• Product sales representatives for food and beverage distributors levels of modern kitchen
• Product sales representatives for equipment companies ­personnel?

• Restaurant design and consulting

• Food styling for photography in books, magazines, and other publications, as well as
for food packaging and marketing materials
• Food writing for newspapers, magazines, food industry journals, and other publica-
tions—not only restaurant criticism but analysis and reporting on food-related topics
such as nutrition and health, agriculture, and food supply
• Training the next generation of chefs in culinary schools and in large hospitality
companies with in-house training programs

T e r m s for R e v ie w
Marie-Antoine Carême sous chef tournant
Georges-Auguste Escoffier station chef expediter
nouvelle cuisine saucier aboyeur
sustainable agriculture poissonier working chef
fusion cuisine entremetier line cook
sous vide rôtisseur short-order cook
chef grillardin breakfast cook
executive chef garde manger
chef de cuisine pâtissier

Questions for Discussion

1. Escoffier is sometimes called the father of modern food service.
What were his most important accomplishments?
2. Discuss several ways in which modern technology has changed
the food-service industry.
3. Discuss how an emphasis on high-quality ingredients begin-
ning in the late twentieth century has influenced cooks and
cooking styles.
4. What is fusion cuisine? Discuss how successful chefs make use
of international influences.
5. What is the purpose of kitchen organization? Is the classical
system of organization developed by Escoffier the best for all
types of kitchens? Why or why not?
6. True or false: A cook in charge of the sauce and sauté station
in a large hotel must have supervisory skills as well as cooking
skills. Explain your answer.
7. True or false: If a culinary arts student in a professional school
studies hard, works diligently, gets top grades, and shows
real dedication, he or she will be qualified to be a chef upon
­graduation. Explain your answer.

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 2 sanitation and
safety

In the last chapter, we talked about professionalism in food service. Profes-

sionalism is an attitude that reflects pride in the quality of your work. One of
the most important ways of demonstrating professional pride is in the area
of sanitation and safety. Pride in quality is reflected in your appearance and
work habits. Poor hygiene, poor grooming and personal care, and sloppy work
habits are nothing to be proud of.
Even more important, poor sanitation and safety can cost a lot of money. Poor
food-handling procedures and unclean kitchens cause illness, unhappy custom-
ers, and even fines, summonses, and lawsuits. Food spoilage raises food costs. Poor
kitchen safety results in injuries, medical bills, and workdays lost. F­ inally, poor sanita-
tion and safety habits show lack of respect for your customers, for your fellow work-
ers, and for yourself.
In this chapter, you will study the causes of food-borne diseases and kitchen
injuries, and you will learn ways of preventing them. Prevention, of course, is
the most important thing to learn. It is not as important to be able to recite the
names of disease-causing bacteria as it is to be able to prevent their growth
in food.

After reading this chapter, you should be able to

1. Describe steps to prevent food poison-
ing and food-borne diseases in the
following areas: personal hygiene,
food handling and storage techniques,
cleaning and sanitizing techniques, and
pest control.
2. Demonstrate safe workplace habits 3. Identify safe workplace habits that
that prevent injuries from the follow- ­minimize the likelihood of fires and
ing: cuts, burns, operation of machin- falls.
ery and equipment, and lifting.

10

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 S a n i tat i o n 11

Sanitation
Rules of personal hygiene and sanitary food handling were not invented just to make your life
difficult. There are good reasons for all of them. Instead of starting this chapter with lists of rules,
we first talk about the causes of food-borne diseases. Then, when we get to the rules, you will
understand why they are important. This will make them easier to remember and to practice.
The rules presented in this chapter are basic guidelines only. Local health departments
have more detailed regulations. All food-service operators are responsible for knowing the
health department regulations in their own city and state.
The information presented here is practical as well as theoretical. It should not merely be
learned but also put to use systematically. One effective system food-service establishments
can use to ensure food safety is the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system.
This practical program identifies possible danger points and sets up procedures for corrective
­action. HACCP is introduced later in this chapter.

Food Hazards
Preventing food-borne illness is one of the most important challenges facing every food-­
service worker. In order to prevent illness, a food worker must understand the sources of
­food-borne disease.
Most food-borne illness is the result of eating food that has been contaminated. To
say a food is contaminated means it contains harmful substances not originally present in
it. In other words, contaminated food is food that is not pure. In this section, we first discuss
the various substances that can contaminate food and cause illness. Afterward, we consider
how these substances get into food to contaminate it and how food workers can prevent
­contamination and avoid serving contaminated food.
Any substance in food that can cause illness or injury is called a hazard. Food hazards
are of four types:

1. Biological hazards
2. Chemical hazards
3. Physical hazards
4. Allergens

Notice it was said most food-borne illness is caused by eating food contaminated with
foreign substances. Some illness is caused not by contaminants but by substances that occur
naturally in foods. These include plant toxins (toxin means “poison”), such as the chemicals
in poisonous mushrooms, and certain natural food components to which some people are
­allergic. This section considers all these kinds of food hazards.

Pathogens
The most important kind of biological hazards to consider are microorganisms. A
­microorganism is a tiny, usually single-celled organism that can be seen only with a
­microscope. A microorganism that can cause disease is called a pathogen. Although these
organisms sometimes occur in clusters large enough to be seen with the naked eye, they are
not usually visible. This is one reason why they can be so dangerous. Just because food looks
good doesn’t mean it is safe.
Four kinds of microorganisms can contaminate food and cause illness:

1. Bacteria
2. Viruses
3. Fungi
4. Parasites

Most food-borne diseases are caused by bacteria, so most of our attention in this chapter
is focused on them, but the other types can be dangerous as well. Many of the measures we
take to protect food from bacteria also help prevent the other three kinds of microorganisms.

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 12 C h a p t e r 2 S a n i tat i o n a n d S a f e t y

Bacteria
Bacteria are everywhere—in the air, in the water, in the ground, on our food, on our skin,
­inside our bodies. Scientists have various ways of classifying and describing these bacteria. As
food workers, we are interested in a way of classifying them that may be less scientific but is
more practical to our work.
1. Harmless bacteria. Most bacteria fall into this category. They are neither helpful nor
harmful to us. We are not concerned with them in food sanitation.
2. Beneficial bacteria. These bacteria are helpful to us. For example, many live in the in-
testinal tract, where they fight harmful bacteria, aid the digestion of food, and produce
certain nutrients. In food production, bacteria make possible the manufacture of many
foods, including cheese, yogurt, and sauerkraut.
3. Undesirable bacteria. These are the bacteria that are responsible for food spoilage. They
cause souring, putrefying, and decomposition. These bacteria may or may not cause disease,
but they offer a built-in safety factor: They announce their presence by means of sour odors,
sticky or slimy surfaces, and discoloration. As long as we use common sense and follow the
rule that says, “When in doubt, throw it out,” we are relatively safe from these bacteria.
We are concerned with these bacteria for two reasons:
•Food spoilage costs money.
• 
Food spoilage is a sign of improper food handling and storage. This means the next
kind of bacteria is probably present.
4. Disease-causing bacteria, or pathogens. These are the bacteria that cause most food-
borne illness, the bacteria we are most concerned with.
Pathogens do not necessarily leave detectable odors or tastes in food. In other words,
you can’t tell if food is contaminated by smelling, tasting, or looking at it. The only way to
protect food against pathogenic bacteria is to use proper hygiene and sanitary food-handling
and storage techniques.
Each kind of bacterial pathogen causes disease in one of three ways:
1. Intoxications are caused by poisons (toxins) the bacteria produce while they are grow-
ing in the food, before it is eaten. It is these poisons, not the bacteria themselves, that
cause the diseases.
2. Infections are caused by bacteria (or other organisms) that get into the intestinal
system and attack the body. Disease is caused by the bacteria themselves as they
multiply in the body.
3. Toxin-mediated infections are also caused by bacteria that get into the body and
grow. Disease is caused by poisons the bacteria produce as they grow and multiply in the
body. Most food-borne diseases are toxin-mediated infections.

Bacterial Growth
Bacteria multiply by splitting in half. Under ideal conditions for growth, they can double in
number every 15 to 30 minutes. This means that one single bacterium could multiply to one
million in less than six hours!

Conditions for Growth

1. Food. Bacteria require food in order to grow. They like many of the foods we do. Foods
with sufficient amounts of proteins are best for bacterial growth. These include meats,
poultry, fish, dairy products, and eggs, as well as some grains and vegetables.
2. Moisture. Bacteria require water to absorb food. Dry foods do not support bacterial
growth. Foods with a very high salt or sugar content are also relatively safe, because
these ingredients make the bacteria unable to use the moisture present.
The availability of water to bacteria is indicated by a measure called ­­­­water ­activity,
­abbreviated aw. The scale runs from 0 (meaning no water available) to 1.0. Most patho-
gens grow best in an environment from 0.85 to 1.0 aw.
3. Temperature. Bacteria grow best at warm temperatures. Temperatures between 41°F
and 135°F (5°C and 57°C) promote the growth of disease-causing bacteria. This tempera-
ture range is called the Food Danger Zone. In Canada, 40°–140°F or 4°–60°C is the

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 S a n i tat i o n 13

temperature danger zone. Until recently, these temperatures were also the standard in
the United States. Bacteria and pH
4. Acidity or alkalinity. In general, disease-producing bacteria like a neutral environment, In general, food-borne pathogens
neither too acidic nor too alkaline (see sidebar top left). The acidity or alkalinity of a sub- grow best in an environment with a
stance is indicated by a measurement called pH. The scale ranges from 0 (strongly acidic) pH of 4.6 to 10. Every type of bacte-
to 14 (strongly alkaline). A pH of 7 is neutral. Pure water has a pH of 7. ria is different, however, and some
5. Oxygen. Some bacteria require oxygen to grow. These are called aerobic. Some bacte- grow when there is a higher or lower
ria are anaerobic, which means they can grow only if there is no air present, such as in pH than this range. Salmonella bac-
metal cans. Botulism, one of the most dangerous forms of food poisoning, is caused by teria, for example, can grow when
there is a pH of 4.1 to 9.0. In general,
anaerobic bacteria. A third category of bacteria can grow either with oxygen or without
however, acidity is an enemy of bac-
it. These bacteria are called facultative. Most bacteria in food that cause disease are
terial growth.
­facultative.
6. Time. When bacteria are introduced to a new environment, they need time to adjust to
their surroundings before they start growing. This time is called the lag phase. If other
conditions are good, the lag phase may last one hour, or somewhat longer.
If it weren’t for the lag phase, there would be much more food-borne disease than
there is. This delay makes it possible to have foods at room temperature for very short
periods in order to work on them.

Potentially Hazardous Foods or TCS Foods

Foods that provide a good environment for the growth of disease-causing microorganisms
are called potentially hazardous foods. Looking back at our list of conditions for growth
of bacteria, we can see that protein foods with sufficient moisture and neutral pH are the most
likely to host bacteria that cause disease. Of the conditions in the list, the one over which we Bacteria and
have most control is temperature. Temperature
These foods are also called TCS foods. The abbreviation stands for time/temperature con-
The world is full of bacteria, and
trol for safety. In other words, our guidelines for keeping foods out of the Food Danger Zone many kinds do not fit the food safety
temperatures, except for limited times, must be followed to keep these foods safe. guidelines outlined here. Some
Potentially hazardous foods fall into two general categories, plus four specific items that bacteria, for example, need cool or
do not fit into these categories. All these foods, plus any foods prepared with any of them, are cold temperatures to grow. These are
potentially hazardous: called psychrophiles. Others thrive
at high temperatures. These are
1. Any food derived from animals, or any food containing animal products, including meat, called thermophiles. Some extreme
poultry, fish, shellfish, eggs, and dairy products. thermophiles even grow at tempera-
2. Any food derived from plants that has been cooked, partially cooked, or otherwise heat- tures above the boiling point of water
treated. This category includes not only cooked vegetables but also such items as cooked (212°F or 100°C). ­Nevertheless,
pasta, cooked rice, and tofu (soybean curd). most food-borne pathogens are
­mesophiles, bacteria that grow
3. Raw seed sprouts.
fastest at moderate temperatures
4. Sliced melons (because the edible flesh can be contaminated by organisms on the rind’s (77°–113°F or 25°–45°C).
exterior, which was in contact with soil).
5. Cut tomatoes (for the same reason as sliced melons).
6. Garlic and oil mixtures that haven’t been specifically treated to prevent growth of
­pathogens (because the oil seals the garlic from the air, fostering the growth of anaerobic
­bacteria, as explained above).

Foods that are not potentially hazardous include dried or dehydrated foods, foods that
are strongly acidic, and commercially processed foods that are still in their original unopened,
sealed containers.

Locomotion
Bacteria can move from place to place in only one way: They must be carried. They can’t move
on their own.
Foods can become contaminated by any of the following means:

Hands Air
Coughs and sneezes Water
Other foods Insects
Equipment and utensils Rats and mice

Gisslen2e_Procooking_C02_010-030hr2_pv2.1.indd 13 11/24/14 6:38 PM

Another random document with
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gentlemen outside the House. All revolutions he thought the work of fools
and knaves, philosophers, Jacobins, and sans-culottes. The Jeffersonians
were conspiring to prostrate popular liberty and establish tyranny by
curtailing the power of the Executive and increasing the power of the House.
It was all very simple. The President crushed, the Senate next destroyed,
three or four audacious demagogues would dominate the House until the
strongest cut the throats of the others and seized the scepter. The Federalists
were delighted—what a wonderful man was Harper![1404] Day by day the
violence increased. Harper snapped at Giles, who snapped back, and when
Otis made a nasty attack on the Virginian and the latter dared him to repeat it
‘out of doors,’ there were loud cries of ‘order.’ Only Gallatin remained cool,
in possession of his senses. He contented himself with the assertion that only
on information that had not been given could war measures be excused.[1405]
The superheat of the House cooled the passions of the people and
remonstrances against the arming of merchant ships poured in. Even from
New England they came, maddening to Cabot and Ames, reassuring to
Jefferson, who made the most of them in his correspondence.[1406] When the
town meeting at Cambridge joined the remonstrators, the Boston ‘Centinel’
fumed over ‘the indecent abuse of the merchants,’ and the ‘forestalling
knavery’ of the town.[1407] Then, to revive the failing spirits of the war
party, Adams came to the rescue with a Message announcing the failure of
the envoys and recommending warlike measures. How the little patriot
would have winced had he known that in adopting the recommendations of
McHenry he was accepting the dictations of Alexander Hamilton! Jefferson
wrote Madison that it was ‘an insane message,’ and the Jeffersonians, no
longer doubting that war was the purpose, arranged to force a show-down.
[1408] Thus appeared the Sprigg Resolutions providing for purely defensive
measures for the coast and the interior, and declaring that ‘under existing
conditions it is not expedient for the United States to resort to war against
the French Republic.’[1409]
Momentarily taken unaware, the Federalists were stunned. Harper
blundered into the admission that he could see no objections, but Otis, with
keener insight, proposed to substitute the word ‘declare’ for ‘resort to’ war—
and the cat was out of the bag. The Jeffersonians feared, not so much a
declaration of war as warlike measures that would force a state of war, and
to forestall that was the purpose of the Resolutions. Thus the debate
proceeded, more bitter and personal, with Giles and Harper resembling the
wenches of the fishmarket without their skirts.
Meanwhile, the Federalist leaders were familiar with the X Y Z papers of
which the Democrats were kept in ignorance. Hamilton, private citizen of
New York, knew their contents; Jefferson, Vice-President of the United
States, did not. This was the trump card of the war party, and no one saw it
so quickly as Hamilton, who immediately began to work secretly, through
his agents in the Cabinet, for their publication. ‘Nothing certainly can be
more proper,’ he wrote Pickering. ‘Confidence will otherwise be
wanting.’[1410] In utter ignorance of their contents, the Jeffersonians began
to demand their production. Only a few days before, the Jeffersonian organ
in Boston was charging that Adams withheld the papers because they
‘contain an account of some resentful expressions of the French respecting
our Cabinet, and Mr. Adams does not expect any credit by publishing
them.’[1411] Thus, when the motion was made that the papers be produced,
Gallatin, Giles, Livingston, and Nicholas supported it, and the next day they
were sent with the request that they be considered in confidence until the
effect of their publication could be discussed.
The galleries were cleared—the doors locked and guarded—and for three
days and into the fourth the secret discussion continued. Then the doors were
opened and the crowd in the galleries heard a brief discussion of the number
of copies to be printed for circulation. ‘One thousand, two hundred,’ said
Bayard of Delaware. ‘Three thousand,’ urged Harper. ‘Seven thousand,’
sneered the hot-headed Matthew Lyon, ‘for the papers are so trifling and
unimportant that no printer would risk the printing of them in a pamphlet.’
Otis incredulously inquired if he had rightly understood the Vermont fire-
eater. Lyon unblushingly repeated his strange assertion. The suggestion of
Bayard was adopted, and, when the members filed out of the little room in
which they deliberated that day, Harper and the war hawks could already
hear the thunder of the guns.

II

Thus did the shadows close in on the Jeffersonians. The blow was
staggering. On the appearance of the damaging documents, most of the
Democratic papers were silent, while printing them in full. One made a
brave show of satisfaction by criticizing Adams for withholding them so
long, and suggesting that perhaps ‘the most important papers’ had been
withheld.[1412] Even the buoyancy of Jefferson suffered a momentary
collapse. Writing Madison the day the papers were read, he did not have the
heart to indicate the nature of their contents.[1413] The next day he had
recovered sufficiently to write that his first impressions were ‘very
disagreeable and confused,’ and that this would be the first impression of the
public. A more mature consideration, he thought, would disclose no new
ground for war, but war psychology and fear of false imputations might
drive the people to the war hawks.[1414] Madison, equally astonished,
thought Talleyrand’s conduct ‘incredible,’ not because of its ‘depravity,
which, however heinous, is not without example,’ but because of its
‘unparalleled stupidity.’[1415] Monroe, who had spent the night with
Madison in Virginia, thought the incident ‘evidently a swindling
experiment,’ which was clear enough on its face.[1416] The public, in the
meantime, was reading one of the most grotesque stories of political infamy
and personal cupidity on record. The envoys had been treated with contempt,
refused an audience, insulted by unofficial blackmailers sent by the
unscrupulous Talleyrand to demand a loan for France and, more particularly,
a bribe for himself. The envoys had conducted themselves with becoming
dignity and spirit. ‘Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute,’ was a
clarion call to battle. The pride of the people was touched, and overnight the
political complexion of the country had been changed. A wave of hysterical
patriotism swept over the Nation, and the war hawks set to work to turn it
into frenzy. It was now or never.

III

For once John Adams was on top of the world. He who had so longed for
popularity had found it. Everywhere, in cities, on Southern plantations,
under the primeval forests of the frontiers, men were wildly waving flags
and saluting the President. Addresses pledging life and fortune poured in to
be prominently printed in the papers, and nowhere more than in the
Jeffersonian States.[1417] Most were the spontaneous expressions of an
excited people, some were unquestionably engineered by the politicians.
[1418] But on the surface the country was aflame. Down the Philadelphia
streets one day swung twelve hundred young men, keeping step to martial
music, the streets lined with the cheering populace, and, as ‘Porcupine’
observed, with ‘every female in the city whose face is worth looking at’
gladdening ‘the way with her smiles.’[1419] At Adams’s house the little man,
who had always wanted to be a warrior, appeared on the steps to greet them,
wearing a cockade, in full military regalia, his sword dangling at his side.
Intoxicated by the adulation, he plunged impetuously into a denunciation of
France and its Revolution.[1420] Madison thought his language ‘the most
abominable and degrading that could fall from the lips of a first magistrate
of an independent people, and particularly from a Revolutionary
patriot.’[1421] Aroused by the philippic of the President, the young men
spent the day marching the streets, and in the evening wined and dined until
ten o’clock, when they sallied forth to exercise their patriotism in deeds of
violence. The Terror had begun. Reeling and shouting, they bore down upon
the home of Bache. With only women and children in the house, they fell in
right gallant fashion on the doors and windows and were making headway
when the neighbors interfered and sent the drunken youngsters upon their
way.[1422] But with the war hawks, the attack on the home of Bache was not
least among the virtues of the mob, and the Federalist press was unstinted in
its praise.
Then, on May 9th, came the day of fasting and prayer, set by Adams in
happy ignorance that when he yielded to the importunities of Pickering for a
proclamation, he was again acting under the direction of the hated Hamilton.
[1423] The President had worked himself into a morbid state of mind. Some
mysterious wag had sent him a warning that the city would be burned that
night. The Jeffersonians smiled and shrugged their shoulders, and one editor
suggested that, since the conflagration was promised for the fast day, ‘the
incendiaries meant political or ecclesiastical fire.’[1424] But Adams, taking it
seriously, saw conspirators all about, incendiaries, assassins. Determined to
die resisting at his post, he had his servants carry arms and ammunition into
the house by the back way to withstand a siege.
The day was quiet enough, with business suspended and the churches
filled. Preachers pounced upon the Democrats and infidels with demoniac
fury. But in the evening the Terror came—and even as an old man Adams
could recall it only with a shudder. The Administration papers of the time,
eager to paint the picture black, could find nothing serious to report,
however. A few butcher boys, none the wiser for drink, exercised their lungs
in the State House yard until the soldiers swept down upon them, arresting a
few who were dismissed on the morrow, and frightening the others home.
[1425] But that was not the only mob that roved the streets that night. The
patriots had their inning, too, smashing the windows of Bache’s house and
smearing the statue of that filthy Democrat, Benjamin Franklin, with mud
from the gutters. The war propagandists fairly fluttered with activity.
Hopkinson’s new song, ‘Hail Columbia,’ was wildly cheered at the theaters,
much to the disgust of the Democrats, who resented the complimentary
reference to Adams,[1426] and, when the author was soon given a
Government position, it was suggested that Hopkinson had certainly ‘written
his song to the right tune.’[1427] When Fox the actor sang the song at the
theater in Baltimore, it was observed that ‘some Jacobins left the
room.’[1428] Even this hysteria did not satisfy the war hawks who stood in
the wings beating tom-toms and crying, ‘War! War! War!’ Hamilton was
urging Washington ‘under some pretext of health’ to tour Virginia and North
Carolina to give occasion for dinners and warlike addresses. From his retreat
at Dedham, Fisher Ames was writing nervously to Pickering that ‘we must
make haste to wage war or we shall be lost.’[1429] Hopkinson, the song-
writer, observing the serenity of New York, was wishing that he were a
despot that he might ‘order the whole city to undergo the Turkish ceremony
of the bastinado’ and ‘rouse the lazy drones with a whip.’[1430] In far-off
Lisbon, William Smith was nauseated with ‘the old womanish whining about
our reluctance to war.’[1431]
Then John Marshall returned and the tired voices of the shouters found a
tonic. Out to Kensington they went to meet him, sour-visaged Pickering in a
carriage looking stern and warlike despite his spectacles, three companies of
cavalry on prancing steeds, citizens and Congressmen in conveyances or on
horseback. Long before the town was reached, ‘the streets and windows,
even the housetops in many instances, were crowded with people.’[1432] The
bells in the steeple of Christ Church began to peal, and peal they did far into
the night. The reverberations of cannon mingled with the huzzas of the
populace as the procession moved slowly on through as many streets as
possible to the City Tavern. ‘All this was to secure him to their views that he
might say nothing that would oppose the game they were playing,’ Jefferson
wrote Madison.[1433] The next morning the war party thronged the tavern, a
dinner was given, and there was much satisfaction when Jefferson, who had
called, was unable to see the hero.[1434] Livingston, who had accompanied
Marshall from New York, had been assured that France had no thought of
war, but soon stories were afloat through the city, as emanating from the
envoy, of a contradictory nature.[1435]
Again the prancing of cavalry in the streets when Marshall departed for
Virginia—a series of ovations all the way.[1436] Then Pinckney returned—
and more pageants. Soldiers and citizens vied at Princeton and Trenton, and
a dinner was given and the French damned.[1437] All the time the country
was being overwhelmed with propaganda such as it had never known before.
Hamilton was writing his bitter invectives against the French,[1438] in which
France was ‘a den of pillage and slaughter’ and Frenchmen ‘foul birds of
prey.’ These letters, running in Fenno’s paper, alarmed Jefferson, who wrote
to prod Madison from the lethargy of retirement. ‘Sir, take up your pen
against this champion. You know the ingenuity of his talents, and there is not
a person but yourself who can foil him. For heaven’s sake, then, take up your
pen and do not desert the public cause entirely.’[1439] But even more
damaging than the pen of Hamilton was that of William Cobbett, ‘Peter
Porcupine.’ As a manufacturer of horrors he makes the wildest
propagandists of the World War pale like a candle held against the sun.
Childishly happy was the ‘Porcupine’ of those days when he could fight, on
American soil, ‘for his country’ and his King. Thus ‘the sans-culottes’ had
‘taken vessels off the bar at Charleston’ and the French had landed and were
plundering farmhouses.[1440] Thus a French invasion plot was discovered.
‘Porcupine’ had the particulars. The negro slaves were to be armed and used
as allies against the whites. ‘What a pretty figure Nicholas and Giles will
cut,’ wrote the jubilant Peter, ‘when Citizen Pompey and Citizen Cæsar shall
have tied their hands behind them.... Could its miseries be confined to these,
I would say, God hasten it.’[1441] ‘Gaunt Gallatin’ working hard all night?
Useless, useless—‘war, frightful war there will be in spite of all his teeth and
his nails too.’[1442] And then again, the invasion. Rumor had it that the
French were buying three thousand stand of arms for the West Indies. ‘That
these arms were bought for Virginia and Georgia is much more likely,’
commented ‘Porcupine.’ ‘Take care, take care, you sleepy southern fools.
Your negroes will probably be your masters this day twelve month.’[1443]
‘Extra!’ ‘Extra!’ ‘Startling News from Virginia’—‘these villians have
actually begun to tamper with our negroes.’ An ‘ill-looking fellow on
horseback’ had been seen talking with some slaves. It was understood he had
come from Philadelphia, and the ruffian was a refugee from English justice
in Ireland.[1444] And then, another lurid article on ‘Horrors of a French
Invasion,’ with bloodcurdling pictures of the outraging of American wives
and daughters.[1445]
The French invasion at hand—slaves armed—masters murdered in their
beds—churches burned—women outraged—girls kidnaped—horrors piled
on horrors, and all because of democracy. Little wonder that the
apprehensive Adams, who temperamentally sniffed treachery in every
breeze, all but trembled as he turned the pages of his ‘Porcupine’ that year.
In Boston the presses were kept busy turning out Harper’s war speech,[1446]
and Cabot was spurring Harper on to greater efforts. There, too, the rabid
war speech of a Harvard professor made on Fast Day in Brattle Street was
being published as a pamphlet,[1447] and the clergy were urging the hate of
French democracy as a Christian duty, and converting their pulpits into
pedestals of Mars. Dr. Tappan of Boston was making political harangues that
Federalist politicians were praising,[1448] and Father Thayer was clamoring
for slaughter in pious accents.[1449] Sometimes Democratic members of
congregations who sought Christ instead of Cæsar in the temples indignantly
left, and on one occasion an audacious and irreverent Jeffersonian paused on
his way out to exclaim in Latin, ‘Why so much anger in the heart of a
divine?’[1450] Nor were some of the war propagandists on the Bench to be
outdone by those in the pulpit. Judge Rush was thundering vituperative
phrases at the French in a charge to a jury.[1451] Chief Justice Dana of
Massachusetts phrased one of his charges like a participant in a
congressional party scrimmage.[1452] Much earlier, Chief Justice Ellsworth
of the United States Supreme Court made a grand jury charge the occasion
for an amazing attack on the Jeffersonian Party.[1453] As early as May,
Jefferson was utterly disheartened by the ‘war spirit worked up in the
town.’[1454] By June he was writing Kosciusko that he thought war ‘almost
inevitable.’[1455] In August he felt that ‘there is no event however atrocious
which may not be expected,’ and was promising to meet the Maratists ‘in
such a way as shall not be derogatory either to the public liberty or my own
personal honor.’[1456]
The country was rushing toward the Terror, with the war party rattling
sabers and threatening their opponents with violence. ‘Porcupine’ was
predicting gleefully that ‘when the occasion requires, the Yankees will show
themselves as ready at stringing up insurgents as in stringing onions.’[1457] It
was an open season for physical assaults on Jeffersonian editors and Bache
was being attacked in his office,[1458] and another assailant who had sought
to murder him found his fifty-dollar fine paid by the politicians when he
proffered the money, and Adams sent him on a mission to Europe.[1459] The
Federalists, for the moment, were cocks of the walk, and even Hamilton was
rushing into print with a letter that would have endeared him to the Three
Musketeers. A nondescript had referred in the press to his ambition and his
affair with Mrs. Reynolds. Ludicrously interpreting it as a threat of
assassination because of a reference to Cæsar, Hamilton lost his head and
published a signed statement promising that the ‘assassin’ would ‘not find
me unprepared to repel attack.’[1460] This childish boast played into the
hands of the obscure assailant, who replied: ‘Armed with a cane (whether
with a sword therein I cannot say) you walk about, prepared, you say, to defy
attack. By this you fall beneath resentment and excite my pity.’[1461] A few
days later he was writing of ‘the declaration made in company’ by ‘a Mr.
Patterson, a clerk to Alexander Hamilton,’ that the writer would be
murdered, and offering five hundred dollars reward for the apprehension of
the prospective assassin.[1462] Wild days, wild days!
This was the temper in which Congress resumed its deliberations after the
publication of the X Y Z papers. Jefferson advised his followers to seek an
adjournment to permit the members to consult the people, and had this
procedure been adopted the Federalists might have escaped the pitfalls to
which they were reeling.[1463] The Democrats in the streets were cowed and
only the most audacious met threats with bravado or courage. The braves of
Tammany at a public dinner drank to the toast: ‘May the old Tories and all
who wish to engage the United States in a war with any nation, realize the
felicity they anticipate by being placed in the front of the first battle.’[1464]
The Boston ‘Chronicle’ was publishing letters from ‘Benedict Arnold’
offering his services in the war for England, and rejoicing ‘to hear that so
many of my countrymen have shaken off their delusion, as I predicted they
would only eighteen years ago.’[1465] Day after day it published Josiah
Quincy’s speech, made in 1774, against standing armies. Soon it was calling
attention to profiteering of war patriots in Boston who had a monopoly on
Raven’s Duck which would be wanted for tents.[1466]
 III

But the Democratic leaders required all their courage to stand up before
the fusillade—Jefferson most of all. With the Philadelphia streets filled with
swaggering young men in uniforms, many nights he heard ‘The Rogue’s
March’ played beneath his windows. Bitter, threatening letters burdened his
mail. Spies crept to his dinner table to pick up the stray threads of casual
conversation that could be given a sinister twist, and he was forced to deny
himself to all but his most intimate friends.[1467] When forced to appear in
company, he simulated an abstracted silence, ignored personal affronts, and
talked calmly when at all. ‘All the passions are boiling over,’ he wrote in
May, ‘and he who would keep himself cool and clear of the contagion is so
far below the point of ordinary conversation that he finds himself isolated in
every society.’[1468] Convinced that even his correspondence was tampered
with, he no longer dared write freely in letters entrusted to the mails.[1469]
Spies dogged his footsteps and kept guard at his door.[1470] When on a visit
to Virginia he accepted an entertainment on Sunday, the floodgates were
opened upon him, and his enemies boasted that ‘this fact has been trumpeted
from one end of the country to the other as irrefutable proof of his contempt
for the Christian religion, and his devotion to the new religion of
France.’[1471] Sad that Rufus King and Christopher Gore had continued their
English tour on Sunday, and too bad that the Federalists persisted in holding
their political caucuses in Boston on Sunday evenings, retorted the
‘Independent Chronicle.’[1472]
No dinner of the war party was complete without an insulting toast on
Jefferson. ‘Jefferson—May he deserve better of his country than he has
hitherto done.’[1473] ‘The Vice-President—May his heart be purged of
Gallicism in the pure fire of Federalism or be lost in the furnace’—with
groans.[1474] ‘John Adams—May he like Samson slay thousands of
Frenchmen with the jaw bone of Jefferson.’[1475] And in the midst of the
mobbing, the self-contained philosopher kept his mouth shut and his feet
upon the ground. With ‘The Rogue’s March’ ringing in his ears he was able
to write a long letter on the value of crop rotation;[1476] another on a plough
he had invented;[1477] and in the midst of the Sedition Bill debate, learning
that an acquaintance was going west of the Mississippi where wild horses
roved the plains, he sent the suggestion that this was ‘the last opportunity to
study them in a state of nature,’ and requesting him to prepare a report for
the Philosophical Society.[1478] Many days found him alone in the library of
this Society, and once, during that hectic summer, he stole away from the
turmoil and hate to the beautiful country home of the Logans where he could
forget the bitterness of the battle browsing in its great library or lounging
beneath its majestic trees.[1479]
Everywhere the Democrats were fair game for persecution. Matthew
Lyon found a band playing ‘The Rogue’s March’ in front of his tavern at
Trenton and New Brunswick where crowds shouted imprecations.[1480] In
New York, only the appearance of fighting Irish friends prevented the war
hawks from serenading Edward Livingston’s home with the offensive
March.[1481] In Boston the ‘patriots’ expelled Thomas Adams, editor of the
‘Chronicle,’ from the Fire Society of which he had been a faithful member
for fourteen years.

IV

In this atmosphere, the Federalist machinery in Congress was set in

motion at high speed on war measures. Provisions were made for the
strengthening of the coast defenses, a navy was created, an army provided,
taxes levied, and through all this the Jeffersonians, under the calm,
courageous leadership of Albert Gallatin, merely sought to exercise a
moderating influence. If war was to come, provision had to be made. But
that was not enough for the radicals among the Federalists—the conditions
were ripe for the crushing of domestic foes as well as foreign enemies. Here
was the opportunity to destroy the party of democracy.
The first manifestation of this intent came with the introduction of the
Alien Bill in the Senate—aimed at the Irish more than at the French, if we
may judge from the correspondence of the Hamiltonian leaders and the tone
of the Federalist press. Both fairly bristled with hatred of the Irish immigrant
who was beginning to make himself felt in American politics. This, in part a
by-product of the Federalist partiality for England, was, in large measure, an
expression of the Federalist abhorrence of insurrections against constituted
authority everywhere. From the Ireland of that day, seething with rebellion,
incoming vessels were bringing Irish refugees, most of whom were members
of the revolutionary United Irishmen. Instinct and observation took them in a
body into the Jeffersonian Party, of which they became the shock troops in
many parts of the country. It was only at Jeffersonian dinners that glasses
were drained to the Liberal leaders in England, Fox and Sheridan, and to the
success of the Irish Rebellion; and only in Jeffersonian papers that sympathy
was expressed. It was during this time that Irish patriots were being hurried
to the gallows, and John Philpot Curran was making his incomparable
orations, now classics, in their defense. His burning phrases were being
punctuated by the rattle of the soldiers’ musketry intended to awe him into
silence. The patriot press was being crushed in Dublin. Castlereagh was busy
with his dirty money buying members of the Irish Parliament where money
would buy them, and finding renegades ready to cut their country’s throat for
a title, a place, or a ribbon to pin on their coats. Of these latter the most
loathsome was Lord Clare, whose infamy has been embalmed in the
eloquence of Curran.
It is not without significance that the Jeffersonian dinners in those days
were toasting John Philpot Curran, and that his speeches were printed by the
column in the Jeffersonian press,[1482] while Cobbett was giving three full
pages to Lord Clare’s excoriation of his countrymen.[1483] A month before
the Alien Bill reached the House, Cobbett was devoting a full page to a
weird story involving the Irish in America in a conspiracy with the French
for the destruction of the Government of the United States.[1484] ‘That
restless, rebellious tribe, the emigrated United Irishman,’ snorted
‘Porcupine,’ the English citizen.
All this was on the surface, but it did not reveal half the story. With the
Irish patriots, crushed by the soldiers of Cornwallis, seeking an asylum in
America, Rufus King, the Federalist Minister in London, was writing
Hamilton rejoicing over the suppression of the Irish Rebellion, and
expressing the hope that ‘our Government ... will have the power and
inclination to exclude these disaffected characters, who will be suffered to
seek an asylum among us.’[1485] It was King’s aggressive protest to the
British Government that delayed for four years the release of the Irish
prisoners who had planned an extensive settlement in America. Ten years
later, the most brilliant of these, Thomas Addis Emmet, who was to become
one of the ornaments of the New York Bar and to sleep at length by the
roaring traffic of Broadway in Saint Paul’s churchyard, wrote King in bitter
rebuke: ‘I should have brought along with me a brother [Robert Emmet]
whose name perhaps will you even not read without emotions of sympathy
and respect.’[1486] The Ministry had been favorable to the release and
migration until King’s hot remonstrance against admitting such desperadoes
as Thomas Addis Emmet! This Federalist hate of the Irish reeked in the
sneers of its press, exposed itself in the ‘wild Irish’ speech of Otis, in the
official actions of King, in the correspondence of the leaders, in the
description by Gibbs[1487] of the victims of Cornwallis’s bayonets and
Castlereagh’s bribes as ‘fugitives from the justice of Great Britain.’
Many thought, when the Alien Bill was introduced, that it was aimed at
Gallatin, and it was boasted in the coffee-houses of New York that it would
soon be easy to ‘ship him off.’[1488] Terrorized by the threat of the measure,
many harmless Frenchmen, including Volney, hastily chartered a ship and
sailed away,[1489] but when a little later some emigrant French royalists
came knocking at the door they were admitted.[1490] Jefferson thought the
bill ‘detestable,’[1491] and Madison, ‘a monster that will disgrace its
parents.’[1492] Even Hamilton was shocked at the bill introduced in the
Senate, and he hastened a letter to Pickering urging moderation. ‘Let us not
be cruel or violent,’ he wrote.[1493]
The purpose of the Sedition Bill was to crush the opposition press and
silence criticism of the ruling powers. Among the extreme and dominant
Federalists criticism had long been confused with sedition, and Fenno had
long described attacks on Administration measures as treason. Scurrility in
the press was all too common, but the worst of the Jeffersonian organs could
be matched by the Federalists; and no one in 1798 imagined that a Sedition
Law would ever be evoked against ‘Porcupine’ or Russell. The Hamiltonians
were moving with such celerity toward repression that a Congressman’s
circularization of his constituents with comments on policies and measures
was being denounced as seditious, and Judge Iredell, a narrow partisan, had
actually called the attention of the Richmond Grand Jury to a letter from
Representative Cabell. ‘Porcupine’ had published this letter with abusive
comments as though it were a treasonable correspondence with an alien
enemy.[1494] The next day he published with enthusiastic praise a letter that
Otis the Federalist had written to a constituent in Boston.[1495]
The moment these measures were introduced, every one knew that
Gallatin was in danger because of his Genevese accent, but that ‘Porcupine,’
the English subject, had no fears. Men like Hamilton Rowan, Dr. James
Priestley, and Volney could be sent away, but the putrid offal of the defunct
court of Versailles could continue to count upon a dinner at the Binghams’.
Cabell was subject to indictment for an action that was commendable in
Otis, and the merest child knew that the Sedition Law would be applied to
Jeffersonian papers alone.

Bad as was the Alien Law, it did not approach the viciousness of the
Sedition Act; and the Sedition Bill as passed was mild compared with the
one the Federalist leaders in the Senate originally framed. Albeit America
and France were not at war, the bill declared the French people enemies of
the American people, and that any one giving the former aid and comfort
should be punishable with death. A strict enforcement of such an act would
have sent Jefferson to the gallows. Under the Fourth Article any one
questioning the constitutionality or justice of an Administration measure
could be sent to herd with felons. It would have sealed the lips of members
of Congress.
When this monstrous measure reached Hamilton, he was dumbfounded at
the temerity and brutality of his followers. Grasping his pen, he hurriedly
sent a note of warning to Wolcott. There were provisions that were ‘highly
exceptionable’ that would ‘endanger civil war.’ He hoped that ‘the thing will
not be hurried through.’ Why ‘establish a tyranny?’ Was not ‘energy a very
different thing from violence?’[1496] Reeling drunk with intolerance, even
Hamilton’s warning only coaxed a slight concession to liberty, and it was a
thoroughly vicious and tyrannical measure that was debated in the House.
These debates were conducted under conditions of disorder that would have
disgraced a discussion of brigands wrangling over a division of spoils in a
wayside cave. Gallatin, Livingston, and Nicholas were forced to talk against
coughs, laughter, conversation, and the scraping of the feet of the apostles of
‘law and order.’ No personal insult too foul, no nincompoop too insignificant
to sneer in the face of Gallatin. Despite these terrorizing tactics, the
Jeffersonians stood firm and made their record. Even the customary courtesy
of Gallatin deserted him, however, and when the sneering Harper darkly
hinted at traitors in the House, he retorted sharply that he knew ‘nothing in
the character of [Harper], either public or private, to entitle him to the
ground he so boldly assumes.’
 On the last day of the debate on the Alien Bill, Edward Livingston closed
for the opposition; and in discussing the constitutional phase, he anticipated
the doctrine of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, indicating probable
conferences with the tall, silent man who was presiding over the Senate. ‘If
we are ready to violate the Constitution,’ he said, ‘will the people submit to
our unauthorized acts? Sir, they ought not to submit; they would deserve the
chains that these measures are forging for them.’ The effect of such a
measure? ‘The country will swarm with informers, spies, delators, and all
the odious reptile tribe that breed in the sunshine of despotic power.... The
hours of the most unsuspected confidence, the intimacies of friendship, or
the recesses of domestic retirement, afford no security. The companion
whom you must trust, the friend in whom you must confide, the domestic
who waits in your chamber, are all tempted to betray your imprudent or
unguarded follies; to misrepresent your words; to convey them, distorted by
calumny, to the secret tribunal where jealousy presides—where fear
officiates as accuser, and suspicion is the only evidence that is heard.... Do
not let us be told that we are to excite a fervor against a foreign aggression to
establish a tyranny at home; that like the arch traitor we cry “Hail
Columbia”[1497] at the moment we are betraying her to destruction; that we
sing, “Happy Land,” when we are plunging it in ruin and disgrace; and that
we are absurd enough to call ourselves free and enlightened while we
advocate principles that would have disgraced the age of Gothic
barbarity.’[1498]
The vote was taken and the Alien Bill passed, 46 to 40.
Livingston was to hear a few days later when the debate on the Sedition
Bill was reached that he had been guilty of sedition in his speech on the
Alien Bill. Not least among the grotesque features of the crazy times was the
prominence, amounting to leadership, attained by John Allen of Connecticut
—a tall, hectic, sour-visaged fanatic. It was reserved for him to indict the
Jeffersonians generally for sedition. Had not Livingston been guilty of
sedition when he proposed that Gerry be authorized to renew negotiations?
Was not the ‘Aurora’s’ explanation of the effect of the Alien Law upon the
Irish treason? Were not members of Congress who dared write their views to
their constituents traitors? From a want-wit like this fanatic such views were
more ludicrous than depressing, but Harper rose to give his full assent to the
buffoonery of Allen. ‘What!’ exclaimed Nicholas, ‘is it proposed to prevent
members from speaking what they please or prohibit them from reaching the
people with their views?’ And Harper, disclaiming any desire to curtail the
freedom of speech upon the floor, bravely admitted a desire to prevent the
speeches from reaching the people ‘out of doors.’ This astounding doctrine
brought Gallatin to his feet with a scornful denunciation of Allen’s criticism
of Cabell’s letter. It ‘contained more information and more sense than the
gentleman from Connecticut has displayed or can display.’ Taking up every
assertion in Cabell’s letter and making it his own, he challenged a denial of
its truth. Then, referring to the attack on Livingston’s speech, Gallatin gave
his full sanction to the New York statesman’s doctrine of resistance to
unconstitutional measures. ‘I believe that doctrine is absolutely correct and
neither seditious nor treasonable.’
On the last day Livingston spoke with his usual spirit and eloquence, and
Harper closed for the bill with an anti-climactic charge, apropos of nothing,
that the Jeffersonian plan of government was in the interest of ‘men of
immoderate ambition, great family connections, hereditary wealth, and
extensive influence’ like Livingston. ‘Great patrician families’ would walk
over the heads ‘of we plebeian people.’ This touching appeal for the
plebeians could hardly have been meant for Philadelphia where at that time
‘the great patricians’ were lavishly wining and dining the Harpers, and
rigidly excluding the Livingstons and Gallatins from their tables. Thus the
Federalists closed their case and the bill passed, 44 to 41.[1499]
The press was peculiarly silent through the debates. Russell in the Boston
‘Centinel’ observed that ‘Benedict Arnold complained bitterly of the treason
bill,’[1500] and his rival, Thomas Adams of the ‘Chronicle,’ announced the
passage with the comment that ‘we are now abridged the freedom of the
press.’[1501] Soon the ‘Commercial Advertiser’ of New York would be
dubbing all men traitors who criticized the Sedition Law, and Jefferson
would be inviting Hamilton Rowan to the sanctuary of Monticello with the
assurance that the Habeas Corpus Act was still operative in Virginia.[1502]
Almost immediately the Reign of Terror broke upon the land.

VI

In the midst of political terrors the yellow fever stalked again into the
haunts of men, striking in New York, in Boston, with special virulence in
Philadelphia. By the first of October, fourteen hundred had died in New
York City. Hamilton remained in town until persuaded by his family to go to
the country, but he continued to visit the city daily to confer with his
political friends.[1503] In Philadelphia those who could afford it took to
flight. Soon thousands were encamped in tents on the common on the
outskirts and by October not more than seven thousand people remained in
the stricken city. An English traveler, entering in September, found the
theaters, taverns, drinking-houses, gambling-dens, and dance-halls closed,
hospital carts moving slowly through abandoned streets, the casket-makers
alone busy. Sitting one night on the steps of a house in Arch Street, where
most houses were deserted, he could hear nothing but the groans of the
dying, the lamentations of the living, the hammers of the coffin-makers, the
dismal howling of deserted dogs.[1504] Even the physicians took to their
heels, but Dr. Rush, the head of his profession, remained to battle with the
disease.[1505] The health office was kept open day and night.[1506]
But even in the midst of death the politicians fought with scarcely
diminished ferocity. ‘Porcupine’ and Fenno were stooping to the ghastly
business of maligning the methods of Dr. Rush in treating the disease.
Standing heroically to his duty where others had fled, he was forced, day by
day, to read the most scurrilous attacks upon him. The animus was due to the
fact that Rush was a Jeffersonian; and even from Lisbon, William Smith
contributed his slur in a letter to Wolcott manifesting sympathy with the
attacks because he had ‘always considered the Doctor a wrong-headed
politician.’[1507] Bache and Fenno clawed on, amidst the dying and the dead,
until one September day the fever entered the Fenno house and struck down
both the editor and his wife. When she died, the ‘Gazette’ was suspended,
and the next day John Fenno ceased his attacks on Dr. Rush, for Death had
intervened.[1508] ‘Alas poor John Fenno,’ wrote Ames, ‘a worthy man, a true
Federalist, always firm in his principles, mild in maintaining them, and bitter
against foes. No printer was ever so correct in his politics.’[1509] A few days
later, Benjamin Franklin Bache of the ‘Aurora’ fought no more. The Boston
‘Chronicle’ announced his death in a black-bordered editorial lamenting ‘the
loss of a man of inflexible virtue, unappalled by power or persecution, and
who, in dying, knew no anxieties but what was excited by his apprehensions
for his country and for his young family.’[1510] The Jeffersonian press
published long articles and poems of tribute. In New York the Democrats
lost the services of Greenleaf of the ‘Argus,’ another victim of the plague.
 John Ward Fenno took up the work of his father, and the widows of
Bache and Greenleaf sought to continue the ‘Aurora’ and the ‘Argus,’ the
former calling to her assistance one of the ablest controversial journalists of
his time, William Duane. No Jeffersonian papers made an unfeeling
reference to the death of Fenno; the passing of Bache was gloated over in
ghoulish fashion by the Federalist press, and soon ‘Porcupine’ and young
Fenno were making merry over ‘the widows Bache and Greenleaf.’ It was
part of the Reign of Terror—and the fight went on.

VII

It went on because there was a congressional election pending and both

parties were putting forth their utmost effort. The Federalists were hoping
that under the influence of war hysteria the Jeffersonians could be
annihilated; the Jeffersonians were fighting desperately to hold the line. The
most sensational feature of the campaign was the emergence as an avowed
party man of Washington, whose aristocratic viewpoint made democracy
offensive. He went the full length, finding nothing objectionable in the Alien
and Sedition Laws. When, on his persuasion, Patrick Henry entered the
campaign as a candidate for the Assembly, he too defended these wretched
measures with the silly and insincere statement that they were ‘too deep’ for
him and were the emanations of a ‘wise body.’[1511]
But more important than the emergence of Washington was the
congressional candidacy of John Marshall, who entered the fight on
Washington’s insistence. The Hamiltonian Federalists were delighted with
his candidacy until the publication of his letter opposing the Alien and
Sedition Laws, when they turned upon him with bitter scorn. ‘His character
is done for,’ wrote Ames.[1512] Noah Webster commented that ‘he speaks
the language of true Americanism except on the Alien and Sedition
Laws.’[1513] ‘Porcupine’ added an editor’s note to the letter in his paper:
‘The publication of these questions and answers will do neither good nor
harm. I insert them as a sort of record of Mr. Marshall’s character. If I were a
voter, however, I would sooner vote for Gallatin than for Marshall.’[1514]
The New England Federalists were wrathy among themselves over
Marshall’s apostasy. ‘Mr. Marshall,’ wrote Cabot to Pickering, ‘has given us
great uneasiness here by his answers.... Mr. Marshall, I know, has much to
learn on the subject of a practical system of free government for the United
States.... I believe, however, that he will eventually prove a great
acquisition.’[1515] It was at this juncture that Cabot proved his superior
political perspicacity by taking up his pen in defense of Marshall for the
Boston ‘Centinel.’[1516] The struggle in Virginia was bitter. The
Jeffersonians, long prepared for Washington’s action, were undismayed, and
they fought with increased vim. The result was that, while Marshall won by
108 majority, the Jeffersonians elected all but eight of the Representatives,
carried the Legislature, and elected a United States Senator.
The Federalists were chagrined with the general result. Cabot was
disappointed with Massachusetts[1517] and Maryland.[1518] A Senator had
been lost in North Carolina, and from South Carolina the Jeffersonians had
sent to the Senate their most resourceful leader, Charles Pinckney. Theodore
Sedgwick, surveying the field, and writing his observations to King in
London, could find no improvement in the Senate and but a slight
‘amelioration’ in the House. The Jeffersonians had won six out of ten seats
in New York, gained two in New Jersey, and eight out of thirteen in
Pennsylvania.
But Giles was gone—retiring in disgust to the Legislature of Virginia.
The election was over—and the Reign of Terror was beginning.

VIII

It began in the summer of 1798 and extended through the autumn of

1800. The growing sentiment for democracy and the increasing popularity of
Jefferson were maddening to the Federalists, who fared forth to destroy both
with a club. The Alien and Sedition Laws were to be used for the purpose.
Democrats, from the highest to the most lowly, were to be proscribed and
treated with contempt. The New England clergy, for the most part, entered
heartily into the plan. The colleges joined. So openly partisan became the
institutions of learning that the Jeffersonian press opened their batteries upon
the ‘arbitrary spirit which has been exposed in the eastern seminaries.’[1519]
With much ceremony Doctors’ Degrees were being bestowed upon
Federalist politicians, and Pickering and Wolcott were made Doctors of Law.
‘Except Timothy’s vulgar diplomacy who ever heard of the qualifications in
him?’ asked the irreverent Duane, and while ‘Oliver has dabbled in politics
and glittered in prose’ ‘he would never have been discovered by the savants
had he not been in the Cabinet of a New England President.’[1520] Other
Federalist politicians were thus given the disguise of scholarship, but
Jefferson, President of the Philosophical Society, and friend of Franklin and
Rittenhouse, received no degrees.
Very early, gangs of self-proclaimed patriots sallied forth into the country
to tear down the liberty poles erected by the Democrats, armed with pistols
and swords, and clattering over the country roads like Cossacks on a
rampage. One of these gangs under the leadership of a Philip Strubling,
operating in Berks County, Pennsylvania, had a triumphant career, except
where armed men showed fight, when the gallant band found discretion the
better part of valor.[1521] This sort of outrage was being committed all over
the country. Plans were made to wreck the printing plant of Duane until it
was found that his friends had armed for defense, and the editor warned the
conspirators that an attempt at violence ‘would carry public vengeance to
their firesides.’[1522]
When thwarted in their plans against the leaders, the terrorists turned
upon the weak and lowly, demanding the discharge of Jeffersonian artisans
employed in the manufacture of war material. Out with them! ‘It is a
notorious fact,’ complained Fenno, ‘that a number of artisans ... are of
politics destructive of the Constitution.’[1523] Everywhere, in the pulpits of
political preachers, from the Bench of Federal Judges, through the press and
on the streets, men were beating upon the tom-toms arousing the
apprehensions of the people; and when, one night, some pirates, sentenced to
execution, escaped from the Philadelphia jail, the clatter of the mounted
soldiers in pursuit was enough to fill the streets with affrighted people. The
Germans of Northampton were marching on the city with pitchforks. The
soldiers were out after Duane, whispered others, and armed Democrats
rushed to the rescue. At length the fever subsided and order was restored.
‘Nothing more serious than the disturbance of love-making,’ said the