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 A First Course in Differential © 2013, 2009, 2005 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
Equations with Modeling
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the
Applications, Tenth Edition
copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in
Dennis G. Zill
any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical,
Publisher: including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning,
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Section 4.8 of this text appears in
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Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 16 15 14 13 12

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This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial
review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to
remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous
editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by
ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest.

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Contents

Preface ix
Projects P-1

1 INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 1

1.1 Definitions and Terminology 2

1.2 Initial-Value Problems 13
1.3 Differential Equations as Mathematical Models 20
Chapter 1 in Review 33

2 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 35

2.1 Solution Curves Without a Solution 36

2.1.1 Direction Fields 36
2.1.2 Autonomous First-Order DEs 38
2.2 Separable Equations 46
2.3 Linear Equations 54
2.4 Exact Equations 63
2.5 Solutions by Substitutions 71
2.6 A Numerical Method 75
Chapter 2 in Review 80

3 MODELING WITH FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 83

3.1 Linear Models 84

3.2 Nonlinear Models 95
3.3 Modeling with Systems of First-Order DEs 106
Chapter 3 in Review 113

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
vi ● CONTENTS

4 HIGHER-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 116

4.1 Preliminary Theory—Linear Equations 117

4.1.1 Initial-Value and Boundary-Value Problems 117
4.1.2 Homogeneous Equations 119
4.1.3 Nonhomogeneous Equations 124
4.2 Reduction of Order 129
4.3 Homogeneous Linear Equations with Constant Coefficient 132
4.4 Undetermined Coefficients—Superposition Approach 139
4.5 Undetermined Coefficients—Annihilator Approach 149
4.6 Variation of Parameters 156
4.7 Cauchy-Euler Equation 162
4.8 Green’s Functions 169
4.8.1 Initial-Value Problems 169
4.8.2 Boundary-Value Problems 176
4.9 Solving Systems of Linear DEs by Elimination 180
4.10 Nonlinear Differential Equations 185
Chapter 4 in Review 190

5 MODELING WITH HIGHER-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 192

5.1 Linear Models: Initial-Value Problems 193

5.1.1 Spring/Mass Systems: Free Undamped Motion 193
5.1.2 Spring/Mass Systems: Free Damped Motion 197
5.1.3 Spring/Mass Systems: Driven Motion 200
5.1.4 Series Circuit Analogue 203
5.2 Linear Models: Boundary-Value Problems 210
5.3 Nonlinear Models 218
Chapter 5 in Review 228

6 SERIES SOLUTIONS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 231

6.1 Review of Power Series 232

6.2 Solutions About Ordinary Points 238
6.3 Solutions About Singular Points 247
6.4 Special Functions 257
Chapter 6 in Review 271

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 CONTENTS ● vii

7 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM 273

7.1 Definition of the Laplace Transform 274

7.2 Inverse Transforms and Transforms of Derivatives 281
7.2.1 Inverse Transforms 281
7.2.2 Transforms of Derivatives 284
7.3 Operational Properties I 289
7.3.1 Translation on the s-Axis 290
7.3.2 Translation on the t-Axis 293
7.4 Operational Properties II 301
7.4.1 Derivatives of a Transform 301
7.4.2 Transforms of Integrals 302
7.4.3 Transform of a Periodic Function 307
7.5 The Dirac Delta Function 312
7.6 Systems of Linear Differential Equations 315
Chapter 7 in Review 320

8 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 325

8.1 Preliminary Theory—Linear Systems 326

8.2 Homogeneous Linear Systems 333
8.2.1 Distinct Real Eigenvalues 334
8.2.2 Repeated Eigenvalues 337
8.2.3 Complex Eigenvalues 342
8.3 Nonhomogeneous Linear Systems 348
8.3.1 Undetermined Coefficient 348
8.3.2 Variation of Parameters 351
8.4 Matrix Exponential 356
Chapter 8 in Review 360

9 NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS OF ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 362

9.1 Euler Methods and Error Analysis 363

9.2 Runge-Kutta Methods 368
9.3 Multistep Methods 373
9.4 Higher-Order Equations and Systems 375
9.5 Second-Order Boundary-Value Problems 380
Chapter 9 in Review 384

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viii ● CONTENTS

APPENDIXES

I Gamma Function APP-1

II Matrices APP-3
III Laplace Transforms APP-21

Answers for Selected Odd-Numbered Problems ANS-1

Index I-1

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Preface

TO THE STUDENT
Authors of books live with the hope that someone actually reads them. Contrary to
what you might believe, almost everything in a typical college-level mathematics
text is written for you, and not the instructor. True, the topics covered in the text are
chosen to appeal to instructors because they make the decision on whether to use it
in their classes, but everything written in it is aimed directly at you, the student. So I
want to encourage you—no, actually I want to tell you—to read this textbook! But
do not read this text like you would a novel; you should not read it fast and you
should not skip anything. Think of it as a workbook. By this I mean that mathemat-
ics should always be read with pencil and paper at the ready because, most likely, you
will have to work your way through the examples and the discussion. Before attempt-
ing any of the exercises, work all the examples in a section; the examples are con-
structed to illustrate what I consider the most important aspects of the section, and
therefore, reflect the procedures necessary to work most of the problems in the exer-
cise sets. I tell my students when reading an example, copy it down on a piece of
paper, and do not look at the solution in the book. Try working it, then compare your
results against the solution given, and, if necessary, resolve any differences. I have
tried to include most of the important steps in each example, but if something is not
clear you should always try—and here is where the pencil and paper come in
again—to fill in the details or missing steps. This may not be easy, but that is part of
the learning process. The accumulation of facts followed by the slow assimilation of
understanding simply cannot be achieved without a struggle.
Specifically for you, a Student Resource Manual (SRM) is available as an
optional supplement. In addition to containing worked-out solutions of selected
problems from the exercises sets, the SRM contains hints for solving problems, extra
examples, and a review of those areas of algebra and calculus that I feel are particu-
larly important to the successful study of differential equations. Bear in mind you do
not have to purchase the SRM; by following my pointers given at the beginning of
most sections, you can review the appropriate mathematics from your old precalculus
or calculus texts.
In conclusion, I wish you good luck and success. I hope you enjoy the text and
the course you are about to embark on—as an undergraduate math major it was one
of my favorites because I liked mathematics with a connection to the physical
world. If you have any comments, or if you find any errors as you read/work your
way through the text, or if you come up with a good idea for improving either it or
the SRM, please feel free to contact me through my editor at Cengage Learning:
molly.taylor@cengage.com

TO THE INSTRUCTOR
In case you are examining this textbook for the first time, A First Course in
Differential Equations with Modeling Applications, Tenth Edition, is intended for
either a one-semester or a one-quarter course in ordinary differential equations. The
longer version of the textbook, Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems,
Eighth Edition, can be used for either a one-semester course, or a two-semester
course covering ordinary and partial differential equations. This longer book includes six
additional chapters that cover plane autonomous systems of differential equations,
ix

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
x ● PREFACE

stability, Fourier series, Fourier transforms, linear partial differential equations and
boundary-value problems, and numerical methods for partial differential equations.
For a one semester course, I assume that the students have successfully completed at
least two semesters of calculus. Since you are reading this, undoubtedly you have
already examined the table of contents for the topics that are covered. You will not
find a “suggested syllabus” in this preface; I will not pretend to be so wise as to tell
other teachers what to teach. I feel that there is plenty of material here to pick from
and to form a course to your liking. The textbook strikes a reasonable balance be-
tween the analytical, qualitative, and quantitative approaches to the study of differ-
ential equations. As far as my “underlying philosophy” it is this: An undergraduate
textbook should be written with the student’s understanding kept firmly in mind,
which means to me that the material should be presented in a straightforward, read-
able, and helpful manner, while keeping the level of theory consistent with the notion
of a “first course.
For those who are familiar with the previous editions, I would like to mention a
few of the improvements made in this edition.
• Eight new projects appear at the beginning of the book. Each project includes
a related problem set, and a correlation of the project material with a section
in the text.
• Many exercise sets have been updated by the addition of new problems—
especially discussion problems—to better test and challenge the students. In
like manner, some exercise sets have been improved by sending some prob-
lems into retirement.
• Additional examples have been added to many sections.
• Several instructors took the time to e-mail me expressing their concerns
about my approach to linear first-order differential equations. In response,
Section 2.3, Linear Equations, has been rewritten with the intent to simplify
the discussion.
• This edition contains a new section on Green’s functions in Chapter 4 for
those who have extra time in their course to consider this elegant application
of variation of parameters in the solution of initial-value and boundary-value
problems. Section 4.8 is optional and its content does not impact any other
section.
• Section 5.1 now includes a discussion on how to use both trigonometric forms

y ⫽ Asin(vt ⫹ f) and y ⫽ Acos(vt ⫺ f)

in describing simple harmonic motion.

• At the request of users of the previous editions, a new section on the review
of power series has been added to Chapter 6. Moreover, much of this chapter
has been rewritten to improve clarity. In particular, the discussion of the
modified Bessel functions and the spherical Bessel functions in Section 6.4
has been greatly expanded.

STUDENT RESOURCES
• Student Resource Manual (SRM), prepared by Warren S. Wright and Carol
D. Wright (ISBN 9781133491927 accompanies A First Course in
Differential Equations with Modeling Applications, Tenth Edition and
ISBN 9781133491958 accompanies Differential Equations with Boundary-
Value Problems, Eighth Edition), provides important review material from
algebra and calculus, the solution of every third problem in each exercise
set (with the exception of the Discussion Problems and Computer Lab
Assignments), relevant command syntax for the computer algebra systems
Mathematica and Maple, lists of important concepts, as well as helpful
hints on how to start certain problems.

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PREFACE ● xi

INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES

• Instructor’s Solutions Manual (ISM) prepared by Warren S. Wright and

Carol D. Wright (ISBN 9781133602293) provides complete, worked-out
solutions for all problems in the text.
• Solution Builder is an online instructor database that offers complete,
worked-out solutions for all exercises in the text, allowing you to create
customized, secure solutions printouts (in PDF format) matched exactly to
the problems you assign in class. Access is available via
www.cengage.com/solutionbuilder
• ExamView testing software allows instructors to quickly create, deliver, and
customize tests for class in print and online formats, and features automatic
grading. Included is a test bank with hundreds of questions customized di-
rectly to the text, with all questions also provided in PDF and Microsoft
Word formats for instructors who opt not to use the software component.
• Enhanced WebAssign is the most widely used homework system in higher
education. Available for this title, Enhanced WebAssign allows you to assign,
collect, grade, and record assignments via the Web. This proven homework
system includes links to textbook sections, video examples, and problem spe-
cific tutorials. Enhanced WebAssign is more than a homework system—it is
a complete learning system for students.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to single out a few people for special recognition. Many thanks to Molly
Taylor (senior sponsoring editor), Shaylin Walsh Hogan (assistant editor), and Alex
Gontar (editorial assistant) for orchestrating the development of this edition and its
component materials. Alison Eigel Zade (content project manager) offered the
resourcefulness, knowledge, and patience necessary to a seamless production
process. Ed Dionne (project manager, MPS) worked tirelessly to provide top-notch
publishing services. And finall , I thank Scott Brown for his superior skills as accuracy
reviewer. Once again an especially heartfelt thank you to Leslie Lahr, developmental
editor, for her support, sympathetic ear, willingness to communicate, suggestions,
and for obtaining and organizing the excellent projects that appear at the front of
the text. I also extend my sincerest appreciation to those individuals who took the
time out of their busy schedules to submit a project:

Ivan Kramer, University of Maryland—Baltimore County

Tom LaFaro, Gustavus Adolphus College
Jo Gascoigne, Fisheries Consultant
C. J. Knickerbocker, Sensis Corporation
Kevin Cooper, Washington State University
Gilbert N. Lewis, Michigan Technological University
Michael Olinick, Middlebury College

Finally, over the years these textbooks have been improved in a countless num-
ber of ways through the suggestions and criticisms of the reviewers. Thus it is fittin
to conclude with an acknowledgement of my debt to the following wonderful people
for sharing their expertise and experience.

REVIEWERS OF PAST EDITIONS

William Atherton, Cleveland State University

Philip Bacon, University of Florida
Bruce Bayly, University of Arizona
William H. Beyer, University of Akron
R. G. Bradshaw, Clarkson College

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
xii ● PREFACE

Dean R. Brown, Youngstown State University

David Buchthal, University of Akron
Nguyen P. Cac, University of Iowa
T. Chow, California State University—Sacramento
Dominic P. Clemence, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical
State University
Pasquale Condo, University of Massachusetts—Lowell
Vincent Connolly, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Philip S. Crooke, Vanderbilt University
Bruce E. Davis, St. Louis Community College at Florissant Valley
Paul W. Davis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Richard A. DiDio, La Salle University
James Draper, University of Florida
James M. Edmondson, Santa Barbara City College
John H. Ellison, Grove City College
Raymond Fabec, Louisiana State University
Donna Farrior, University of Tulsa
Robert E. Fennell, Clemson University
W. E. Fitzgibbon, University of Houston
Harvey J. Fletcher, Brigham Young University
Paul J. Gormley, Villanova
Layachi Hadji, University of Alabama
Ruben Hayrapetyan, Kettering University
Terry Herdman, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Zdzislaw Jackiewicz, Arizona State University
S. K. Jain, Ohio University
Anthony J. John, Southeastern Massachusetts University
David C. Johnson, University of Kentucky—Lexington
Harry L. Johnson, V.P.I & S.U.
Kenneth R. Johnson, North Dakota State University
Joseph Kazimir, East Los Angeles College
J. Keener, University of Arizona
Steve B. Khlief, Tennessee Technological University (retired)
C. J. Knickerbocker, Sensis Corporation
Carlon A. Krantz, Kean College of New Jersey
Thomas G. Kudzma, University of Lowell
Alexandra Kurepa, North Carolina A&T State University
G. E. Latta, University of Virginia
Cecelia Laurie, University of Alabama
James R. McKinney, California Polytechnic State University
James L. Meek, University of Arkansas
Gary H. Meisters, University of Nebraska—Lincoln
Stephen J. Merrill, Marquette University
Vivien Miller, Mississippi State University
Gerald Mueller, Columbus State Community College
Philip S. Mulry, Colgate University
C. J. Neugebauer, Purdue University
Tyre A. Newton, Washington State University
Brian M. O’Connor, Tennessee Technological University
J. K. Oddson, University of California—Riverside
Carol S. O’Dell, Ohio Northern University
A. Peressini, University of Illinois, Urbana—Champaign
J. Perryman, University of Texas at Arlington
Joseph H. Phillips, Sacramento City College
Jacek Polewczak, California State University Northridge
Nancy J. Poxon, California State University—Sacramento
Robert Pruitt, San Jose State University

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PREFACE ● xiii

K. Rager, Metropolitan State College

F. B. Reis, Northeastern University
Brian Rodrigues, California State Polytechnic University
Tom Roe, South Dakota State University
Kimmo I. Rosenthal, Union College
Barbara Shabell, California Polytechnic State University
Seenith Sivasundaram, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
Don E. Soash, Hillsborough Community College
F. W. Stallard, Georgia Institute of Technology
Gregory Stein, The Cooper Union
M. B. Tamburro, Georgia Institute of Technology
Patrick Ward, Illinois Central College
Jianping Zhu, University of Akron
Jan Zijlstra, Middle Tennessee State University
Jay Zimmerman, Towson University

REVIEWERS OF THE CURRENT EDITIONS

Bernard Brooks, Rochester Institute of Technology

Allen Brown, Wabash Valley College
Helmut Knaust, The University of Texas at El Paso
Mulatu Lemma, Savannah State University
George Moss, Union University
Martin Nakashima, California State Polytechnic University—Pomona
Bruce O’Neill, Milwaukee School of Engineering
Dennis G. Zill
Los Angeles

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Tenth Edition

A FIRST COURSE IN
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
with Modeling Applications

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 Project for Section 3.1

Is AIDS an Invariably
Fatal Disease?
by Ivan Kramer

This essay will address and answer the question: Is the acquired immunodeficienc
Thomas Deerinck, NCMIR/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
syndrome (AIDS), which is the end stage of the human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) infection, an invariably fatal disease?
Like other viruses, HIV has no metabolism and cannot reproduce itself outside of
a living cell. The genetic information of the virus is contained in two identical strands
of RNA. To reproduce, HIV must use the reproductive apparatus of the cell it invades
and infects to produce exact copies of the viral RNA. Once it penetrates a cell, HIV
transcribes its RNA into DNA using an enzyme (reverse transcriptase) contained in the
virus. The double-stranded viral DNA migrates into the nucleus of the invaded cell and
is inserted into the cell’s genome with the aid of another viral enzyme (integrase). The
Cell infected with HIV
viral DNA and the invaded cell’s DNA are then integrated, and the cell is infected.
When the infected cell is stimulated to reproduce, the proviral DNA is transcribed into
viral DNA, and new viral particles are synthesized. Since anti-retroviral drugs like zi-
dovudine inhibit the HIV enzyme reverse transcriptase and stop proviral DNA chain
synthesis in the laboratory, these drugs, usually administered in combination, slow
down the progression to AIDS in those that are infected with HIV (hosts).
What makes HIV infection so dangerous is the fact that it fatally weakens a
host’s immune system by binding to the CD4 molecule on the surface of cells vital
for defense against disease, including T-helper cells and a subpopulation of natural
killer cells. T-helper cells (CD4 T-cells, or T4 cells) are arguably the most important
cells of the immune system since they organize the body’s defense against antigens.
Modeling suggests that HIV infection of natural killer cells makes it impossible for
even modern antiretroviral therapy to clear the virus [1]. In addition to the CD4
molecule, a virion needs at least one of a handful of co-receptor molecules (e.g., CCR5
and CXCR4) on the surface of the target cell in order to be able to bind to it, pene-
trate its membrane, and infect it. Indeed, about 1% of Caucasians lack coreceptor
molecules, and, therefore, are completely immune to becoming HIV infected.
Once infection is established, the disease enters the acute infection stage, lasting
a matter of weeks, followed by an incubation period, which can last two decades or
more! Although the T-helper cell density of a host changes quasi-statically during the
incubation period, literally billions of infected T4 cells and HIV particles are
destroyed—and replaced—daily. This is clearly a war of attrition, one in which the
immune system invariably loses.
A model analysis of the essential dynamics that occur during the incubation
period to invariably cause AIDS is as follows [1]. Because HIV rapidly mutates, its
ability to infect T4 cells on contact (its infectivity) eventually increases and the
rate T4 cells become infected increases. Thus, the immune system must increase the
destruction rate of infected T4 cells as well as the production rate of new, uninfected
ones to replace them. There comes a point, however, when the production rate of T4
cells reaches its maximum possible limit and any further increase in HIV’s infectiv-
ity must necessarily cause a drop in the T4 density leading to AIDS. Remarkably,
about 5% of hosts show no sign of immune system deterioration for the first ten years
of the infection; these hosts, called long-term nonprogressors, were originally

P-1

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
P-2 ● PROJECTS IS AIDS AN INVARIABLY FATAL DISEASE?

thought to be possibly immune to developing AIDS, but modeling evidence suggests

that these hosts will also develop AIDS eventually [1].
In over 95% of hosts, the immune system gradually loses its long battle with the
virus. The T4 cell density in the peripheral blood of hosts begins to drop from normal
levels (between 250 over 2500 cells/mm3) towards zero, signaling the end of the
incubation period. The host reaches the AIDS stage of the infection either when one
of the more than twenty opportunistic infections characteristic of AIDS develops
(clinical AIDS) or when the T4 cell density falls below 250 cells/mm3 (an additional
definition of AIDS promulgated by the CDC in 1987). The HIV infection has now
reached its potentially fatal stage.
In order to model survivability with AIDS, the time t at which a host develops
AIDS will be denoted by t  0. One possible survival model for a cohort of AIDS
patients postulates that AIDS is not a fatal condition for a fraction of the cohort,
denoted by Si, to be called the immortal fraction here. For the remaining part of the
cohort, the probability of dying per unit time at time t will be assumed to be a con-
stant k, where, of course, k must be positive. Thus, the survival fraction S(t) for this
model is a solution of the linear first-order di ferential equation
dS(t)
 k[S(t)  Si]. (1)
dt
Using the integrating-factor method discussed in Section 2.3, we see that the
solution of equation (1) for the survival fraction is given by
S(t)  Si  [1  Si]ekt. (2)

Instead of the parameter k appearing in (2), two new parameters can be defined for
a host for whom AIDS is fatal: the average survival time Taver given by Taver  k1 and
the survival half-life T12 given by T12  ln(2)k. The survival half-life, defined as the
time required for half of the cohort to die, is completely analogous to the half-life in
radioactive nuclear decay. See Problem 8 in Exercise 3.1. In terms of these parameters
the entire time-dependence in (2) can be written as

ekt  et>Taver  2t>T1>2 (3)

Using a least-squares program to fit the survival fraction function in (2) to the
actual survival data for the 159 Marylanders who developed AIDS in 1985 produces
an immortal fraction value of Si  0.0665 and a survival half life value of T12 
0.666 year, with the average survival time being Taver  0.960 years [2]. See Figure 1.
Thus only about 10% of Marylanders who developed AIDS in 1985 survived three
years with this condition. The 1985 Maryland AIDS survival curve is virtually iden-
tical to those of 1983 and 1984. The first antiretroviral drug found to be effective
against HIV was zidovudine (formerly known as AZT). Since zidovudine was not
known to have an impact on the HIV infection before 1985 and was not common

1.0 Survival fraction data

Two-parameter model fit
0.8

0.6
S(t)

0.4

0.2

0
_16 16 48 80 112 144 176 208 240 272
Survival time t(w)

FIGURE 1 Survival fraction curve S(t).

Copyright 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has
deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
 PROJECTS IS AIDS AN INVARIABLY FATAL DISEASE? ● P-3

therapy before 1987, it is reasonable to conclude that the survival of the 1985
Maryland AIDS patients was not significantly influenced by zidovudine therap .
The small but nonzero value of the immortal fraction Si obtained from the
Maryland data is probably an artifact of the method that Maryland and other states
use to determine the survivability of their citizens. Residents with AIDS who
changed their name and then died or who died abroad would still be counted as alive
by the Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Thus, the immortal
fraction value of Si  0.0665 (6.65%) obtained from the Maryland data is clearly an
upper limit to its true value, which is probably zero.
Detailed data on the survivability of 1,415 zidovudine-treated HIV-infected
hosts whose T4 cell densities dropped below normal values were published by
Easterbrook et al. in 1993 [3]. As their T4 cell densities drop towards zero, these peo-
ple develop clinical AIDS and begin to die. The longest survivors of this disease live
to see their T4 densities fall below 10 cells/mm3. If the time t  0 is redefined to
mean the moment the T4 cell density of a host falls below 10 cells/mm3, then the
survivability of such hosts was determined by Easterbrook to be 0.470, 0.316, and
0.178 at elapsed times of 1 year, 1.5 years, and 2 years, respectively.
A least-squares fit of the survival fraction function in (2) to the Easterbrook
data for HIV-infected hosts with T4 cell densities in the 0–10 cells/mm3 range yields
a value of the immortal fraction of Si  0 and a survival half-life of T12  0.878 year
[4]; equivalently, the average survival time is Taver  1.27 years. These results clearly
show that zidovudine is not effective in halting replication in all strains of HIV,
since those who receive this drug eventually die at nearly the same rate as those who
do not. In fact, the small difference of 2.5 months between the survival half-life
for 1993 hosts with T4 cell densities below 10 cells/mm3 on zidovudine therapy
(T12  0.878 year) and that of 1985 infected Marylanders not taking zidovudine
(T12  0.666 year) may be entirely due to improved hospitalization and improve-
ments in the treatment of the opportunistic infections associated with AIDS over the
years. Thus, the initial ability of zidovudine to prolong survivability with HIV dis-
ease ultimately wears off, and the infection resumes its progression. Zidovudine
therapy has been estimated to extend the survivability of an HIV-infected patient by
perhaps 5 or 6 months on the average [4].
Finally, putting the above modeling results for both sets of data together, we fin
that the value of the immortal fraction falls somewhere within the range 0  Si  0.0665
and the average survival time falls within the range 0.960 years  Taver  1.27 years.
Thus, the percentage of people for whom AIDS is not a fatal disease is less than 6.65%
and may be zero. These results agree with a 1989 study of hemophilia-associated AIDS
cases in the USA which found that the median length of survival after AIDS diagno-
sis was 11.7 months [5]. A more recent and comprehensive study of hemophiliacs
with clinical AIDS using the model in (2) found that the immortal fraction was Si 
0, and the mean survival times for those between 16 to 69 years of age varied be-
tween 3 to 30 months, depending on the AIDS-defining condition [6]. Although
bone marrow transplants using donor stem cells homozygous for CCR5 delta32
deletion may lead to cures, to date clinical results consistently show that AIDS is
an invariably fatal disease.

Related Problems
1. Suppose the fraction of a cohort of AIDS patients that survives a time t after
AIDS diagnosis is given by S(t)  exp(kt). Show that the average survival
time Taver after AIDS diagnosis for a member of this cohort is given by
Taver  1k.
2. The fraction of a cohort of AIDS patients that survives a time t after AIDS
diagnosis is given by S(t)  exp(kt). Suppose the mean survival for a cohort
of hemophiliacs diagnosed with AIDS before 1986 was found to be Taver  6.4
months. What fraction of the cohort survived 5 years after AIDS diagnosis?

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deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Another random document with
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disposition that has induced them in modern times to
impose humiliating penalties on such Women as are
guilty of sins which the Men themselves commit with
the utmost freedom, and thus to establish a mortifying
difference, in that respect, between the two sexes,
instead of that amiable equality which obtained
between them under the Jewish law, according to
which the Man and Woman who had committed
together the sin of Fornication, were lashed with equal
numbers of stripes.
[9] The Miserere is the 51st Psalm; and the De
Profundis is the 130th, which is none of the shortest.
The singing of the Miserere seems to be particularly
appropriated, among Catholics, to regulate both the
duration of religious flagellations, and the time to which
they are to be performed, as we may conclude from
the above passage of our Author; and also from a
passage of M. de Voltaire in his Candide, in which he
says, that, when Candide was flagellated at Lisbon, by
order of the Inquisition, he was all the while
entertained with a Miserere en faux bourdon; which is
a kind of Church Music.
[10] The expressions of the Vulgate are, fui
flagellatus, I have been whipped. The Vulgate of the
Old Testament is a very ancient Latin version of it from
the Hebrew, corrected afterwards by St. Jerom, which
is followed in all Catholic Countries.
[11] The Talmud is the Tradition, or unwritten law of
the Jews, the Law of Moses being their written Law.
This Tradition has, in process of time, been set down
in writing; and two different Collections have been
made of it: the one, in the Jerusalem School, about
three hundred years after Jesus Christ, which is called
the Jerusalem Talmud; the other, in the Babylonian
School, five hundred years after Jesus Christ, and is
called, the Babylon Talmud. The latter is that which is
usually read among the Jews; and when they simply
say, the Talmud, they mean the Babylon Talmud.
[12] Buxtorf, the Author from whom the above facts
are drawn, is mentioned with great praise in the
Scaligerana, which is a Collection, or mixture, of
Notes, partly French, partly Latin, found in the papers
of J. Scaliger, and printed after his death. Buxtorf is
called, in one of these Notes, the only Man learned in
the Hebrew language; and Scaliger adds, that it is
surprising how the Jews can love him, though he has
handled them so severely; which shews that he has
been impartial in his accounts. Mirum quomodo
Buxtorsius à Judæis ametur, in illâ tamen Synagogâ
Judaicâ illos valdè perstringit.
[13] It is to be supposed, that the Jew Priests had
been well freed for the above benign interpretations
they gave of the law of Moses.
 C H A P. III.

Voluntary flagellations were unknown to the first

Christians. An explanation is given of the
passage of St. Paul: I chastise my body, and
keep it under subjection[14].

FLAGELLATIONS are mentioned so often as eleven

times by the Holy Writers of the New Testament.
Of these, five relate to Jesus Christ. The first is in
the xxth chapter of the Gospel according to St.
Matthew, v. 19; and in the xxvith of the same, v. 26.
In the xvth chapter of St. Mark’s Gospel, v. 33. In the
xviith chapter of the Gospel according to St. Luke, v.
33; and in the xixth chapter of the Gospel according
to St. John, v. 1[15]. No just conclusion, as the Reader
may see, can be drawn from the above-mentioned
passages, in support of voluntary flagellations, and of
those Disciplines which Monks now-a-days inflict on
themselves; since it is plain that our Saviour did not
whip himself with his own hands: and we might as
well say that we ought to inflict death upon ourselves,
and nail ourselves to a cross, as that we ought to
lacerate our own flesh with scourges, because Jesus
Christ was exposed to that kind of punishment.
The other six passages of the New Testament in
which whipping is mentioned, are, first, in St. John’s
(c. ii. v. 15.) And when He had made a scourge of
small cords, he drove them out of the Temple, and
the sheep, and the oxen; and poured out the
changers of money, and overthrew the tables. The
second chapter is in the fifth chapter of the Acts (v.
40.) And when they had called the Apostles and
beaten them with scourges, they commanded that
they should not speak in the name of Jesus; and let
them go. The third place in which scourgings are
mentioned, is the sixth chapter of the second Epistle
to the Corinthians (v. 15.) St. Paul in that Chapter
places Stripes among the different methods of
persecution which were used against the ministers of
the Gospel, and he moreover relates the sufferings to
which he himself had been exposed. Of the Jews five
times received I forty stripes save one: and in the
next verse he says, Thrice was I beaten with rods,
once was I stoned, thrice I suffered shipwreck; a
night and a day I have been in the deep. Fifthly, in his
Epistle to the Hebrews (xi. 36.) the same Apostle
says, speaking in general terms, And others had
trials of cruel mockings and scourgings, yea,
moreover of bonds and imprisonments. Now, from all
these passages no authority whatever can be
derived to justify the practice of voluntary flagellation.
All the persecuted persons above-mentioned
suffered those beatings with rods, and those
scourgings, much against their will.
The sixth and last passage in which whipping is
mentioned, in the New Testament, is therefore the
only one from which any specious conclusion may be
drawn in support of the practice of voluntary
flagellation: it is contained in the first Epistle to the
Corinthians (ix. 22); St. Paul in it says, I chastise my
body, and keep it under subjection. Indeed this
passage is well worth examining attentively. Several
men of great authority have given it as their opinion,
that the Apostle expressly meant to say, by the
above words, that it was his practice to lash himself,
in order to overcome his vicious inclinations. Among
others, James Gretzer, an able Theologian and one
of the Fathers Jesuits, vehemently asserts that the
Greek words in the text literally signify, “I imprint on
my own body the stripes or marks of the whip, and
render it livid by dint of blows,” and the same Father
supports his assertion by the authority of Septalius
and Guastininius, two celebrated Interpreters of
Aristotle, who, in their Commentaries, quote
Gallienus as having used the Greek word in question
(ὑπωπιάζω) in the same sense which he (Father
Gretzer) attributes to St. Paul. To these authorities
Gretzer moreover adds those of St. Irenæus, St.
Chrysostom, Paulinus, and Theophylactus, who (he
says) have all explained the above passage in the
same manner as himself does: so that, if we were to
credit all the comments of Father Gretzer, there
would, indeed, remain little doubt but that St. Paul
meant to say, he fustigated himself with his own
hands; and that he was thereby left an example
which all faithful Christians ought in duty to imitate.
But yet, if, setting aside, for the present, all
authorities on this head, we begin with examining
attentively into the real meaning of the Greek word
which is the subject of the present controversy, we
shall see that it cannot have that signification which
Father Gretzer pretends. In fact, let us examine if
that word occurs in any other place of the New
Testament, and in what sense it is employed. We
meet with it in the eighteenth Chapter of St. Luke,
wherein Jesus Christ says, in the manner of a
Parable, that a Widow used to teaze a Judge with
her frequent complaints, who was thereby compelled
at last to do her justice; and he makes him speak in
the following words: “Because this Widow troubles
me, I will avenge her, lest by her continual coming,
she weary me (ὑπωπιάζη μὲ.)” Now, who can
imagine that this Judge entertained any fear that the
Woman should flagellate him? Yet, we must think so,
if the Greek word used in the Text (which is the very
same as that employed by St. Paul, and on which
Father Gretzer builds his system) should always
signify, as that Father pretends, to beat, or lash. If a
literal explanation of that word, therefore, is in many
cases improper and ridiculous, it follows that it is
frequently to be understood in a figurative sense, and
that it is then only employed to express that kind of
hard usage either of one’s self, or of others, which is
exercised without any mixture of real violence, or
bodily sufferings. To this add, that St. Paul himself,
when, on other occasions he really means to speak
of blows and actual stripes, never once makes use of
the word in question.
Besides, if in order rightly to understand the
meaning of St. Paul, we consult the holy Fathers and
Interpreters (which certainly is a very good method of
investigating the truth), we shall scarcely find one
who thought that St. Paul either beat or lashed
himself, and in the above passage meant to speak of
any such thing as voluntary Flagellation. St. Iræneus,
Bishop of Lyons, though he has translated the words
in question into these, “I chastise my own body, and
render it livid,” has made no mention whatever of
either scourges, whips, or rods.—St. Chrysostom
likewise supposes, that the Apostle in the above
passage, only spoke of the pains and care he took, in
order to preserve his temperance, and conquer the
passions of the flesh; and that it was the same as if
he had said, “I submit to much labour, in order to live
according to the rules of Temperance. I undergo
every kind of hardship, rather than suffer myself to be
led astray.” It must be confessed, however, that
Benedictus Haeftenus, in his Disquisitiones
Monasticæ, quotes a passage from the above
Author’s 34th Homily, by which he pretends to prove
that self-flagellations were in use in that Father’s
time; but the words which Haeftenus has quoted in
Latin are not to be found in the original Greek of St.
Chrysostom’s Homilies, and are therefore to be
attributed to some modern Flogging-Master
(Μαστιγοφόρος) who has lent them to him, by a kind
of pious fraud. Other passages to prove our
assertion, might be quoted from the words of
Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus, of Oecumenius, as well
as several other Greek Fathers.
The Latin have also understood St. Paul’s words in
the same sense that the Greek Fathers have done.
Indeed I do not find one among them but who
thought that St. Paul did not actually lash himself with
his own hands. St. Ambrosius, Bishop of Milan,
expresses himself on the subject in the following
words. ‘He who says (meaning St. Paul) I chastise
my body, and bring it into subjection, does not so
much grieve (contristatur) for his own sins, which
after all could not be so very numerous, as for ours.’
St. Fulgentius, Bishop of Ruspe, and an illustrious
Discipline of St. Augustin, on this occasion treads in
the footsteps of his excellent Master, giving the same
sense as him to the words of St. Paul. The following
is the manner in which St. Fulgentius explains those
words, in his Epistle on Virginity, addressed to Proba.
“The spiritual Spouse of Virgins does not seek in a
Virgin a body practised in carnal pleasures; but
rather wishes she should have chastised it by
abstinence. This, the Doctor of the Gentiles used to
practice on his own body. I chastise (says he) my
body, and keep it under subjection. And again, in
watchings often, in thirst and hunger, in fastings
often: let therefore the Virgin of Christ forbear to seek
after pleasures which, she sees, are equally with-
held from the widow.”
To all the above proofs, I know it will be objected
that St. Petrus Chrysologus, archbishop of Ravenna,
is clearly of opinion that St. Paul lashed himself with
his own hands. The following is the manner in which
he expresses himself on this head, at least if we are
to credit the account given of his words by that great
Patron of flagellations, Father Gretzer, in his Book
printed at Ingolstadt in the year 1609. “This St. Paul
used to do, who wrote in the following words the title-
deed of his own Servitude, I render my body livid,
and bring it into subjection: like a faithful Slave,
himself supplied the rod, (vindictam) and severely
lashed his own back, till it grew livid[16].” Now, who
would not from these words, thus standing alone, as
Father Gretzer recites them, conclude that St. Paul
really used to cover his back with stripes? But, if we
consult the original itself, we shall see that St.
Chrysologus meant no more than to borrow a simile
from the punishment usually inflicted on Slaves;
which punishment he mentions in the beginning of
the very passage we discuss here, and of which
Father Gretzer has artfully quoted only the
conclusion. “After all (says Peter Chrysologus) if the
Servant does not awake early the next day, and rise
before his Master, whether he be weary or not, he
will be tied up and lashed. If the Servant therefore
knows what he owes to another Man, the Master is
thence taught what himself owes to the Lord of
Lords, and is made sensible that he also is subject to
a Master.” ‘This is what St. Paul practised, who wrote
the title-deeds of his own servitude, and exposed
himself to thirst, hunger, and nakedness. Like a good
slave, he himself supplied the rod, and severely
lashed himself.’
 If we examine into the works of St. Hierom, St.
Austin, Pope Gregory the Great, and other Latin
Fathers, we shall find that they also understood, that
St. Paul had expressed himself in a figurative
manner. And it is only by misquotations, or arts of the
like kind, that Father Gretzer, Cardinal Demian, and
others, have attempted to prove that self-flagellations
were in use so early as the time of St. Paul among
Christians.
 FOOTNOTES:

[14] As the disputes concerning religious

flagellations have been carried on with great warmth
on both sides, the two parties have ransacked the
Scriptures for passages that might support their
respective opinions; and the supporters of flagellations
have been particularly happy in the discovery of the
passage of David, mentioned in the preceding
Chapter; and that of St. Paul which is recited here. By
the former passage, the supporters of flagellations
pretend to shew, that they were in use so early as the
time of David; and that the Prophet underwent a
flagellation every morning: by the latter passage, they
endeavour to prove that self-scourgings were practised
by St. Paul, and of course by the first Christians. As
the literal meaning of the above two passages is
wholly on the side of the supporters of flagellations,
this, as it always happens in controversies of that kind,
has given them a great advantage over their
opponents, who have been reduced, either to plead
that the expressions urged against them were only to
be understood in a figurative sense, or to endeavour,
by altering the original passage, to substitute others in
their stead. The latter is the expedient on which our
Author has chiefly relied in this chapter, and he strives
to substitute another word, to the word ὑπωπιάζω,
used by St. Paul when he said, he chastised his flesh;
which is to be found in all the common Editions of the
Greek New Testament. And indeed it must be
confessed, that the above word is of itself extremely
favourable to the promoters of self-flagellation; little
less so than the words of Asaph, fui flagellatus (I have
been whipped) mentioned in the foregoing Chapter; its
precise meaning being the same as I bruise or
discolour with blows: it comes from the word ὐπώπιον,
which signifies a livid mark left under the eye by a
blow: on which the Reader may observe (which, no
doubt, will be matter of agreeable surprise to him) that
what is called in plain English a black-eye, was
expressed in Greek by the word ὑπώπιον. Besides
trying to substitute another word to that attributed to St.
Paul in the common Greek Editions of the New
Testament, our Author produces several passages
from Greek and Latin Fathers, to shew that they
thought that St. Paul meant no more than to speak of
his great labours, abstinence, continence, &c.
The principal end of this Chapter is, therefore, to
discuss the interesting question, whether St. Paul used
to flagellate himself: and I have preferred to give the
above compendious account of the contest on the
subject, rather than introduce the long discussion of
Greek words, and use the whole string of passages
from Greek and Latin Fathers, contained in the Abbé
Boileau’s Book. By that means, the present Chapter
has, for the sake of the Reader, been shortened to ten
pages, instead of thirty, it must otherwise have
contained.
[15] “And shall deliver him to the Gentiles to mock,
and to scourge and to crucify him.” St. Matth. c. xx. v.
19.... “Then Pilate took Jesus, and scourged him.” St.
John, c. xix. ver. 1.
[16] Hoc implebat Paulus, qui servitutis suæ titulos
sic scribebat. Lividum facio corpus meum, & servituti
subjicio. Præbebat vindictam bonus servus, qui se
usque ad livorem, sic agens, jugiter verberabat.
 C H A P. I V.

The use of Flagellations was known among the

ancient Heathens. Several facts and
observations on that subject.

IT is not to be doubted, that flagellations had been

invented, and were become, in early times, a
common method of punishment in the Pagan world.
Even before the foundation of Rome, we meet with
instances which prove that it was the usual
punishment inflicted on Slaves. Justin, in his Epitome
of Trogus Pompeius, relates that the Scythians more
easily overcame their rebellious Slaves with
scourges and whips, than with their swords. ‘The
Scythians being returned (says Justin) from their
third expedition in Asia, after having been absent
eight years from their Wives and Children, found they
now had a war to wage at home against their own
Slaves. For, their Wives, tired with such long fruitless
expectation of their Husbands, and concluding that
they were no longer detained by war, but had been
destroyed, married the Slaves who had been left to
take care of the cattle; which latter attempted to use
their Masters, who returned victorious, like Strangers,
and hinder them, by force of arms, from entering the
Country. The war having been supported, for a while,
with success pretty nearly equal on both sides, the
Scythians were advised to change their manner of
carrying it on, remembering that it was not with
enemies, but with their own Slaves, that they had to
fight; that they were to conquer by dint, not of arms,
but of their right as Masters; that instead of weapons,
they ought to bring lashes into the field, and, setting
iron aside, to supply themselves with rods, scourges,
and such like instruments of slavish fear. Having
approved this counsel, the Scythians armed
themselves as they were advised to do; and had no
sooner come up with their enemies, than they
exhibited on a sudden their new weapons, and
thereby struck such a terror into their minds, that
those who could not be conquered by arms, were
subdued by the dread of the stripes, and betook
themselves to flight, not like a vanquished enemy,
but like fugitive slaves.’
Among the antient Persians, the punishment of
whipping was also in use: it was even frequently
inflicted on the Grandees of the Kingdom by order of
the King, as we find in Stobæus, who moreover
relates in his forty-second Discourse, ‘That when one
of them had been flagellated by order of the King, it
was an established custom, that he should give him
thanks as for an excellent favour he had received,
and a token that the King remembered him.’ This
custom of the Persians was however in subsequent
times altered: they began to set some more value on
the skin of Men; and we find in Plutarch’s
Apophthegms of Kings, ‘That Artaxerxes, son of
Xerxes, sirnamed the Longhanded, was the first who
ordered that the Grandees of his kingdom should no
longer be exposed to the former method of
punishment; but that, when they should have been
guilty of some offence, instead of their backs, only
their clothes should be whipped, after they had been
stripped of them.’
We also find, that it was a custom in antient times,
for Generals and Conquerors, to flog the Captives
they had taken in war; and that they moreover took
delight in inflicting that punishment with their own
hands on the most considerable of those Captives.
We meet, among others, with a very remarkable
proof of this practice, in the Tragedy of Sophocles,
called Ajax Scourgebearer (Μαστιγοφόρος): in a
Scene of this Tragedy Ajax is introduced as having
the following conversation with Minerva.

Minerva.
 ‘What kind of severity do you prepare for that
miserable man?’
Ajax.
‘I propose to lash his back with a scourge till
he dies.’
Minerva.
‘Nay, do not whip the poor Wretch so cruelly.’
Ajax.
‘Give me leave, Minerva, to gratify, on this
occasion, my own fancy; he shall have it, I do
assure you, and I prepare no other punishment
for him.’

The punishment of flagellation was also much in

vogue among the Romans; and it was the common
chastisement which Judges inflicted upon Offenders,
especially upon those of a servile condition.
Surrounded by an apparatus of whips, scourges, and
leather-straps, they terrified Offenders, and brought
them to a sense of their duty.
Judges, among the Romans, as has been just now
mentioned, used a great variety of instruments for
inflicting the punishment of whipping. Some
consisted of a flat strap of leather, and were called
Ferulæ; and to be lashed with these Ferulæ, was
considered as the mildest degree of punishment.
Others were made of a number of cords of twisted
parchment, and were called Scuticæ. These Scuticæ
were considered as being a degree higher in point of
severity than the ferulæ, but were much inferior, in
that respect, to that kind of scourge which was called
Flagellum, and sometimes the terrible Flagellum,
which was made of thongs of ox-leather, the same as
those which Carmen used for their Horses. We find
in the third Satyr of the first Book of Horace, a clear
and pretty singular account of the gradation in point
of severity that obtained between the above-
mentioned instruments of whipping. In this Satyr,
Horace lays down the rules which he thinks a Judge
ought to follow in the discharge of his office; and he
addressed himself, somewhat ironically, to certain
persons who, adopting the principles of the Stoics,
affected much severity in their opinions, and
pretended that all crimes whatever being equal,
ought to be punished in the same manner. ‘Make
such a rule of conduct to yourself (says Horace) that
you may always proportion the chastisement you
inflict to the magnitude of the offence; and when the
Offender only deserves to be chastised with the whip
of twisted parchment, do not expose him to the lash
of the horrid leather scourge; for, that you should only
inflict the punishment of the flat strap on him who
deserves a more severe lashing, is what I am by no
means afraid of[17].’
The choice between these different kinds of
instruments, was, as we may conclude from the
above passage, left to the Judge, who ordered that to
be used which he was pleased to name; and the
number of blows was likewise left to his discretion;
which sometimes were as many as the Executioner
could give. ‘He (says Horace in one of his Odes) who
has been lashed by order of the Triumvirs, till the
Executioner was spent[18].’
Besides this extensive power of whipping
exercised by Judges among the Romans, over
persons of a servile condition, over Aliens, and those
who were the subjects of the Republic, Masters were
possessed of an unbounded one with regard to their
Slaves, over whose life and death they had moreover
an absolute power. Hence a great number of
instruments of flagellation, besides those above-
mentioned, were successively brought into use for
punishing Slaves. Among those were particular kinds
of cords manufactured in Spain, as we learn from a
passage in an Ode of Horace, the same that has just
been quoted, and was addressed to one Menas, a
freed-man, who had found means to acquire a great
fortune, and was grown very insolent. ‘Thou (says