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CHAPTER 7
DESIGNING ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE
CHAPTER OUTLINE
New Manager Self-Test: What Are Your Leadership Beliefs?
I. Organizing the Vertical Structure
A. Work Specialization
B. Chain of Command
New Manager Self-Test: Authority Role Models
C. Span of Management
D. Centralization and Decentralization
II. Departmentalization
A. Vertical Functional Approach
B. Divisional Approach
C. Matrix Approach
D. Team Approach
E. The Virtual Network Approach
III. Organizing for Horizontal Coordination
A. The Need for Coordination
B. Task Forces, Teams, and Project Management
C. Relational Coordination
IV. Factors Shaping Structure
A. Structure Follows Strategy
B. Structure Fits the Technology
ANNOTATED LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Discuss the fundamental characteristics of organizing and explain as work specialization,

chain of command, span of management, and centralization versus decentralization.
Organizing is the deployment of organizational resources to achieve strategic goals. Organizing

is important because it follows the management function of planning. Planning and strategy
define what to do; organizing defines how to do it. Organization structure is a tool that managers
use to harness resources for getting things accomplished. The deployment of resources is
reflected in the organization's division of labor into specific departments and jobs, formal lines of
authority, and mechanisms for coordinating diverse organization tasks.
Work specialization, sometimes called division of labor, is the degree to which organizational
tasks are subdivided into separate jobs. When work specialization is extensive, employees
specialize in a single task. Jobs tend to be small, but they can be performed efficiently.
The chain of command is an unbroken line of authority that links all employees in an
© 2017 Cengage Learning®. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Designing Organization Structure 
organization and shows who reports to whom.
The span of management is the number of employees reporting to a supervisor. Sometimes

called the span of control, this characteristic of structure determines how closely a supervisor can
monitor subordinates. The average span of control used in an organization determines whether
the structure is tall or flat. A tall structure has an overall narrow span and more hierarchical
levels. A flat structure has a wide span, is horizontally dispersed, and has fewer hierarchical
levels.
Centralization and decentralization pertain to the hierarchical level at which decisions are made.
Centralization means that decision authority is located near the top of the organization. With
decentralization, decision authority is pushed downward to lower organization levels.
2. Describe functional and divisional approaches to structure.
Functional structure is the grouping of positions into departments based on similar skills,
expertise, work activities, and resource use. A functional structure can be thought of as
departmentalization by organizational resources because each type of functional activity such as
accounting, human resources, engineering, and manufacturing, represent specific resources for
performing the organization's task. People and facilities representing a common organizational
resource are grouped together into a single department.
Divisional structure occurs when departments are grouped together based on similar
organizational outputs. In the divisional structure, divisions are created as self-contained units
for producing a single product. Each functional department resource needed to produce the
product is assigned to one division. In a functional structure, all engineers are grouped together
and work on all products, whereas in a divisional structure, separate engineering departments are
established within each division. Each department is smaller and focuses on a single product
line. Departments are duplicated across product lines.
3. Explain the matrix approach to structure and its application to both domestic and
international organizations.
The matrix structure uses functional and divisional structures simultaneously in the same part of
the organization. The matrix structure has dual lines of authority. The functional hierarchy of
authority runs vertically, and the divisional hierarchy of authority runs horizontally. The matrix
approach to structure provides a formal chain of command for both the functional and divisional
relationships. The matrix structure is typically used when the organization experiences
environmental pressure for both a strong functional departmentalization and a divisional
departmentalization. Global corporations often use the matrix structure. The problem for global
companies is to achieve simultaneous coordination of various products within each country or
region and for each product line. The two lines of authority typically are geographic and
product, and the matrix provides excellent simultaneous coordination. It is an organizational
structure that deliberately violates Fayol’s principle of unity of command.
4. Describe the contemporary team and virtual network structures and why they are being
adopted by organizations.
The implementation of team concepts has been a widespread trend in departmentalization. The
vertical chain of command is a powerful means of control, but moving decisions through the
hierarchy takes much time and keeps responsibility at the top. The trend is to delegate authority,
push responsibility to the lowest possible levels, and create participative teams that engage the
commitment of workers. This approach enables organizations to be more flexible and responsive
in a competitive global environment. The dynamic network organization is another approach to
departmentalization. Using the network structure, the organization divides major functions into
separate companies that are brokered by a small headquarters organization. The network
approach is revolutionary because it is difficult to answer the question, “Where is the
organization?” This organizational approach is especially powerful for international operations.
5. Explain why organizations need coordination across departments and hierarchical levels,
and describe mechanisms for achieving coordination.
Coordination refers to the quality of collaboration across departments. It is required whether

there is a functional, divisional, or team structure. Coordination problems are amplified in the
global arena, because units differ not only by goals and work activities but by distance, time,
culture, and language. Coordination is the outcome of information and cooperation; managers
can design systems and structures to promote horizontal coordination. The vertical structure is
flattened, with perhaps only a few senior executives in traditional support functions such as
finance or human resources. A task force is a temporary team or committee designed to solve a
short-term problem involving several departments. Task force members represent their
departments and share information that enables coordination. Companies also set up cross-
functional teams for coordination. Companies also use project managers, responsible for
coordinating the activities of several departments on a full-time basis for the completion of a
specific project. Reengineering is the radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic
improvements in cost, quality, service, and speed. Because the focus of reengineering is on
process rather than function, reengineering generally leads to a shift away from a strong vertical
structure.
6. Identify how structure can be used to achieve an organization’s strategic goals.
Structure depends on a variety of contingencies. The right structure is “designed to fit” the
contingency factors of strategy, environment, and technology. These three areas are changing
for organizations, creating a need for stronger horizontal coordination. Two strategies proposed
by Porter are differentiation and cost leadership; these strategies require different structural
approaches. The pure functional structure is appropriate for achieving internal efficiency goals.
The vertical functional structure uses task specialization and a chain of command. It does not
enable the organization to be flexible or innovative. Horizontal teams are appropriate when the
primary goal is innovation and flexibility. The firm can differentiate itself and respond quickly
to change. Other forms of structure represent intermediate steps on the firm’s path to efficiency
or innovation. The functional structure with cross-functional teams and project teams provides
greater coordination and flexibility than the pure functional structure. The divisional structure
promotes differentiation because each division can focus on specific products and customers.
7. Define production technology and explain how it influences organization structure.
Technology includes the knowledge, tools, techniques, and activities used to transform
organizational inputs into outputs. Joan Woodward described three types of manufacturing
technology.
a. Small-batch and unit production. Small-batch production firms produce goods in batches
of one or a few products designed to customer specification. Examples include custom
clothing, special-order machine tools, space capsules, satellites, and submarines.
b. Large-batch and mass production. Mass production technology is distinguished by
standardized production runs in which a large volume of products is produced and all
customers receive identical products. This technology makes greater use of machines
than does small-batch production. Examples include automobiles, tobacco products, and
textiles.
c. Continuous process production. In continuous process production, the entire workflow is
mechanized in a sophisticated and complex form of production technology. The process
runs continuously and therefore has no starting or stopping. Human operators are not part
of actual production because machinery does all the work. Examples include chemical
plants, distilleries, petroleum refineries, and nuclear power plants.
Service organizations include consulting companies, law firms, brokerage houses, airlines,
hotels, advertising companies, amusement parks, and educational organizations. Service
technology also characterizes departments such as legal, human resources, finance, and market
research in large corporations. Service technology involves:
 intangible output—services are perishable and, unlike physical products, cannot be stored
in inventory; and
 direct contact with customers—employees and customers interact directly to provide and
purchase the service. Production and consumption are simultaneous.
LECTURE OUTLINE
NEW MANAGER SELF-TEST: WHAT ARE YOUR LEADERSHIP BELIEFS?
The fit between a new manager and the organization is often based on personal beliefs about the
role of leaders. Things work best when organization design matches a new manager’s beliefs
about his or her leadership role. This exercise helps students identify whether their leadership
beliefs are primarily position based or nonhierarchical.
I. ORGANIZING THE VERTICAL STRUCTURE Exhibit 7.1
Organizing is the deployment of organizational resources to achieve strategic goals.

It is important because it follows from strategy. Strategy defines what to do, and organizing
defines how to do it. The organizing process leads to the creation of organization structure,
which defines how tasks are divided, resources are deployed, and departments are coordinated.
Organization structure refers to:

 Formal tasks assigned to individuals and departments;
 Formal reporting relationships, including lines of authority, decision responsibility, number
of hierarchical levels, and span of managers' control; and
 Design of systems for coordination of employees across departments.
The organization chart is the visual representation of an organization's structure that portrays
the characteristics of vertical structure. It delineates the chain of command, indicates
departmental tasks and how they fit together, and provides order and logic for the organization.
There are several important features of the vertical structure.
A. Work Specialization
1. A fundamental principle is that work can be performed more efficiently if employees

are allowed to specialize. Work specialization, sometimes called division of labor,
is the degree to which organizational tasks are subdivided into separate jobs.
Production is efficient because employees perform small, well-defined tasks.
2. Organizations are moving away from this principle because too much specialization
leads to employees being isolated and doing only a single boring job. Many
companies are enlarging jobs to provide greater challenges or assigning teams to tasks
so employees can rotate among the jobs performed by the team.
B. Chain of Command
1. The chain of command is an unbroken line of authority that links all persons in an
organization and shows who reports to whom. It is associated with two underlying
principles. Unity of command means that each employee is held accountable to only
one supervisor. The scalar principle refers to a clearly defined line of authority in the
organization that includes all employees.
2. Authority, Responsibility, and Delegation
a. The chain of command illustrates the authority structure of the organization.

Authority is the formal and legitimate right of a manager to make decisions, issue
orders, and allocate resources to achieve organizational outcomes. Authority is
distinguished by three characteristics.
 Authority is vested in organizational positions, not people. People in the same

position have the same authority because of the position they hold.
 Authority flows down the vertical hierarchy. Positions at the top have more
formal authority than those at the bottom.
 Authority is accepted by subordinates. The acceptance theory of authority
argues that a manager has authority only if subordinates choose to accept the
commands.
b. Responsibility is the duty to perform the task or activity an employee has been
assigned. Managers are assigned the authority commensurate with responsibility.
Accountability is the mechanism through which authority and responsibility are
brought into alignment. Those with authority and responsibility are subject to
justifying task outcomes to those above them in the chain of command.
c. Delegation is another concept related to authority; it is the process managers use

to transfer authority and responsibility to positions below them in the hierarchy.
Organizations encourage managers to delegate authority to the lowest possible
level to gain flexibility to meet customer needs and adapt to the environment.
NEW MANAGER SELF TEST: AUTHORITY ROLE MODELS
Expectations about authority for a new manager are often based on experiences with their first
authority figures and role models—Mom and Dad. To understand authority role models, students
think about each statement as it applies to the parent or parents who made primary decisions
about raising them. .Authoritarian expectations fit in a traditional vertical structure with fixed
rules and a clear hierarchy of authority. Flexible authority expectations typically would fit with
horizontal organizing, such as managing teams, projects, and reengineering.
Discussion Question #1: If you wanted to add a group of big data scientists to a large
organization such as PepsiCo, would you centralize the scientists in a central pool at
headquarters or decentralize them to separate divisions? Discuss your reasons.
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Line and Staff Authority
a. Line departments perform tasks that reflect the organization's primary goal and
mission. In a software company, line departments make and sell the product.
Line authority means that managers have formal authority to direct and control
immediate subordinates.
b. Staff departments include all those who provide specialized skills in support of
line departments. The finance department of a software firm has staff authority.
Staff authority is narrower than line authority and includes the right to advise,
recommend, and counsel in the staff specialists' area of expertise.
C. Span of Management
1. The span of management, or span of control, is the number of employees reporting

to a supervisor. This characteristic of structure determines how closely a supervisor
can monitor subordinates.
2. Factors that determine the span of management include:
a. Work performed by subordinates is stable and routine.
b. Subordinates perform similar work tasks.
c. Subordinates are concentrated in a single location.
d. Subordinates are trained and need little direction in performing tasks.
e. Rules and procedures defining task activities are available.
f. Support systems and personnel are available for the manager.
g. Little time is required in nonsupervisory activities such as coordination with other

departments or planning.
h. Managers' personal preferences favor a large span.
3. The average span of control used in an organization determines whether the structure
is tall or flat. A tall structure has an overall narrow span of management and more
levels in the hierarchy. A flat structure has a wide span, is horizontally dispersed,
and has fewer hierarchical levels. The trend is toward wider spans of control as a
way to facilitate delegation. Exhibit 7.2
D. Centralization and Decentralization
1. Centralization and decentralization pertain to the hierarchical level at which decisions

are made. Centralization means that decision authority is located near the top of the
organization. With decentralization, decision authority is pushed down the chain of
command to lower organization levels. The trend is toward decentralization, which
uses workers' skills, relieves top managers, has well-informed people make decisions,
and permit rapid response. Factors that influence centralization versus
decentralization include:
a. Greater change and uncertainty in the environment are usually associated with
decentralization.
b. The amount of centralization or decentralization should fit the firm’s strategy.
c. In times of crisis or risk of company failure, authority may be centralized at the

top.
Discussion Question #8: Experts say that organizations are becoming increasingly
decentralized, with authority, decision-making responsibility, and accountability being pushed
farther down into the organization. How will this trend affect what will be asked of you as a new
manager?
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
II. DEPARTMENTALIZATION Exhibit 7.3
Departmentalization is the basis for grouping individuals into departments and departments
into the total organization. Managers make choices about how to use the chain of command to
group people together to perform their work. Five approaches to structural design reflect
different uses of the chain of command in departmentalization.
A. Vertical Functional Approach
1. What It Is
a. Functional structure is the grouping of positions into departments based on

similar skills, expertise, work activities, and resource use. People, facilities, and
other resources representing a common organizational resource are grouped
together into a single department.
2. How It Works
a. The major departments under the president are groupings of similar expertise and
resources, such as accounting, human resources, production, and marketing. Each
of the functional departments is concerned with the organization as a whole. The
functional structure is a strong vertical design. Information flows up and down
the vertical hierarchy, and the chain of command converges at the top of the
organization.
b. People in a department communicate primarily with others in the same

department to coordinate work and accomplish tasks or implement decisions.
Managers and employees are compatible because of similar training and
expertise.
Discussion Question #3: An organizational consultant was heard to say, “Some aspect of
functional structure appears in every organization.” Do you agree? Explain.
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
B. Divisional Approach Exhibit 7.4
1. What It Is
a. The divisional structure occurs when departments are grouped together based on
organizational outputs. Diverse departments are brought together to produce a
single organizational output. The divisional structure is sometimes called a
product structure, program structure, or self-contained unit structure. Most large
corporations have separate divisions that perform different tasks, use different
technologies, or serve different customers.
2. How It Works
a. Divisions are created as self-contained units with separate functional departments

for each division. For example, separate engineering departments are created
within each division, and each department is similar and focuses on a single
product. The primary difference between divisional and functional structures is
that in divisional structures, the chain of command from each function converges
lower in the hierarchy and differences of opinion would be resolved at the
divisional level rather than by the president.
3. Geographic- or Customer-Based Divisions Exhibit 7.5
a. Grouping company activities by geographic region or customer group is an

alternative for assigning divisional responsibility. In this structure, all functions
in a specific country or region report to the same division manager. The structure
focuses company activities on local market conditions; competitive advantage
comes from the selling a product adapted to a given country.
C. Matrix Approach Exhibit 7.6, Exhibit 7.7
1. What It Is
a. The matrix approach combines aspects of both functional and divisional

structures simultaneously in the same part of the organization. The matrix has
dual lines of authority. The functional hierarchy of authority runs vertically,
providing traditional control within functional departments. The divisional
hierarchy runs horizontally, providing coordination across departments. The
matrix structure supports a formal chain of command for both the functional
(vertical) and divisional (horizontal) relationships.
2. How It Works
a. The dual lines of authority make the matrix structure unique. The success of the
matrix structure depends on the abilities of people in key matrix roles.
 Two-boss employees report to two supervisors simultaneously and must

resolve conflicting demands from the matrix bosses.
 The matrix boss is the product or functional boss who is responsible for one
side of the matrix.
 The top leader oversees both the product and functional chains of command
and is responsible for the entire matrix.
Discussion Question #4: Some people argue that the matrix structure should be adopted only as
a last resort because the dual chains of command can create more problems than they solve.
Discuss. Do you agree or disagree? Why?
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
D. Team Approach
1. What It Is
a. The team approach is probably the most widespread trend in

departmentalization. The vertical chain of command is a powerful means of
control, but passing all decisions up the hierarchy takes too long and keeps
responsibility at the top. Managers can delegate authority, push responsibility to
lower levels, and be more flexible and responsive in the competitive global
environment.
2. How It Works
a. Cross-functional teams consist of employees from various functional

departments, responsible to meet as a team and resolve mutual problems. Team
members report to their functional departments, but also to the team. These teams
provide needed horizontal coordination to complement existing functional or
divisional structures.
b. Permanent teams are groups of employees brought together in a way similar to a

formal department. Emphasis is on horizontal communication and information
sharing because representatives from all functions coordinate to complete a
specific task. Authority is pushed down to lower levels, and front-line employees
are given the freedom to make decisions and take action on their own.
c. With a team-based structure, the entire organization is made up of horizontal

teams that coordinate their work with customers to accomplish the organization’s
goals.
Discussion Question #2: How does relational coordination differ from teams and task forces?
Do you think relational coordination seems more valuable for a service technology or a
manufacturing technology? Explain your answer.
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
E. The Virtual Network Approach
1. What It Is
a. The most recent approach to departmentalization extends the idea of horizontal

coordination beyond the boundaries of the organization. Outsourcing, which
means farming out certain activities, has become a significant trend. Partnerships,
alliances, and other collaborative forms are now a leading approach to
accomplishing strategic goals.
b. Some organizations take this networking approach to the extreme to create a new
kind of structure. The virtual network structure disaggregates major functions

to separate companies that are brokered by a small headquarters organization.
2. How It Works Exhibit 7.8
a. The organization may be viewed as a central hub surrounded by a network of

outsider specialists. Services such as accounting are outsourced to separate
organizations that are connected electronically to the central office. Networked
computer systems, collaborative software, and the Internet enable organizations to
exchange data and information rapidly and seamlessly. Networks allow a
company to concentrate on what it does best and contract out other activities to
companies with distinctive competence in those areas.
b. In similar networking approach called the modular approach, a manufacturing

firm uses outside suppliers to provide large chunks of a product, which are then
assembled into a final product by a few workers.
Discussion Question #5: What is the virtual network approach to structure? Is the use of
authority and responsibility different compared with other forms of departmentalization?
Explain.
NOTES________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
F. Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Structure Exhibit 7.9
1. Functional Approach
a. Grouping employees by common task permits efficient resource use and

economies of scale. Departments enhance in-depth skill specialization and
development, and centralized decision making at the top provides unified
direction.
b. Disadvantages include barriers that exist across departments resulting in poor

communication and coordination and slow response to changes. Innovation and
change require involvement of several departments, and decisions pile up at the
top of the hierarchy creating delay.
2. Divisional Approach
a. The organization is flexible and responsive to change because each unit is small
and tuned in to its environment. Concern for customers’ needs is high and
coordination across functional departments is better because employees are
grouped and committed to a product.
b. Coordination across divisions is often poor. Duplication of resources and the high
cost of running separate divisions is a major disadvantage. The organization loses
efficiency and economies of scale, and there may be a lack of technical depth and
specialization.
3. Matrix Approach
a. The matrix can be highly effective in a complex, rapidly changing environment in

which flexibility and adaptability are important. Conflict and frequent meetings
allow new issues to be raised and resolved. The matrix makes efficient use of
human resources because specialists can be transferred from one division to
another.
b. Frustration and confusion arising from the dual chain of command can be a
significant problem, as can high conflict between the two sides of the matrix, and
time lost in meetings. Managers spend a great deal of time coordinating
meetings, taking time away from core work activities.
4. Team Approach
a. The team approach eliminates barriers across departments, increases cooperation

and compromise, and enables the firm to quickly adapt to requests and
environmental changes which speeds up decision making. Another advantage is
better morale and enthusiasm as a result of increased employee involvement.
b. Disadvantages include dual loyalties and conflict, time and resources spent on
meetings, and too much decentralization. Team members can often lose sight of
the big picture of the organization.
5. Virtual Network Approach
a. The biggest advantages are flexibility and competitiveness on a global scale,

drawing on resources and expertise worldwide. The virtual network structure is
the leanest of all because little supervision is required. There may only be two or
three levels of hierarchy, if that many, compared to ten or more in traditional
firms.
b. Lack of hands-on control is a significant disadvantage. Each partner in the

network acts in its own self-interest. Weak and ambiguous boundaries create
higher uncertainty and greater demands on managers for defining shared goals,
coordinating activities, managing relationships, and keeping people focused.
Employee loyalty can weaken and employees may feel concerned that they can be
replaced by contract services.
III. ORGANIZING FOR HORIZONTAL COORDINATION
A. The Need for Coordination Exhibit 7.10
1. As organizations grow and evolve, new positions and departments are added, and
senior managers have to find a way to tie all of these departments together.
Coordination refers to the task of collaborating across departments. It is required

whether there is a functional, divisional, or team structure.
2. Coordination problems are amplified in the global arena because units differ not only
by goals and work activities but by distance, time, culture, and language.
Coordination is the outcome of information and cooperation. Managers can design
systems and structures to promote horizontal coordination and collaboration.
B. Task Forces, Teams, and Project Management Exhibit 7.11
1. A task force is a temporary team or committee designed to solve a problem involving

several departments. Task force members represent their departments and share
information that enables coordination. Companies also set up cross-functional teams
for coordination which work with continuing rather than temporary problems that
might exist for several years.
2. A project manager is responsible for coordinating the activities of several

departments for the completion of a specific project. A distinctive feature of a project
manager is that the person is not a member of one of the departments being
coordinated. Project managers need excellent people skills. They use expertise and
persuasion to achieve coordination among various departments.
C. Relational Coordination
1. Relational coordination refers to frequent, timely, problem-solving communication

carried out through employee relationships of shared goals, knowledge, and mutual
respect. It is not based on formal coordination roles or mechanisms.
IV. FACTORS SHAPING STRUCTURE
A. Structure Follows Strategy Exhibit 7.12, Exhibit 7.13
1. Porter’s strategies of differentiation and cost leadership typically require different

structural approaches. A simplified continuum illustrates how structural approaches
are associated with strategic and environmental goals. The terms mechanistic and
organic refer to organizations where efficiency is the goal in a stable environment
and organizations where innovation is the goal in a rapidly-changing environment,
respectively.
2. The pure functional structure is appropriate for achieving internal efficiency goals,
but it does not enable the organization to be flexible or innovative. A horizontal team
structure is appropriate when the primary goal is innovation and flexibility. The firm
can differentiate itself and respond quickly to change.
3. Other forms of structure represent intermediate steps on the firm’s path to efficiency
or innovation. The functional structure with cross-functional teams and project teams
provides greater coordination and flexibility than the pure functional structure. The
divisional structure promotes differentiation because each division can focus on
specific products and customers.
B. Structure Fits the Technology
Technology includes the knowledge, tools, techniques, and activities used to transform
organizational inputs into outputs.
1. Woodward’s Manufacturing Technology Exhibit 7.14
a. Small-batch and unit production. Small-batch production firms produce goods

in batches of one or a few products designed to customer specification. Examples
include custom clothing, special-order machine tools, space capsules, satellites,
and submarines.
b. Large-batch and mass production. Mass production technology is distinguished

by standardized production runs in which a large volume of products is produced
and all customers receive identical products. Examples include automobiles,
tobacco products, and textiles.
c. Continuous process production. In continuous process production, the entire

work flow is mechanized in a sophisticated and complex form of production
technology. The process runs continuously and therefore has no starting or
stopping. Examples include chemical plants, distilleries, petroleum refineries,
and nuclear power plants.
2. Service Technology
a. Service organizations include consulting companies, law firms, brokerage houses,

airlines, hotels, advertising companies, amusement parks, and educational
organizations. Service technology also characterizes departments such as legal,
human resources, finance, and market research in large corporations. Service
technology involves:
 Intangible output. Services are perishable and, unlike physical products,

cannot be stored in inventory.
 Direct contact with customers. Employees and customers interact directly to

provide and purchase the service. Production and consumption are
simultaneous. Service firm employees have direct contact with customers.
SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO END-OF-CHAPTER DISCUSSION

QUESTIONS
1. If you wanted to add a group of big data scientists to a large organization such as PepsiCo,
would you centralize the scientists in a central pool at headquarters or decentralize them to
separate divisions? Discuss your reasons.
I would decentralize the big data scientists to separate divisions. With decentralization,
decision authority is pushed down the chain of command to lower organization levels. The
trend is toward decentralization, which would use the big data scientists’ skills, relieves top
managers, allows the scientists to make decisions, and permits rapid response. Factors that
influence centralization versus decentralization include:
 Greater change and uncertainty in the environment are usually associated with
decentralization.
 The amount of centralization or decentralization should fit the firm’s strategy.
2. How does relational coordination differ from teams and task forces? Do you think relational
coordination seems more valuable for a service technology or a manufacturing technology?
Explain your answer.
Relational coordination refers to frequent, timely, problem-solving communication carried out

through employee relationships of shared goals, knowledge, and mutual respect.
Teams, which are the most widespread trend in departmentalization, consist of the vertical chain
of command as the powerful means of control; however, passing all decisions up the hierarchy
takes too long and keeps responsibility at the top. A task force is a temporary team or committee
designed to solve a problem involving several departments. Task force members represent their
departments and share information that enables coordination. Companies also set up cross-
functional teams for coordination, which work with continuing rather than temporary problems
that might exist for several years.
As an organization grows and evolves, new positions and departments are added to meet the
changing needs, and it grows more complex performing incredibly diverse activities. This leads
to a need for coordination among these departments.
Relational coordination, which is the highest level of horizontal coordination, seems more
valuable for a service technology than for a manufacturing technology. Service technology
characterizes departments such as legal, human resources, finance, and market research in large
corporations. Service technology involves intangible output—services are perishable and, unlike
physical products, cannot be stored in inventory; and direct contact with customers—employees
and customers interact directly to provide and purchase the service. And also, production and
consumption are simultaneous. Therefore, relational coordination would prove to be more
valuable in such an organization as it is not based on formal coordination roles or mechanisms;
rather it is part of the very fabric and culture of the organization. People can share information
freely across departmental boundaries, and interact on a continuous basis to share knowledge and
solve problems.
3. An organizational consultant was heard to say, “Some aspect of functional structure appears
in every organization.” Do you agree? Explain.
The consultant is probably correct. In all organizations, people who do similar jobs are grouped
together in functional departments. For example, functional departments exist in a divisional
structure, although they are smaller than if the organization had a functional structure. The
hybrid structure and the matrix structure also take advantage of functional departments. Thus, at
the lowest levels in all organizations, there are functional groupings. These functional
departments, however, may be grouped together into a divisional, matrix, hybrid, or functional
structure for the organization as a whole.
4. Some people argue that the matrix structure should be adopted only as a last resort because
the dual chains of command can create more problems than they solve. Discuss. Do you
agree or disagree? Why?
Many experts would agree that the matrix structure should be adopted only after other structures
have been tried. If the organization is in a functional structure and that doesn’t work, and then
reorganizes into a divisional structure and that doesn’t work either, a matrix structure may be
appropriate. The matrix structure requires extensive training to help people understand the dual
hierarchies, and it may take one or two years to complete the implementation. Often, after the
matrix structure has been implemented, it evolves back into either a functional or divisional
structure if one side of the matrix becomes more powerful than the other. Dual chains of
command create more problems than they solve if the matrix structure is not suited to the
situation. The situation must demand equality along the two lines of authority, the sharing of
functional resources across divisions, and a rapid response to a changing environment. Recent
thinking on organization structure suggests that the matrix is appropriate in only a few situations.
Most organizations can get by with other forms, such as a functional structure with lateral
relationships, to meet the needs for coordination.
5. What is the virtual network approach to structure? Is the use of authority and responsibility
different compared with other forms of departmentalization? Explain.
In the virtual network approach, the organization becomes a small central broker, electronically
connected to other organizations that perform vital functions. Each department is an independent
contracting service to the broker for a profit and can be located anywhere. The central broker, or
headquarters, has only contractual arrangements with the departments and, therefore, very little
authority. Total responsibility for the component of the product or service is given to each
department, and each has complete authority over its own operation. The major difference is that
the headquarters has very little control over the departments and cannot exercise authority over
them very well.
6. The Hay Group published a report that some managers have personalities suited to
horizontal relationships, such as project management, that achieve results with little formal
authority. Other managers are more suited to operating roles with much formal authority in
a vertical structure. What type of structure—functional, matrix, team, or virtual network—do
you believe your personality would best fit? Which structure would be the most challenging
for you? Give your reasons.
Students should demonstrate a clear understanding of the structures they select, and how those
structures work, as they explain why they would feel more comfortable or more challenged
operating within those structures. Students who seek more formal authority should be more
comfortable with a functional or matrix structure and more challenged by a team or virtual
network structure. Students who seek more flexibility and autonomy should be more
comfortable with a team or virtual network structure and more challenged by a functional or
matrix structure.
7. Describe the primary differences between manufacturing and service technology. How do
these differences influence the type of structure that will be most effective?
Joan Woodward described the following three types of manufacturing technology:

 Small-batch and unit production.
 Large-batch and mass production.
 Continuous process production.
The difference among these manufacturing technologies is technical complexity, which is the
degree to which machinery is involved in the production to the exclusion of people. With a
complex technology, employees are hardly needed except to monitor the machines. Woodward
found that the relationship between the structure and technology was directly related to company
performance. Low-performing firms tend to deviate from the preferred structural form, often
adopting a structure appropriate for another type of technology.
Service organizations include consulting companies, law firms, brokerage houses, airlines,
hotels, advertising companies, amusement parks, and educational organizations. Service
technology also characterizes departments such as legal, human resources, finance, and market
research in large corporations. Service technology involves:
 Intangible output—services are perishable and, unlike physical products, cannot be stored in
inventory; and
 Direct contact with customers—employees and customers interact directly to provide and
purchase the service. Production and consumption are simultaneous.
One distinct feature of service technology that directly influences structure is the need for
employees to be close to customers.
8. Experts say that organizations are becoming increasingly decentralized, with authority,
decision-making responsibility, and accountability being pushed farther down into the
organization. How will this trend affect what will be asked of you as a new manager?
The trend toward increased decentralization, with authority, decision-making responsibility, and
accountability being pushed farther down into the organization will require new managers to
have good delegating skills and very strong interpersonal skills. They must be able to work
effectively in a flexible environment in which they rely on subordinates to make a wide variety
of important decisions. New managers in such an environment must be able to work through
cooperation and influence rather than by telling others what to do.
9. The chapter suggested that structure should be designed to fit strategy. Some theorists argue
that strategy should be designed to fit the organization’s structure. With which theory do you
agree? Explain.
If the company is an already existing company, the argument for adapting strategy to structure is
stronger simply because the structure may be very difficult to change. It does not make much
sense for a local, bricks-and-mortar “mom and pop” store to have a multidomestic strategy; a
small company like that will not have the resources to pursue such a strategy. If the company is
new, the argument for adapting structure to strategy is stronger. The major point to understand is
that structure and strategy must be compatible, regardless of which comes first.
10. Would you expect the structure of a company such as Facebook, which operates almost
entirely online, to differ from the structure of a bricks-and-mortar company such as AT&T,
which uses the Internet only for some things, such as customer service and business-to-
business transactions? Why or why not?
Both companies are service organizations, but because AT&T provides Internet, television, and
telephone services to its customers, all of which require installation and/or repair work, it must
operate a “field” service component to meet these requirements. Facebook doesn’t need a field
operation. AT&T also operates bricks-and-mortar stores across the country to sell their services
and mobile phone products. The field service and stores components of AT&T’s structure not
only require the inclusion of entirely different categories of employees from Facebook, but also
involve the operation and maintenance of equipment and vehicles, which Facebook also does not
require. As a result, the structures of the two companies will be quite different.
APPLY YOUR SKILLS: SELF-LEARNING

Organic versus Mechanistic Organization Structure
Students interview an employee at their university, such as a department head or secretary. The
employee will answer questions about his or her job and organizational conditions. Students will
then answer the same set of questions for a job that they have held.
A score of 52 or above suggests that a student or the other respondent is working in an organic
organization. The score reflects a loose, flexible structure that is often associated with uncertain
environments and small-batch or service technology. People working in this structure feel
empowered. Many organizations today are moving in the direction of flexible structures and
empowerment
A score of 26 or below suggests a mechanistic structure. This structure uses traditional control
and functional specialization, which often occurs in a certain environment, a stable organization,
and routine or mass-production technology. People in this structure may feel controlled and
constrained. Students can discuss the pros and cons of organic versus mechanistic structure.
APPLY YOUR SKILLS: GROUP LEARNING

Family Business
In this exercise, students assume the role of consultant to a family business and rank the priority
of departmental functions in order of importance for assigning additional resources to improve
business in the future. Students rank functions individually first, then discuss their individual
rankings in groups and develop a group ranking. Finally, they analyze what they learned about
organizational structure and design from the exercise.
APPLY YOUR SKILLS: ETHICAL DILEMMA

A Matter of Delegation
1. Prepare a memo to Golopolus, summarizing the new safety guidelines that affect the
Rockingham product line and requesting his authorization for implementation.
This course of action would probably have no effect. Golopolus is already aware of the
guidelines and hasn’t done anything about them yet.
2. Mind your own business. Golopolus hasn’t said anything about the new guidelines, and you
don’t want to overstep your authority. You’ve been unemployed and need this job.
Tom Harrington is in a tough position. He feels loyalty to his boss, but he is also concerned
about product safety as well as the company’s reputation. This option would clearly be
unethical. Harrington is aware of the safety guidelines, which have been devised to ensure the
safety of children, so he cannot just “look the other way.”
3. Send copies of the reports anonymously to the operations manager, who is Golopolus’s boss.
The operations manager is ultimately responsible for whether Rockingham’s toys meet federal
guidelines, and he or she needs to be aware of what those guidelines are. By sending the reports
to the operations manager anonymously, Harrington does not have to criticize his boss or accuse
him of wrong-doing; but he is making sure that higher-level managers are aware of the new
safety standards. Tom is right that he does not have the authority to monitor the federal
regulations, but the operations manager does have that authority.
APPLY YOUR SKILLS: CASE FOR CRITICAL ANALYSIS

Abraham’s Grocery
1. Based on the information available in the case, sketch a picture of the original structure
within an Abraham’s store and the store managers’ relationship with district specialist
managers. What type of structure is this? Explain.
The original structure within the store was a functional structure which can be represented as
below:
PRESIDENT
Meat Grocery Produce

Department Department Department
District Meat District Store District Produce

Manager Supervisor Manger
Specialist Specialist
Store Meat Store/Grocery Produce

Department Department Department
Manager Manager Manager
Functional structure is the grouping of positions into departments based on similar skills,
expertise, work activities, and resource use. The major departments under the president are
groupings of similar expertise and resources, such as the meat, grocery, and produce
departments. Each of the functional departments is concerned with the organization as a whole.
This functional structure is a strong vertical design. Information flows up and down the vertical
hierarchy, and the chain of command converges at the top of the organization. It does not enable
the organization to be flexible or innovative and reflects barriers across the departments.
2. Based on the information available in the case, sketch a picture of the consultant’s
recommended structure within the store and the relationship of store department managers
with district specialist managers. What type of structure is this? Explain.
The consultant’s recommended structure within the store is a divisional structure. Divisional
structure occurs when departments are grouped together based on similar organizational outputs.
In the divisional structure, divisions are created as self-contained units for producing a single
product. The new divisional structure recommended by the consultant within the store and the
relationship of store department managers with district specialist managers are represented as
below:
PRESIDENT
District Store Supervisor
Store Manager
District Meat District Produce
Specialist Specialist
Meat Department Grocery Department Produce Department

Manager Manager Manager
3. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages you see for the two types of structures?
Which structure do you think will work best for Abraham’s? Why?
Advantages of functional structure:

 Grouping employees by common task permits economies of scale and efficient resource
use.
 Functional structure enhances development of in-depth skills because people work on a
variety of related problems and are associated with other experts within the department.
 The convergence of the chain of command at the top offers a way to centralize decision
making and provide unified direction from top managers.
Disadvantages of functional structure:

 Barriers exist across departments.
 Communication and coordination are poor as people are separated into distinct
departments, causing a slow response to environmental change.
 Innovation and change require involvement of several departments.
 Decisions involving more than one department may pile up at the top of the organization
and be delayed.
Advantages of divisional structure:

 Organization will be more flexible and responsive to change.
 Coordination across functional departments is better because employees are grouped
together in a single location and committed to one product line.
Disadvantages of divisional structure:

 Poor coordination across division.
 Duplication of resources and the high cost of running separate divisions.
 Loss of efficiency and economies of scale.
 Small size of departments within each division may result in a lack of technical
specialization, expertise, and training.
Divisional structure will work best for Abraham’s as it will ensure more coordination across the
departments and also be more flexible and responsive to change.
ON THE JOB VIDEO CASE ANSWERS

Honest Tea: Designing Organization Structure
1. What are some of Seth Goldman’s responsibilities as “TeaEO” of Honest Tea? Provide at
least three detailed examples.
Seth is in charge of sourcing the tea, managing the production of the tea, overseeing the
bottling of the tea, and managing the distribution of the tea.
2. How does Goldman’s experience as the founder of the company influence his ability to
delegate?
As the entrepreneur who started the company and developed it according to his vision, Seth
would have difficulty delegating tasks. He tried to solve the bottling of Honest Tea by
owning and managing the bottling company. This took him away from his mission of
developing low-sugar, healthy drinks. Ultimately, he sold the company and delegated the
bottling of his products to someone else. As the company has grown, Seth has realized that
delegating decision making to lower-level managers and employees can be highly motivating
and improve speed, flexibility, and creativity.
3. Referring to Woodward’s research on manufacturing technology and structure, how would

you categorize Honest Tea’s production? In what ways has this probably influenced the
company’s structure?
According to Woodward’s research on manufacturing technology and structure, Honest Teas

would be categorized as small-batch production. Small-batch production firms produce goods
in batches of one or a few products designed to specification. This technology also is used to
make large, one-of-a-kind products. Honest Teas started by producing three different low-
calorie products and has now grown to produce thirty different products in batches. In small-
batch manufacturing, human beings are a large part of the process. Tea leaves are sourced in
developing nations and harvested by local agricultural workers. Then the tea drinks are
processed and bottled in the Maryland.
Small batch production companies to include Honest Teas have a structure than is organic, low
centralization, high verbal (horizontal) communication and low written (vertical) communication
as outlined in Exhibit 7.14.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of On the effect of
electric and magnetic fields on spectral lines
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.
Title: On the effect of electric and magnetic fields on spectral lines
Author: Niels Bohr
Release date: March 1, 2024 [eBook #73082]
Language: English
Original publication: London: Taylor & Francis, 1914
Credits: Laura Natal Rodrigues (Images generously made available

by The Internet Archive.)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE

EFFECT OF ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS ON SPECTRAL
LINES ***
THE LONDON, EDINBURGH, AND DUBLIN
PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE
and
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
VOL. XXVII—SIXTH SERIES.
JANUARY-JUNE 1914.
LIX. On the Effect of Electric

and Magnetic Fields on
Spectral Lines.
By N. BOHR,
Dr. phil. Copenhagen[1].

CONTENTS
§ 1. The Emission of a Line Spectrum.
§ 2. The Effect of an Electric Field.
§ 3. The Effect of a Magnetic Field.
§ 4. Double Spectral Lines.
Concluding Remarks.
IN a previous paper[2] the writer has shown that an explanation of

some of the laws of line spectra may be obtained by applying
Planck’s theory of black radiation to Rutherford’s theory of the
structure of atoms. In the present paper these considerations will be
further developed, and it will be shown that it seems possible on the
theory to account for some of the characteristic features of the recent
discovery by Stark[3] of the effect of an electric field on spectral lines,
as well as of the effect of a magnetic field first discovered by
Zeeman. It will also be shown that the theory seems to offer an
explanation of the appearance of ordinary double spectral lines[4].
§ 1. The Emission of a Line Spectrum.
The theory put forward by the writer to explain the emission of a
line-spectrum may be summarized as follows:—
The principal assumption of Planck’s theory is that the energy of a
system of vibrating electrified particles cannot be transferred into
radiation, and vice versa, in the continuous way assumed in the
ordinary electrodynamics, but only in finite quanta of the amount ,
where is a universal constant and the frequency of the
radiation[5]. Applying this assumption to the emission of a line-
spectrum, and assuming that a certain spectral line of frequency
corresponds to a radiation emitted during the transition of an
elementary system from a state in which its energy is to one in
which it is , we have
According to Balmer, Rydberg, and Ritz the frequency of the lines

in the line-spectrum of an element can be expressed by the formula
where and are whole numbers and , , ... a series of

functions of , which can be expressed by
where is a universal constant and a function which for large

values of approaches the value unity. The complete spectrum is
obtained by combining the numbers and as well as the
functions , ..., in every possible way.
On the above view this can be interpreted by assuming:
(1) That every line in the spectrum corresponds to a radiation
emitted by a certain elementary system during its passage between
two states in which the energy, omitting an arbitrary constant, is given
by and respectively;
(2) That the system can pass between any two such states during
emission of a homogeneous radiation.
The states in question will be denoted as “stationary states.”
The spectrum of hydrogen observed in ordinary vacuum-tubes[6]
is represented by (2) and (3) by putting
Accordingly we shall assume that this spectrum is emitted by a

system possessing a series of stationary states in which,
corresponding to the th state, the energy, omitting the arbitrary
constant, is given by
According to Rutherford’s theory, the atom of an element consists

of a central positive nucleus surrounded by electrons rotating in
closed orbits. Concordant evidence, obtained in very different ways,
indicates that the number of electrons in the neutral atom is equal to
the number of the corresponding element in the periodic table[6].
On this theory the structure of the neutral hydrogen atom is of
extreme simplicity; it consists of an electron rotating round a positive
nucleus of opposite charge. In such a system we get on the ordinary
mechanics the following equations for the frequency of revolution
and the major axis of the relative orbit of the particles
where and are the charges, and the masses of the

nucleus and the electron respectively, and where is the amount of
energy to be transferred to the system in order to remove the electron
to an infinite distance from the nucleus. It may be noticed that the
expressions are independent of the degree of eccentricity of the
orbits.
In order to obtain a mechanical interpretation of the above-
mentioned stationary states, let us now in (6) put [7]. This
gives
According to this view, a line of the hydrogen spectrum is emitted

during the passage of the atom between two stationary states
corresponding to different values for . We must assume that the
mechanism of emission cannot be described in detail on the basis of
the ordinary electrodynamics. However, it is known that it is possible
on the latter theory to account satisfactorily for the phenomena of
radiation in the region of slow vibrations. If our point of view is sound,
we should therefore expect to find in this region some connexion
between the present theory and the ordinary ideas of
electrodynamics.
From (7) we see that vanishes for large values of , and that
at the same time the ratio tends to unity. On the present theory
the frequency of the radiation emitted by the transition from the
th to the th stationary state is equal to .
When is large, this approaches to . On the ordinary

electrodynamics we should expect the frequency of the radiation to
be equal to the frequency of revolution, and consequently it is to be
anticipated that for large values of
Introducing the values for and given by (5) and (7), we see
that disappears from this equation, and that the condition of identity
is
From direct observations we have . Introducing

recent values for , , and [8], we get for the expression on the
right side of (9) . The agreement is inside the limit of
experimental errors in the determination of , , and ; and we may
therefore conclude that the connexion sought between the present
considerations and the ordinary electrodynamics actually exists.
From (7) and (9) we get
For , corresponding to the normal state of the atom, we get

; a value of the same order of magnitude as the
values for the diameters of atoms calculated on the kinetic theory of
gases. For higher values of , however, is great compared with
the values of ordinary atomic dimensions. As I pointed out in my
former paper, this result may be connected with the non-appearance
in vacuum-tubes of hydrogen lines corresponding to high numbers in
Balmer’s formula and observed in the spectra of stars. Further, it will
appear from the considerations of the next section that the large
diameter of the orbits offers an explanation of the surprisingly great
magnitude of the Stark effect.
From (10) it appears that the condition (8) holds, not only for large
values of but for all values of . In addition, for a stationary orbit
is equal to the mean value of the total kinetic energy of the
particles; from (10) we therefore get
In using the expressions (6) we have assumed that the motion of
the particles in the stationary states of the system can be determined
by help of the ordinary mechanics. On this assumption it can be
shown generally that the conditions (8) and (11) are equivalent.
Consider a particle moving in a closed orbit in a stationary field. Let
be the frequency of revolution, the mean value of the kinetic
energy during a revolution, and the mean value of the sum of
the kinetic energy and the potential energy of the particle relative to
the stationary field. Applying Hamilton’s principle, we get for a small
variation of the orbit
If the new orbit is also one of dynamical equilibrium, we get

, where is the total energy of the system, and it will be
seen that the equivalence of (8) and (11) follows immediately from
(12).
In these deductions we have made no assumptions about the
degree of eccentricity of the orbits. If the orbits are circular (11) is
equivalent to the simple condition that the angular momentum of the
system in the stationary states is equal to an entire multiple of [9].
In Planck’s vibrators the particles are held by quasi-elastic forces,

and the mean value of the kinetic energy is equal to the mean value
of the potential energy due to the displacements. Consequently (11)
forms a complete analogy to Planck’s original relation
between the energy of a monochromatic vibrator and its frequency

. This analogy offers another way of representing the present theory
—a way more similar to that used in my former paper[10].
Considering, however, the widely different assumptions underlying
the relation (11) and Planck’s relation, it may seem more adequate
not to seek the basis of our considerations in the formal analogy in
question, but directly in the principal condition (1) and in the laws of
the line-spectra.
In dealing with the more complicated structure of the spectra of

other elements, we must assume that the atoms of such elements
possess several different series of stationary states. This complexity
of the system of stationary states, compared with that of the hydrogen
atom, might naturally be anticipated from the greater number of
electrons in the heavier atoms, which render possible several
different types of configurations of the particles.
According to (1), (2), and (3) the energy of the th state in the th
series is, omitting the arbitrary constant, given by
The present theory is not sufficiently developed to account in

detail for the expression (13). However, a simple interpretation may
be obtained of the fact that in every series approaches unity
for large values of .
Suppose that in the stationary states one of the electrons moves
at a distance from the nucleus which is large compared with the
distance of the other electrons. If the atom is neutral, the outer
electron will be subject to very nearly the same forces as the electron
in the hydrogen atom. Consequently, the expression (13) may be
interpreted as indicating the presence of a number of series of
stationary states of the atom in which the configuration of the inner
electrons is very nearly the same for all states in one series, while the
configuration of the outer electron changes from state to state in the
series approximately in the same way as in the hydrogen atom.
It will appear that these considerations offer a possible simple
explanation of the appearance of the Rydberg constant in the formula
for the spectral series of every element. In this connexion, however, it
may be noticed that on this point of view the Rydberg constant is not
exactly the same for every element, since the expression (8) for
depends on the mass of the central nucleus. The correction due to
the finite value of is very small for elements of high atomic weight,
but is comparatively large for hydrogen. It may therefore not be
permissible to calculate the Rydberg constant directly from the
hydrogen spectrum. Instead of the value 109675 generally assumed,
the theoretical value for a heavy atom is 109735.
§ 2. The Effect of an Electric Field.
As mentioned above, J. Stark has recently discovered that the
presence of an external electric held produces a characteristic effect
on the line-spectrum of an element. The effect was observed for
hydrogen and helium. By spectroscopic observation in a direction
perpendicular to the held, each of the lines of the hydrogen spectrum
was broken up into five homogeneous components situated very
nearly symmetrically with regard to the original line. The three inner
components were of feeble intensity and polarized with electric vector
perpendicular to the field, while the two outer stronger components
were polarized with electric vector parallel to the field. The distance
between the components was found to be proportional to the electric
force within the limits of experimental errors. With a field of 13,000
volt per cm. the observed difference in the wave-length of the two
outer components was and for and
respectively. For both systems of lines emitted by helium, Stark
observed an effect on the lines of the Diffuse series which was of the
same order of magnitude as that observed for the hydrogen lines, but
of a different type. Thus the components were situated
unsymmetrically with regard to the original line, and were also not
polarized relative to the field. The effect of the field on the lines of the
Principal series and the Sharp series was very small and hardly
distinguishable.
On the theory of this paper the effect of an external field on the
lines of a spectrum may be due to two different causes:—
(1) The field may influence the stationary states of the emitting
system, and thereby the energy possessed by the system in these
states.
(2) It may influence the mechanism of transition between the
stationary states, and thereby the relation between the frequency of
the radiation and the amount of energy emitted.
Considering an external electric field we shall not expect an effect
of the second kind. Having assumed the atoms to be systems of
particles governed by electrostatic forces, we may consider the
presence of the field simply as a complication of the original system;
but on the interpretation given in the former section of the general
principle of Ritz of combination of spectral lines, we may expect that
the relation (1) will hold for every system of electrified particles.
It appears that a necessary condition for the correctness of this
view is that the frequencies of the components of spectral lines
produced by the electric field can be expressed by a formula of the
type (2). As we shall see, this seems to be consistent with Stark’s
experiments.
Let us first consider the effect of an electric field on the hydrogen
spectrum. In order to find the effect of the field on the energy of the
atom in the different stationary states, we shall seek for its influence
on the relation between the energy and the frequency of the system.
In this calculation we shall make use of the ordinary mechanics, from
analogy with the considerations of the former section.
For simplicity, let us suppose that the mass of the nucleus is
infinitely great in comparison with that of the electron. Consider an
electron originally moving in a circular orbit round the nucleus.
Through the effect of an external electric field the orbit will be
deformed. If the force is not accurately perpendicular to the plane of
the orbit, this deformation will in course of time be considerable, oven
if the external electric force is very small compared with the attraction
between the particles. In this case, the orbit may at every moment be
considered as an ellipse with the nucleus in the focus, and the effect
of the field will consist in a gradual variation of the direction of the
major-axis as well as of the eccentricity. During this variation, the
length of the major-axis will approximately remain constant and equal
to the diameter of the original circular orbit. A detailed investigation of
the motion of the electron may be very complicated; but it can be
simply shown that the problem only allows of two stationary orbits of
the electron. In these, the eccentricity is equal to 1 and the major-axis
parallel to the axis of the external field; the orbits simply consist of a
straight line through the nucleus parallel to the axis of the field, one
on each side of it. It can also be shown that orbits which are very
near to these limiting cases will be very nearly stationary.
Neglecting quantities proportional to the square of the magnitude
of the external electric force, we get for the rectilinear orbits in
question
where is the frequency of vibration and the amplitude of the

orbit. is the external electric force, and the two signs correspond to
orbits in which the direction of the major-axis from the nucleus is the
same or opposite to that of the electric force respectively. For the total
energy of the system we have
where is an arbitrary constant. The mean value of the kinetic

energy of the electron during the vibration is
Leaving aside for a moment the discussion of the possibility of

such orbits, let us investigate what series of stationary states maybe
expected from the expressions (14) and (15). In order to determine
the stationary states we shall, as in the former section, seek a
connexion with ordinary electrodynamics in the region of slow
vibrations. Proceeding as on page 4, suppose when is large
where and denote the energy and the frequency in the th

state. By help of (14) and (15) we get
This gives
or
Introducing this in (14), (15), and (16) we get
and
It should be remembered that these deductions hold only for large

values of . For the mechanical interpretation of the calculations we
need therefore only assume that the eccentricity is very nearly unity
for the large orbits. On the other hand, it appears from (17), (18), and
(19) that the principal terms in the expressions for , , and
are the same as those deduced in the former section directly from the
Balmer formula. If we therefore suppose that these quantities in the
presence of an electric field can be expressed by a series of terms
involving ascending powers of , we may regard the above

deduction as a determination of the coefficient of the second term in
this series, and may expect the validity of the expressions for every
value of . It may be considered, in support of this conclusion, that
we obtain the same simple relation (11) between the frequency of
revolution and the mean value of the kinetic energy as was found
without the field, c. f. page 5.
In the presence of an electric field we shall therefore assume the
existence of two series of stationary states of the hydrogen atom, in
which the energy is given by (19). In order to obtain the continuity
necessary for a connexion with ordinary electrodynamics, we have
assumed that the system can pass only between the different states
in each series. On this assumption we get for the frequency of the
radiation emitted by a transition between two states corresponding to
and respectively:
This formula gives for every hydrogen line two components

situated symmetrically with regard to the original line. Their difference
in frequency is proportional to the electric force and equal to [11]
According to the deduction of (21) we may expect that for high

values of the radiation corresponds to vibrations parallel to the
electric force. From analogy with the above considerations and in
order to obtain agreement with Stark’s result we shall assume that
this polarization holds also for small values of .
Introducing in (21) the experimental values for , , and , and
putting corresponding to an electric force of 13,000 volt
per cm., we obtain for the distance between the components of
and , and
cm. respectively. We see that these values are of the
same order of magnitude as the distance observed by Stark between
the two components polarized parallel to the electric force, viz.
and cm. The values calculated are somewhat
higher than those observed; the difference, however, might possibly
be due to the difficulties, mentioned in Stark’s paper, of the
determination of the magnitude of the electric force in his preliminary
experimental arrangement.
For the ratio between the displacements of and we get
from (21) 0.7168, independent of the magnitude of the electric force.
It will be seen that this value agrees closely with that observed, viz.
or 0.69. In this connexion it may be noticed that the value
calculated for the ratio in question is independent of the value of the
numerical factor in the expression (21), and consequently of the
detailed assumptions used in deducing this expression. The value for
the ratio can be derived directly from the assumption of the existence
of a series of stationary states, in which the energy can be expressed
in terms corresponding to ascending powers of .
A possible origin of the feeble components polarized

perpendicular to the field, which were observed by Stark, may be
found when a closer examination is made of the effect of the electric
field on the motion of the electron[12]. This problem, however, will not
be considered further at this stage.
The problem of the influence of an electric field on the spectra of
other elements is naturally far more complicated than for hydrogen,
and cannot be discussed in detail until the theory for such spectra is
further developed. It seems, however, possible on the present theory
to obtain a simple explanation of the characteristic difference,
observed by Stark, in the effect of the field on the lines of the different
series of the helium spectrum.
According to the last section, the different series of lines in the
spectrum of an element correspond to different series of stationary
states of the atom in which one of the electrons moves in an orbit
outside the others. For any high value of this orbit is approximately
the same as that of the electron in a hydrogen atom. In the discussion
we assumed that the effect of an electric field on the energy of the
stationary states of the hydrogen atom, is connected with a
considerable variation in the position and eccentricity of the orbit of
the electron in the presence of the field. The possibility of such a
variation is due to the fact that without the field every elliptical orbit is
stationary. When, however, there are perturbing forces from the inner
electrons the latter condition is not satisfied, and thus the effect of an
external electric field on the stationary states may be expected to be
much smaller than for the corresponding states of the hydrogen atom.
A measure of this effect of the inner electrons on the motion of the
outer may be obtained by considering the function . The nearer
this function approaches unity the smaller is the disturbance due to
the inner electrons, and the more the motion of the outer approaches
to that of the electron in the hydrogen atom. Now for the elements of
low atomic weight, such as helium and lithium, has a value
very nearly unity for the Diffuse series, while for the Sharp series or
the Principal series, the value is not at all as close. On our theory we
should, therefore, expect a much greater influence of an electric field
on the first series than on the other two series. This is in agreement
with Stark’s experiments[13].
On the present point of view a line of the Diffuse series of the
helium spectrum corresponds to a transition between two stationary
states, one of which is affected by the presence of an electric field,
and the other not: while for the hydrogen lines both states were
assumed to be affected by the field. This circumstance may afford, an
explanation of the fact observed by Stark, viz. that the components of
the helium lines were not polarized relatively to the field like the
hydrogen lines.

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DESIGNING ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE

ANNOTATED LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Discuss the fundamental characteristics of organizing and explain as work specialization,

Organizing is the deployment of organizational resources to achieve strategic goals. Organizing

organization and shows who reports to whom.

The span of management is the number of employees reporting to a supervisor. Sometimes

2. Describe functional and divisional approaches to structure.

Coordination refers to the quality of collaboration across departments. It is required whether

6. Identify how structure can be used to achieve an organization’s strategic goals.

7. Define production technology and explain how it influences organization structure.

I. ORGANIZING THE VERTICAL STRUCTURE Exhibit 7.1

Organizing is the deployment of organizational resources to achieve strategic goals.

Organization structure refers to:

 Design of systems for coordination of employees across departments.

1. A fundamental principle is that work can be performed more efficiently if employees

2. Authority, Responsibility, and Delegation

a. The chain of command illustrates the authority structure of the organization.

 Authority is vested in organizational positions, not people. People in the same

c. Delegation is another concept related to authority; it is the process managers use

NEW MANAGER SELF TEST: AUTHORITY ROLE MODELS

3. Line and Staff Authority

1. The span of management, or span of control, is the number of employees reporting

2. Factors that determine the span of management include:

a. Work performed by subordinates is stable and routine.

b. Subordinates perform similar work tasks.

c. Subordinates are concentrated in a single location.

d. Subordinates are trained and need little direction in performing tasks.

e. Rules and procedures defining task activities are available.

f. Support systems and personnel are available for the manager.

g. Little time is required in nonsupervisory activities such as coordination with other

h. Managers' personal preferences favor a large span.

D. Centralization and Decentralization

1. Centralization and decentralization pertain to the hierarchical level at which decisions

b. The amount of centralization or decentralization should fit the firm’s strategy.

c. In times of crisis or risk of company failure, authority may be centralized at the

II. DEPARTMENTALIZATION Exhibit 7.3

A. Vertical Functional Approach

a. Functional structure is the grouping of positions into departments based on

b. People in a department communicate primarily with others in the same

B. Divisional Approach Exhibit 7.4

a. Divisions are created as self-contained units with separate functional departments

3. Geographic- or Customer-Based Divisions Exhibit 7.5

a. Grouping company activities by geographic region or customer group is an

C. Matrix Approach Exhibit 7.6, Exhibit 7.7

a. The matrix approach combines aspects of both functional and divisional

 Two-boss employees report to two supervisors simultaneously and must

a. The team approach is probably the most widespread trend in

a. Cross-functional teams consist of employees from various functional