MR C GAVI COMBINED SCIENCE FORM THREE – CHEMISTRY SECTION RIMUKA 2

Separation techniques:
Separating a solid from a liquid:
1. Decanting
- separating a dense, insoluble solid from a liquid (pour away)
2. Filtration
- separates insoluble solid + liquid (eg. sand + water)
- residue and filtrate will be collected
3. Evaporation to dryness (for substances which will not decompose upon heating)
- dissolved solid from a solution
- when we evaporate salt solution to dryness, we get the solid salt.
4. Crystalization (substances that will decompose upon heating)"
- separates a solution (soluble solid + liquid)
- water is removed by heating the solution
- heating is stopped at the stage when a hot saturated solution is formed.
- when cooled to room temp, the dissolved solid will be formed as pure crystals

Separating solids:
1. Filtration
- only if one of the solid is soluble and the other one is not.
2. Magnets
3. Sublimation:
- obtain the solid that sublimates
Separating a liquid from a solution:
1. Distillation
- getting pure water from seawater
- water in at the bottom,
- water out at the top
- this is to ensure cooling is efficient
- the thermometer should not be dipped into the solution,
this is to ensure that it measures the bp of the substance that is being distilled.

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2. Fractional distillation
- separates mixture of 2 miscible liquids (liquid with 2 different boiling points) (ethanol +
water)
- obtain the liquid with the lower boiling point.
- there's a fractionating column where the glass beads in it provide a large surface area for
the vapour to condense on,
- and also allow vapours of liquid with higher bp to condense and re-enter the round
bottomed flask.

Simple distillation and fractional distillation are two techniques used in the
isolation and purification of liquid product from a chemical reaction
Remember, in the physical separation processes of simple distillation and fractional
distillation, no chemical reaction changes are involved, so no new substances are made.

SIMPLE DISTILLATION
Distillation involves 2 stages and both are physical state changes.

(1) In simple distillation the liquid or solution mixture is heated to boil and vaporise the most
volatile component in the mixture (liquid ==> gas). The ant-bumping granules give a smoother
boiling action for the distillation process.
(2) The vapour passes up from the flask and down into the condenser, where it is cooled by
cold water and condenses (gas ==> liquid) back to a liquid (the distillate) which is collected in
the flask.
(3) Any dissolved solids are left in solution because they have to high a boiling point to be
distilled over e.g. the salts in sea water.
Simple distillation can be used to separate a liquid from a solution (separating the solvent that
dissolves substances, from a solute - the substance that had dissolved). If the dissolved soluble
substance is a solid at room temperature, it will NOT distil over - much to high a boiling point.

This can be used to purify water because the dissolved solids have a much higher boiling point
and will not evaporate with the steam. You can purify seawater, at great cost, by distilling it,
pure water is distilled over and condensed out and you left with a mass of salt crystals.

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SIMPLE DISTILLATION

FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

Fractional distillation is a process by which components in a chemical mixture are separated

into different parts (called fractions) according to their different boiling points. Fractional
distillation is used to purify chemicals and also to separate mixtures to obtain their
components.
Fractional distillation set up

How Fractional Distillation Works

Vapours from a boiling solution are passed along a tall column, called a fractionating column.
The column is packed with plastic or glass beads to improve the separation by providing more
surface area for condensation and evaporation. The temperature of the column gradually
decreases along its length. Components with a higher boiling point condense on the column

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and return to the solution; components with a lower boiling point (more volatile) pass
through the column and are collected near the top. Theoretically, having more beads or plates
improves the separation, but adding plates also increases the time and energy required to
complete a distillation.
COMPARISION BETWEEN Simple distillation and Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation differs from simple distillation because the fractionating column
naturally separates compounds based on boiling point. It's possible to isolate chemicals
using simple distillation, but it requires careful control of the temperature since only one
"fraction" can be isolated at a time.

Simple Distillation
Uses Used for separating relatively Used to isolate
pure liquids that have large components of complex
boiling point differences. Also mixtures with small
useful for separating liquids from boiling point differences.
solid impurities.
Advantages • faster • results in better
• requires less energy input separation of liquids
• simpler, less expensive • better at purifying
equipment liquids containing
many different
components

Disadvantages • only useful for relatively • slower

pure liquids • requires more
• requires a large boiling energy
point difference between • more complicated
components and expensive set-
• doesn't separate fractions up
as cleanly

fractional distillation is used to separate ethanol from water

Fractional distillation is a method for separating liquids with different boiling points.
For example, liquid ethanol can be separated from a mixture of ethanol and water by
fractional distillation. This method works because the liquids in the mixture have different
boiling points. When the mixture is heated, one liquid evaporates before the other. The
boiling point of ethanol is 78°C and the boiling point of water is 100°C.
Also, nitrogen and oxygen can be separated from liquid air through fractional distillation
process. Nitrogen has a boiling point of -196oC and Oxygen has a boiling point of -183oC.

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MATTER
THE ATOM
If a substance is broken up into smaller and smaller pieces, eventually a stage would be
reached where a tiny particle of the substance would exist that could not be broken down,
this tiny particle an ATOM
All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms.
• All substances are made of tiny particles called ATOMS.
• All atoms of one element are exactly the same.
• Atoms of different elements join together to form compounds.
• Atoms cannot be broken down into anything smaller

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM
The atom is mostly made of empty space
At the centre of the atom is a tiny POSITIVELY charged particle called the NUCLEUS
The positive charge of the nucleus comes from positively charged particles called protons
Moving round the nucleus are even smaller particles called ELECTRONS.

SUB – ATOMIC PARTICLES

Atoms are made of three smaller particles. These particles are called the sub – atomic
particles as they are smaller than the atom.

THE NEUTRON
The neutron is found in the nucleus of the atom and has zero charge, it is neutral.
The neutron has the same mass as a proton.

THE ELECTRON
Electrons carry a NEGATIVE charge found in the shells or orbits of the atoms.

THE PROTON
Protons are positively charged found in the nucleus of the atom

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Helium Atom
Atomic

2 electrons
Number
2
+
H
Proton
2 protons

++
Neutron

Electron

Nucleus contains 2 protons

e
This helium atom
contains 2 neutrons

and 2 neutrons. helium

+ The proton has a positive charge.

Neutron has zero charge. It is NEUTRAL.

The proton and neutron have the same mass.

This number is called 1 atomic mass unit (amu for short).

The electron has a negative charge. Its mass is about 1850 times smaller
than a proton / neutron.

ATOMIC NUMBER ( Z)

All elements are arranged on the Periodic Table by their ATOMIC NUMBER.

The atomic number gives the following information about an atom.

• The size of the positive charge (number of protons) in the nucleus.

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• The number of negatively charged electrons orbiting the nucleus.

ATOMIC MASS NUMBER

ATOMIC MASS NUMBER is the total number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom.
Atomic Mass number = No. of protons + No. of neutrons

Knowing the atomic number and the mass number of an atom, the number of neutrons in
the nucleus can be calculated.

Neutron Mass Atomic

= -
number number number

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

is the average mass of an atom. It is calculated from the mass numbers of the isotopes and
their abundance.
The word “RELATIVE” is used because atoms have their mass compared to carbon atoms
with a mass number 12 (12C).

ENERGY LEVELS

The electrons in an atom orbit around the nucleus. This means electrons possess
energy.

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Electrons only orbit the nucleus at certain distances called ENERGY LEVELS.

The first energy level can hold 2 electrons.

The second energy level can hold 8 electrons.

The third energy level can hold 8 electrons.

Electrons fill up the lowest energy levels first.

THE PERIODIC TABLE

ELECTRON ARRANGEMENTS OF SELECTED ELEMENTS

Group I Group II Group III Group IV Group V G roup VI Group VII Group 0
1 2
Hydrogen Helium
H He

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Li Be B C N O F Ne

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
2, 8, 4
19 20
Potassium Calcium
K Ca

The periodic table below shows columns that are called groups, there are 8 groups. The
elements in each group have the same number of electrons in their last shells/orbits. These
electrons are called valency electrons. For example, hydrogen, lithium, sodium and
potassium have only 1 electron in their outer shell, that is why they are all in group 1.

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The rows on the periodic table represents elements that have the same number of energy
levels/shells/orbits. For example potassium and calcium are in period 4, because they have 4
orbits or shells.

It is also important to take note that the elements in each group have similar chemical
properties. Shells need to be full (having 8 electrons) for an element to be considered stable.
If it has less than 8 electrons in its outer shell it means the element is unstable and it is
capable of reacting or taking part in a chemical reaction. Elements in group 8 or group 0 are
called noble elements or inert elements because they do not react, they are stable they have
8 electrons in their outer shells. Helium is in group 8 also, because it has 2 electrons in its first
shell which can only be occupied by a maximum number of electrons of 2. Therefore, helium
is stable.

Considering the first 20 elements in the periodic table elements, which are on the left side
of the periodic table, starting with Lithium, Beryllium, sodium, magnesium, aluminium,
potassium and calcium are all metals.

Then, the remaining are non-metals.

ISOTOPES
are atoms with the same ATOMIC NUMBER but have DIFFERENT ATOMIC MASS NUMBERS.
i.e. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.

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Isotopes comes from two Greek words “isos” meaning “equal,” and “topos” meaning
“place”.

ISOTOPES OF CARBON

12 C 13 C 14 C
6 6 6
No. of 6 6 6
protons

No. of 6 6 6
electrons

No. of 6 7 8
neutrons

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION DIAGRAMS

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HOW TO WRITE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Why do Chemical Reactions Happen?
All chemical reactions happen because atoms are trying, to get a full outer shell of electrons,
the total number of atoms is the same before and after the reaction.
When an atom reacts with another atom to form a chemical bond
it will either,
1. Lose electrons to form a stable positive ion.
2. Gain electrons to form a stable negative ion.
or 3. Share electrons to form a stable molecule.

Ionic bonding
What is the Difference between an Atom and an Ion?
An atom has the same number of protons and electrons.
An atom has no overall electric charge.
If an atom loses or gains electrons it is no longer called an atom.
It is called an ion. An ion has a full outer shell of electrons. Positive ions (+) are called cations
and negatively charged ions are called anions. Metals they form positive ions when they lose
electrons and non metals gain electrons to form negative ions
An ion is either positive or negative because it has an electric charge.

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Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals. It involves electron transfer from the
metal to the non-metal. This leaves the metal being a positive ion and non-metal will gain
extra electrons to become negative ions. The oppositely charged ions attract and are arranged
by electrostatic attraction in a way to form giant ionic crystal lattices. The ions in a crystal
lattice are very strongly bonded, and a high temperature is required to melt the crystal.

Examples of Ionic Bonds:

1. Sodium chloride - NaCl - table salt
2. Calcium chloride - CaCl2 – rock salt
3. Sodium hydroxide - NaOH - Lye used in soap
4. Sodium fluoride - NaF – fluoride in toothpaste
5. Iron Oxide – Fe2O3 - rust
6. Calcium hydroxide – Ca(OH)2 – basic salt in antacid tablets
ILLUSTARTION OF IONIC BONDING

Magnesium has two valency electrons it can donate 2 electrons to fluorine. Fluorine it has a
valency of 7 it only needs 1 electron to be full. Therefore, 2 fluorine atoms are needed to
receive 1 electron each from magnesium.

[Mg]2+ 2[F]-
MgF2

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Sodium chloride (NaCl)

[Na]+ [Cl]-
NaCl
1 electron from sodium is transferred to the chlorine atom, it leaves the sodium having an
extra proton therefore the positive charge and the chlorine receives an extra electron to
have 8 electrons on the outer shell, becoming negatively charged because of an extra
electron.

Covalent bonding
A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.
Covalent bonding occurs when the electronegativity difference between elements (atoms) is
zero or relatively small.
Bonds form if there is an overlap of two atomic orbitals.
Covalent compounds have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds

Octet Rule
To be stable the two atoms that are involved in the bond share their electrons in order to
have 8 valence electrons. Atoms with 8 valence electrons are more stable because they are
at a lower state of energy.

. There are three types of bonds, single, double, and triple – depending on how many electron
pairs are shared.
• Hydrogen and the halogens only form 1 bond
• Oxygen family forms 2 bonds
• Nitrogen family forms 3 bonds
• Carbon family forms 4 bonds and is usually the central atom

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CO2

WATER (H2O) AND CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

For WATER each Hydrogen requires 2 electrons to be stable and oxygen requires 2 electrons
to have a full octet. Therefore, the two hydrogens will share their electrons with two electrons
from oxygen.

water molecule H2O (dot and cross diagram)

chlorine molecules Cl2 (dot and cross diagram)

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CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS (STOICHIOMETRY)

Avogadro's number
Avogadro's number, number of units in one mole of any substance (defined as its molecular
weight in grams), equal to 6.02× 1023. The units may be electrons, atoms, ions, or molecules,
depending on the nature of the substance and the character of the reaction (if any).
AVOGADRO'S CONSTANT
One mole of oxygen atoms contains 6.02214179×1023 oxygen atoms. Also, one mole of
nitrogen atoms contains 6.02214179×1023 nitrogen atoms. The number 6.02214179×1023
is called Avogadro's number ( NA ) or Avogadro's constant.
***Avogadro's number is obtained from an estimate of the number of carbon atoms in 12g
of the carbon-12 isotope. That number is 6.02214179×1023 particles.
There is no difference between mole and Avogadro number. They are the same value. 1
mole of carbon-12 is equivalent to 6.02214179×1023 particles.
THE MOLE CONCEPT
The number of moles in a system can be determined using the atomic mass of an element,
which can be found on the periodic table. The mass of a mole of substance is called the
molar mass (Mr) of that substance. The molar mass (Mr) is used to convert grams of a
substance to moles and is used often in chemistry. The molar mass (Mr) of an element is
found on the periodic table, and it is the element's atomic mass number in grams/mole
(g/mol).
Sodium (Na) has a mass number of 23 on the periodic table. This means that its molar mass
(Mr) is 23g. 1 mole of sodium (Na) atoms has 6.02×1023 atoms of sodium.

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Molar mass (Mr)

1.The molar mass is the mass of a given chemical element (mol).
2.The molar mass of a compound can be calculated by adding the standard atomic masses
(in g/mol) of the constituent atoms.

Molar mass of sodium chloride (NaCl)

Mr of sodium = 23g/mol
Mr of chlorine = 35.5g/mol
The molar mass of NaCl can be calculated for finding the atomic mass of sodium (23 g/mol)
and the atomic mass of chlorine (35.5 g/mol) and combining them. The molar mass of NaCl
is 58.5 g/mol. Mr (NaCl) = 58.5g/mol.

Molar mass of water

Mr (H2O) = 2(1g) + 16g =18g/mol

Molar mass of Ca(NO3)2 (calcium nitrate)

Mr (Ca(NO3)2) = 40g + 2[ 14g +3 (16g) = 192 g/mol

CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF MOLES FROM THE MASS OF A SUBSTANCE

n = m
Mr
n= number of moles (mol)
m= mass of substance (g)
Mr = molar mass (g/mol)

Calculate the number of moles of sodium chloride (NaCl) that are contained in a 29.25 g
sample.
n = m
Mr
n= 29.25 g
58.5g/mol
n= 0.5 mol

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EMPIRICAL FORMULA

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ACIDS AND BASES

ACIDS
Acids are produced from dissolving non-metal oxides in water such as carbon dioxide, sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Carbon dioxide produces carbonic acid, sulphur dioxide
produces sulphuric acid and nitrogen dioxide produces nitric acid. More acids are found in
different foods such as citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons, in vinegar there is acetic acid.
Properties of acids
1.They are liquids.
2.They are solutions of compounds in water.
3.If concentrated they can be corrosive.
4.Acids taste sour (for example, vinegar).
5.Turn blue litmus paper red - this is an easy test for an acid!
6.Usually react with metals to form salts and hydrogen gas.
7.Acids contain hydrogen ions.
8.acids have a pH below 7

BASES
These are metal oxides, hydroxides or ammonia. For example, sodium hydroxide, potassium
hydroxide, calcium oxide, zinc oxide etc
Soluble bases form alkaline substances.
Properties of bases
1.Bases have a high pH (above 7).
2.They feel soapy or slippery.
3.They form hydroxide ions when placed in solution (they may do this by releasing a hydroxide
ion or by causing them to be formed)
4.Bases are caustic (harmful to human skin)
5.They taste bitter.
6.Bases turn litmus paper blue and phenolphthalein pink.

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The pH Scale
pH scale is used to measure the relative acidity or alkalinity of substances using a numerical
scale. The pH scale represents the concentration of H+ ions present in a solution.
The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.
Pure water is neutral. But when chemicals are mixed with water, the mixture can become
either acidic or basic. Examples of acidic substances are vinegar and lemon juice. Lye, milk of
magnesia, and ammonia are examples of basic substances.

The pH Scale

Universal indicator
It is an indicator that is used to test how acidic or alkaline a substance is. A universal indicator
is a mixture of dyes that can turn into a wide range of colours depending on the pH of the
solution. Each colour matches a point on the pH scale. Universal indicator can be found on
paper or as a liquid.
Universal indicator

pH range Description Colour

<3 Strong acid Red
3–6 Weak acid Orange or yellow
7 Neutral Green
8–11 Weak alkali Blue
> 11 Strong alkali Violet or Indigo

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Acid and base reactions (Neutralization Reactions)

ACID + BASE → SALT + WATER
What happens when an acid such as hydrochloric acid ( HCl ) is mixed with a base such as
sodium hydroxide (NaOH):

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide sodium chloride + water

When an acid and a base are combined, water and a salt are the products. Salts are ionic
compounds containing a positive ion other than H+ and a negative ion other than the
hydroxide ion, OH-. Double displacement reactions of this type are called neutralization
reactions.
The acid and base have neutralized each other, and the acidic and basic properties are no
longer present.

Sulphuric acid + magnesium oxide → magnesium sulphate + water

H2SO4 MgO MgSO4 H2O

Hydrochloric acid + copper II oxide → copper II chloride + water

2HCl CuO CuCl2 H2O

Hydrochloric acid + calcium hydroxide → calcium chloride + water

HCl Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 2H2O

REACTIONS OF ACIDS WITH METALS

When metals react with acids, they form salt and hydrogen gas. Hydrogen gas is tested using
a burning splint which produces a popping sound when present.

ACID + METAL → SALT + HYDROGEN GAS

Sulphuric acid + magnesium → magnesium sulphate + hydrogen gas

H2SO4 Mg MgSO4 H2

Hydrochloric acid + calcium → calcium chloride + hydrogen gas

2HCl Ca CaCl2 H2

Hydrochloric acid + copper → NO REACTION

HCl Cu
***copper does not react with dilute acids

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REACTION OF ACIDS WITH METAL CARBONATES

When acids react with carbonates they produce, salt, carbon dioxide and water.
ACID + METAL CARBONATE → SALT + CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER
Carbon dioxide gas is produced during the reaction and it can be tested using limewater
which changes to milky white colour or bicarbonate indicator which changes from red to
yellow if carbon dioxide is present.
Sulphuric acid + zinc carbonate → zinc sulphate + carbon dioxide + water
H2SO4 ZnCO3 ZnSO4 CO2 H2O

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