rings

definition

In mathematics, a ring is an algebraic structure consisting of a set equipped with two binary
operations: addition and multiplication. The set forms an abelian group under addition (meaning
addition is commutative, associative, and each element has an additive inverse), and a monoid
under multiplication (meaning multiplication is associative and has an identity element).
Additionally, multiplication distributes over addition.

A structure (R, +, ·) is a ring if R is a non-empty set and + and · are binary

operations:
+: R × R → R, (a, b) → a + b
· : R × R → R, (a, b) → a · b
such that
Addition: (R, +) is an abelian group, that is,
(A1) associativity: for all a, b, c ∈ R we have a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
(A2) zero element: there exists 0 ∈ R such that for all a ∈ R we have a + 0 = 0 + a = a
(A3) inverses: for any a ∈ R there exists −a ∈ R such that a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0
(A4) commutativity: for all a, b ∈ R we have a + b = b + a
Multiplication:
(M1) associativity: for all a, b, c ∈ R we have a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c
Addition and multiplication together
(D) for all a, b, c ∈ R,
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c and (a + b) · c = a · b + b · c.

Note
A set R together with operations (+ , ·) is called a ring if:
1. (R, +) is an abelian group
2. (ab)c = a(bc), ∀ a, b, c ∈ R
3. a(b+c) = ab+ac
(a+b) c = ac + bc
 types of rings
commutative ring
A commutative ring is a set R equipped with two binary operations: addition (+) and
multiplication (·). It is a ring R that satisfies the additional axiom that ab = ba for all a, b ∈ R.

ring with identity

A ring with identity (or unital ring) is a set RRR equipped with two binary operations: addition
(+) and multiplication (·). It is a ring R that contains a multiplicative identity element

integral domain
An integral domain is a commutative ring R with identity with no zero divisors; that
is,
 operation of rings
addition (+)
Addition in a ring is associative, commutative, and has an identity element (usually denoted
by 0), making the set of elements under addition an Abelian group.

multiplication (*)
Multiplication is a binary operation defined on the elements of a ring. It is associative, but not
necessarily commutative. A ring might have a multiplicative identity (usually denoted by 1), or
it might not. If it does, the ring is called a unital ring.

elements of rings

Additive Identity (0)

The additive identity, denoted by "0", is an element such that for any element "a" in the ring, a
+ 0 = a = 0 + a.

Additive inverse
For every element "a" in the ring, there exists an additive inverse, denoted by "-a", such that a
+ (-a) = 0 = (-a) + a.

multiplicative identity (1)

If the ring has a multiplicative identity, denoted by "1", it satisfies the property that for any
element "a" in the ring, a * 1 = a = 1 * a.

zero divisors
Elements "a" and "b" in a ring are called zero divisors if their product is zero: ab = 0. Not all
rings have zero divisors.

units
An element "a" in a ring is called a unit if it has a multiplicative inverse. In other words, "a" is
a unit if there exists an element "b" such that ab = ba = 1.
 subrings and ideals
A subgroup of a group is a subset of the group which is a group in its own
right, using the operation it inherits from its parent group. Likewise, a subring
of a ring is a subset of the ring which is a ring in its own right, using the
addition and multiplication it inherits from its parent ring.

Let R be a ring. A subring is a subset S ⊂ R such that:

(a) S is closed under addition: If a, b ∈ S, then a + b ∈ S.
(b) The zero element of R is in S: 0 ∈ S.
(c) S is closed under additive inverses: If a ∈ S, then −a ∈ S.
(d) S is closed under multiplication: If a, b ∈ S, then ab ∈ S

It turns out to be useful to consider certain other kinds of “subobjects” of rings:

Ideals. Use ideals to construct quotient rings, which just as I used normal subgroups to
construct quotient groups.

Let R be a ring. An ideal S of R is a subset S ⊂ R such that:

(a) S is closed under addition: If a, b ∈ S, then a + b ∈ S.
(b) The zero element of R is in S: 0 ∈ S.
(c) S is closed under additive inverses: If a ∈ S, then −a ∈ S.
(d) If r ∈ R and x ∈ S, then rx ∈ S and xr ∈ S. In other words, S is closed under
multiplication (on either side) by arbitrary ring elements.

SUBRING VS. IDEAL

A subring must be closed under multiplication of elements in the subring.

An ideal must be closed under multiplication of an element in the ideal by
any element in the ring.
Example. (The integers as a subset of the reals) Show that Z is a subring of R, but not
an ideal.
Z is a subring of R: It contains 0, is closed under taking additive inverses, and is closed
under addition and multiplication. With regard to multiplication, note that the product of
two integers is an integer.
However, Z is not an ideal in R. For example, √ 2 ∈ R and 3 ∈ Z, but √ 2 · 3 ∈/ Z.

Example. (An ideal in the ring of integers) Show that the subset nZ is an ideal in Z for
n ∈ Z.
We already know that nZ is a subgroup of Z under addition. So I just need to check
closure under multiplication.
Let k ∈ Z and let nx ∈ nZ, where x ∈ Z. Then
k · (nx) = n(kx) ∈ nZ.
Therefore, nZ is an ideal

Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms

A homomorphism is a function between two rings that preserves the ring structure,
meaning it respects both addition and multiplication.

Let R and S be two rings. A function is called a ring homomorphism if it

satisfies the following properties:

An isomorphism is a bijective homomorphism, which means it's a homomorphism that

preserves the structure of the ring and has a two-way correspondence.

Let R and S be two rings. A ring homomorphism is called an isomorphism if

there exists a function such that:
 factor rings
Factor rings, also known as quotient rings, are an essential concept in ring theory that
arise from the idea of partitioning a ring by an ideal. They provide a way to construct
new rings from existing ones by identifying certain elements as equivalent.

Let R be a ring and I be an ideal of R. The factor ring, denoted R/I, is defined as the set
of cosets of I in R, where the addition and multiplication operations are defined as
follows:

1. Addition of Cosets: For any , the sum of their cosets

is defined as
2. Multiplication of Cosets: The product of two cosets is
defined as

Example. Let’s consider the ring of integers and the ideal

which consists of all multiples of 4. The factor ring consists of the cosets
exercise
ACTIVITY 1. Definition Match Challenge
Match each definition with the correct term from a provided list of options.

denoted by "0", is an element

Ring
such that for any element "a" in
the ring, a + 0 = a = 0 + a.

A subset of a ring that is itself

Factor Ring
a ring with the same
operations.

A function between two rings

Ring Homomorphism that preserves both addition
and multiplication.

A quotient ring formed by

Additive Identity dividing a ring by one of its
ideals.

an algebraic structure
consisting of a set equipped
Subring
with two binary operations:
addition and multiplication.
REFERENCES

Ikenaga, B. (2018). Ideals and Subrings. Sites Millersville.

https://sites.millersville.edu/bikenaga/abstract-algebra-1/ideals-and-
subrings/ideals-and-subrings.pdf

Khovanov, M. (n.d.). Rings. Retrieved from

https://www.math.columbia.edu/~khovanov/ma2_fall/files/01_rings.pdf

Drogalski, K. (2021). Math 200 Lecture Notes. Retrieved from

https://mathweb.ucsd.edu/~drogalsk/200-coursenotes-2021-03-12.pdf

Smith, T. (n.d.). Rings. Oklahoma State University. Retrieved from

https://math.hawaii.edu/~tom/old_classes/412notes3.pdf