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Sheltered Content
Instruction
This page intentionally left blank
 Fifth Edition

Sheltered Content
Instruction
Teaching English Learners
with Diverse Abilities

Jana Echevarría
California State University, Long Beach

Anne Graves
San Diego State University

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Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear
below or on the appropriate page within text.

Credits: p. 73 (bulleted list): © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council
of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved; p. 77 (class example): Teacher communication in regular and
sheltered science classes. California State University, Long Beach; p. 85 (class example): Echevarria, J. (Producer &
Writer), & Silver, J. (Producer & Director) (1995). [Videotape]. Instructional conversations: Understanding through
discussion. Santa Cruz, CA: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning.

Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States
of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to
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Many of the designations by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where
those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been
printed in initial caps or all caps.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data was unavailable at press time.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-13-375426-X

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-375426-1
For my family, whose love and support mean the world to me.
JE

For John Forren and our daughter, Grace.

AG
About The Authors

Jana Echevarría
Jana Echevarría, PhD., is professor emerita of Special Education at California State
University, Long Beach, where she received the honor of being selected as
Outstanding Professor. She has taught in elementary, middle, and high schools in
special education, English as a Second Language, and bilingual programs. She has
lived in Taiwan, Spain, and Mexico and is an internationally known expert on
second language learners. Her research and publications focus on effective
instruction for English learners, including those with learning disabilities. She has
presented her research across the U.S. and internationally including Oxford
University (England), Wits University (South Africa), Harvard University (U.S.),
South East Europe University (Macedonia), and University of Barcelona (Spain).
Publications include the popular SIOP book series and over 50 books, book
chapters, and journal articles.

Anne Graves
Anne W. Graves, PhD., is a professor at San Diego State University (SDSU)
teaching and conducting research on instruction in reading and writing for learners
with disabilities from diverse backgrounds since 1990. Beginning in 1975, Graves
taught in special education settings in the public schools for 6 years. After
receiving her PhD. at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1984, she was a
professor at University of South Carolina–Coastal Campus and Sacramento State
University before joining SDSU. Her research on efficient and effective
instructional approaches and interventions has resulted in numerous publications
and presentations at local, state, and international conferences. Graves is part of a
research team at San Diego State that conducts studies of intensive small group
instruction for struggling readers in culturally and linguistically diverse settings.
Currently, she is principal investigator on a grant that supports cultural and
linguistic emphasis in teacher preparation for candidates seeking credentials in
both special education and bilingual elementary or secondary education known as
ADELANTE funded by Office of English Language Acquisition in the U.S.
Department of Education.
Contents
P re f a c e    x i

chapter 1 Te a c h i n g E n g l i s h L e a r n e r s w i t h
D i v e r s e A b i l i t i e s    1
Student Profiles  2
Native-Language Knowledge  5
Assessment  6
Instruction  6
English-Language Knowledge  10
Assessment  14
Instruction  16
Academic Background and School Experience   19
Assessment  21
Instruction  21
Learning and Behavior Challenges and Giftedness   22
Search for Interventions: A Three-Tiered Model   23
Tier 1  24
Tier 2  25
Tier 3  26
Instruction  26
Student Profiles Revisited   28
Summary  29
Activities  30

chapter 2 T h e o re t i c a l a n d H i s t o r i c a l
F o u n d a t i o n s    3 1
History of Education of Students Learning English in School   32
Immigration  32
Rights of English Learners   32
Students with Disabilities   33
Programs for English Learners   33
Theories of Second-Language Acquisition   35
The Contributions of Cummins   36
Factors That Affect Second-Language  38
Language Learner Factors   38
Socio-Contexual Factors  41

vii
 viii Teaching English Learners: Theory to Practice   43
Humanistic Learning Theory  43
C ONT E NT S
Developmental Learning Theory  44
Social Interactionist Learning Theory   45
Cognitive Learning Theory  45
Behavioral Learning Theory  46
Summary  47
Activities  48

chapter 3 S h e l t e re d I n s t r u c t i o n i n t h e
C o n t e n t A re a s    4 9
Definition of Sheltered Instruction   50
The SIOP® Model  51
A Well-Planned Lesson  56
Sheltered Instruction and Effective Instruction: A Comparative
Case Study  61
Discussion of the Case Study   67
Specific Considerations for Students with Learning
Disabilities  69
Summary  70
Activities  71

chapter 4 Understanding, Adjusting,

a n d Te a c h i n g t h e L a n g u a g e
o f t h e C l a s s ro o m    7 2
Understanding the Language of the Classroom:
All Teachers Are Language Teachers   73
Teaching Language through Objectives   74
Developing Oral Language Proficiency   76
Adjusting Language with Sheltered Instruction   76
Using Instructional Conversations for Language
and Concept Development   80
Summary  86
Activities  86

chapter 5 P ro m o t i n g A ff e c t i v e a n d
C u l t u r a l C o n n e c t i o n s    8 7
Providing Reading and Writing Activities
That Promote Success   89
Providing Ample Practice and Careful Corrections   91
 Focusing on Relevant Background Knowledge ix
and Cultural Connections   92
C ONT E NT S
Actively Involving Learners   93
Using Alternate Grouping Strategies   94
Providing Native-Language Support   95
Focusing on Content and Activities That Are Meaningful to
Students Both Emotionally and Culturally   97
Creating Roles in the Classroom for Family and
Community Members  97
Family Literacy Nights   98
Holding High Expectations for All Learners   99
Being Responsive to Cultural and Personal Diversity   100
Summary  101
Activities  102

chapter 6 L e a r n i n g S t r a t e g i e s    1 0 3
Types of Learning Strategies   104
Examples of Specific Strategies in the Content Areas   107
Teaching Reading Strategies in Content-Area Classes   108
Teaching Writing Strategies in Content-Area Classes   110
Guidelines for Selecting a Learning Strategy   113
Determine Levels of Knowledge and Language
Proficiency  114
Determine Which Strategies Will Be Most Useful   114
Decide Order of Instruction   115
Use Simple Wording and the Fewest Number of Steps   115
Teaching Learning Strategies   116
Determine Preskills and Preteach Them   116
Include an Opening, a Body, and a Closing   117
Plan a Series of Lessons   118
Presentation Methods Used to Teach Learning Strategies   119
Active Student Involvement   119
Appropriate Pacing  120
Monitor and Correct Errors   120
Controlled, Grade-Appropriate Practice and Independent
Practice  121
Summary  122
Activities  122

chapter 7 D i ff e re n t i a t e d I n s t r u c t i o n    1 2 3
Demonstrating Sensitivity to Cultural and Linguistic
Diversity  124
Providing Adequate Background Knowledge   126
 x Building Academic Proficiency  127
Content Knowledge  127
C ONT E NT S
Academic Proficiency Skills   128
Providing Language Development Opportunities   129
Language Proficiency  129
Academic Language  130
Discipline-Specific Vocabulary Development  131
Modifying Lesson Plans and Text   132
Modifying Assignments  138
Preparing for Advanced Academic Engagement   141
Summary  144
Activities  144

chapter 8 Becoming a Reflective

P r a c t i t i o n e r    1 4 5
The Importance of Reflective Practice   145
Professional Development  146
Inservice Sessions  147
Action Research  147
Professional Learning Communities (PLC)   148
The Value of Video Reflection and Analysis   150
Self-Evaluation and Goal Setting   151
Revisit Student Vignettes and Reflect on Practice   153
Summary  156
Activities  157

Glossary 158
R e f e re n c e s 161
Index 169
Preface
In this fifth edition of Sheltered Content Instruction, we set out to prepare teachers to
deliver content area instruction to English learners using a sheltered instruction approach.
English learners are the fastest growing segment of the U.S. school population, and they
vary from one another greatly in their educational needs. Some students come with
grade-level academic preparation, some are gifted, and others are underprepared for the
high academic standards of school. This edition reflects the recent research, best
practices, and policies that impact the education of English learners. With standards that
are intended to prepare students to be college and career ready, it is reasonable to assume
that many students will be challenged to meet these high standards and teachers may
question some students’ abilities to do so.
We have designed this book to assist teachers in thinking about their own practice
and the issues they should consider when teaching English learners, especially when they
struggle academically. There is a need across the nation to include courses that focus
specifically on these learners in teacher preparation programs. Many textbooks used in
teacher preparation—general education and special education—are inadequate for
preparing teachers to work effectively with diverse students.

New to This Edition

This book is now available as a Pearson eText with video illustrations of key content. The
“play” button icon and written introductions to video clips guide students and instructors
in viewing these videos. See examples on pages 3 and 5.
Since the publication of the previous edition of this text, the number of English
learners has increased substantially, with tremendous growth in this population in states
that have not previously had large numbers of culturally diverse learners in their schools.
Some of the changes to this edition are listed below.

Chapter 1 includes:
● A discussion of the importance of a separate block of time for English language
development, including optimal learning contexts for promoting language
acquisition.
● Connections to Common Core Standards and Career and College Readiness
Standards.
● Connections to state standards for teaching English learners.
● Examples of the kind of academic language used in content-area classes.
● Various models of the levels of language proficiency, including current language
related to “levels” of proficiency.
● A discussion of learning and behavior challenges and giftedness.
● A description of tiered instruction.

xi
 xii Chapter 2 includes:
PREFACE
● A revised and updated discussion of the history of education for English learners,
including the history of services for students with disabilities.
● A revised section, “Factors That Affect Second-Language Acquisition.” Additional
factors based on recent research have been added and the section was reorganized
around factors inherent in learners and those that are influenced by context.
● Updated information from the Nation’s Report Card.
● Updated research throughout.
● Revised end-of-chapter activities and a new feature, “Your Turn,” in which
readers apply the chapter content to their practice.

Chapter 3 includes:
● A revised SIOP Language Arts lesson plan that shows how the features of the
SIOP® Model work together in lesson planning and delivery to meet the Common
Core State Standards.
®
● A reorganized and revised section on the SIOP Model.

● An updated section called “SIOP Techniques for Making Lessons

Comprehensible.”
● A discussion of the way the SIOP® Model of sheltered instruction prepares
students to be college and career ready.
● Updated research throughout.
● Revised end-of-chapter activities and a new feature, “Your Turn,” in which
readers apply the chapter content to their practice.

Chapter 4 includes:
● A new section on the importance of understanding the language of the classroom
and how it differs from everyday language proficiency.
● A new section on writing effective language objectives and their importance in
the role of language teaching within content classes.
● Alignment of sections on adjusting language with sheltered instruction and using
instructional conversations with the way they help English learners be college and
career ready.
● Updated research throughout.
● Revised end-of-chapter activities and a new feature, “Your Turn,” in which
readers apply the chapter content to their practice.

Chapter 5 includes:
● Revised connections of affective and cultural issues to the education of English
learners.
● A focus on the importance of appropriate assignments and realistic expectations
for English learners.
● Many examples of projects or lessons that support cultural and linguistic
diversity.
Chapter 6 includes: xiii
PREFACE
● A revised focus of strategy instruction to improve outcomes for English learners.
● Connections to college and career readiness goals.
● Connections to standards for the teachers of English learners.
● Explanations of the use of strategy instruction in the context of Response to
Intervention.
● Applications of strategy instruction in content areas for students in middle and
high school.

Chapter 7 includes:
● A new orientation based on instruction that supports all students.
● An emphasis on differentiating instruction to enhance language development.
● New descriptions of vocabulary development with a focus on teaching “academic
language.”
● Differentiating instruction with an emphasis on Common Core Standards or
college and career readiness.
● Modifications and adaptation with emphasis on standards for teaching English
learners.

Chapter 8 includes:
● A reframing of the chapter to focus on being a reflective practitioner.
● A new section on reflective practice.
● A new section on professional development that highlights inservice sessions and
action research.
● A revised section on Professional Learning Communities to enhance teaching for
English learners.
● Updated research throughout.
● Revised end-of-chapter activities and a new feature, “Your Turn,” in which
readers apply the chapter content to their practice.

The addition of a Glossary of Terms will assist readers with navigating the content of the
text.

Overview of the Book

Some of the terms used in this book may differ from those used in your area; terminology
varies from region to region and has different meanings for different people. In this book,
the term sheltered instruction indicates the teaching of content area knowledge and skills
in a more understandable way while also developing students’ English language
proficiency. Some similar terms are content ESL, structured English immersion (SEI), and
specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE). In many districts there are
no classes designated as “sheltered”; however, any time content material is taught to
English learners, a sheltered instruction approach should be used to make the material
comprehensible.
 xiv One of the goals of this book is to define what a sheltered lesson is and to describe
how it can be used on a daily basis in the classroom. Little has been written about the
PREFACE
challenges caused by the varying levels of educational background and abilities of
English learners. Teachers frequently report that they struggle to accommodate the
diversity of skills and abilities of the students in their classes. These diverse skills and
abilities are even more difficult to understand for those teachers who lack training and
knowledge about second-language acquisition and related issues.
English learners will experience predictable and understandable challenges as they
learn in a new language. Other students may have needs that require specialized attention,
such as those who are undereducated and those who have learning difficulties. Sheltered
instruction is appropriate for English learners, regardless of whether they are (1) in small
groups or large groups, (2) in primarily bilingual or English language placements, or
(3) identified for special education services.
In writing this book for teachers and for students studying to become teachers, we
have reviewed theory, research, and practice in the areas of second-language acquisition,
general education, multicultural education, and special education, including updates from
our own ongoing research. This new edition provides the most current information
available about students who are learning standards-based content in English.

O rg a n i z a t i o n a l O v e r v i e w
This book begins by laying a foundation in issues surrounding the education of students
learning English. Chapter 1 describes the target population for the book, provides student
profiles, and discusses the areas of assessment and instruction for this population. These
areas include native-language knowledge, English-language knowledge, academic
background, and behavior and learning patterns. Common Core State Standards (and
college and career readiness standards) are added to this edition. Considerations of
language proficiency and Standards for Teachers of English Learners are added with
examples of how to use language levels to determine the type of instruction. This chapter
also describes procedures for informal assessment and instructional planning.
Programmatic decisions can have a significant impact on instruction, so we have
elaborated the section on program options.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the historical background and theories that
explain and support procedures for the instruction of English learners in school, including
those with disabilities. It includes information on the history of second-language learners
in the schools, an overview of theories of second-language acquisition, and learning
theories. It also includes a discussion of the factors that affect second-language
acquisition and the influences on an individual’s rate and level of learning a new
language.
Chapters 3 through 8 provide specific information on differentiated instruction for all
students, with special emphasis on English learners. Each of these chapters includes
specific examples of teaching situations as well as activities for discussion. Chapter 3
introduces sheltered instruction and gives specifics for its effective implementation in the
content areas, including a d­ iscussion of the research-validated SIOP® Model. Chapter 4
focuses on the language of the classroom and what teachers and students alike need to
recognize about its importance. Chapter 5 emphasizes the importance of culturally and
affectively responsive teaching, including information and strategies ­regarding the
appropriate school environment for students, teachers, and parents. Chapter 6 includes
research on learning strategies, descriptions of those strategies, and ­specific examples of xv
strategies that are likely to improve school performance. Chapter 7 describes
PREFACE
differentiated instruction, particularly in the context of language proficiency levels and
curriculum adaptations with specific ­examples of accommodations, adaptations, and
modifications for all students, with special emphasis on those who are learning English.
Chapter 8 encourages teachers to be reflective practitioners. It includes an overview of the
material presented in the book and a framework for readers’ self-reflection.
Most professionals agree that teaching content material to students who are learning
English is one of the greatest challenges teachers face today. One of the reasons is the
range of skills and abilities that these students bring to learning tasks. This practical guide
for teachers recommends a variety of methods and techniques for making grade-level
instruction meaningful for English learners.

Acknowledgments
First and foremost, we’d like to express our appreciation to Aurora Martinez, for her
support and direction. The editorial team, led by Kathryn Boice, kept us on track through
the process. We further acknowledge the contributions of our copy editor, Kathy Smith.
Thanks.
A book such as this is developed over time, as a result of many discussions,
observations, teaching experiences, and interviews. In particular, we owe a debt of
gratitude to the many teachers and school personnel, too numerous to mention
individually, whose cooperation and generosity contributed to this book being grounded
in classroom experiences and practices.
The districts represented include Lennox Unified School District, as well as Long
Beach Unified, including the teachers and staff at Hill Middle School, Los Angeles
Unified School District, Los Alamitos Unified School District, Santa Barbara Unified
School District, and San Diego City Unified School District, including the teachers and
staff at Mann Middle School.
We thank the following reviewers of the earlier editions for their comments and
suggestions: Eileen Ariza, Florida Atlantic University; Mary Carol Combs, University of
Arizona; Joseph DiLella, Eastern New Mexico University; Jay Richard Fuhriman, Boise
State University; Theresa Garfield, Alamo Community College District; Else Hamayan,
Illinois Resource Center; Socorro Herrera, Kansas State University; Robin LaBarbera,
Biola University; Mary E. McGroarty, Northern Arizona University; Carla Meskill,
University of Albany, State University of New York; Teresa Pica, University of
Pennsylvania; and Kyounghee Seo, St. Cloud State University. We also thank the
reviewers of this edition: Todd Bunnell, Mississippi University for Women; Elizabeth
England, Shenandoah University; Yolanda Ramirez, University of Texas of the Permian
Basin; Ellen Skilton-Sylvester, Arcadia University.
This page intentionally left blank
Sheltered Content
Instruction
This page intentionally left blank
 C hapter 1
Teaching English Learners
with Diverse Abilities
Learning Objectives:
● Contrast ­native-​­language knowledge with ­second-​­language
knowledge.
● Consider how each should be assessed and what the important consid-
erations for instruction are.
● Identify the stages of ­second-​­language proficiency.
● Describe the importance of academic language, and explain
why it is critically important for school success.
● Discuss the types of learning and behavior challenges that a
struggling English learner could have, and explain why they
might occur.
● List types of assessment and instructional support than support learn-
ing and behavior changes.

E nglish learners constitute the fastest growing part of our school

population. The number of English learners in the United States
schools has tripled since 1998 (National Clearinghouse for English
Language Acquisition, 2013). English learners continue to be most concentrated in
California, Florida, Illinois, New York, and Texas, but many other states such as Nebraska,
Monkey Business/Fotolia

1
 2 Oregon, Nevada, North Carolina, and the District of Columbia have experienced an influx
of families who speak languages other than English. While some of these students from
Chapter 1
diverse linguistic backgrounds are similar to one another in that they must learn a second
Teaching English
language, each one is unique, with his or her own level of English proficiency, language
Learners with
and academic abilities, and educational background. In this chapter, we offer a systematic
Diverse Abilities
way to assess English learners’ needs and provide appropriate education so that they can
experience success in school and beyond.
Some students learning English do well in school, while others experience
special challenges (Banks & McGee, 2001; Garcia, 2000; Genesee, ­Lindholm-​­Leary,
Saunders, & Christian, 2006; Graves, Gersten, & Haager, 2004; Saunders & Goldenberg,
2010). English learners are learning in and through a new language, and find themselves
in a cultural environment that may be significantly different from their own. The
influence of ­English-​­speaking teachers on their culturally diverse students has been well
documented, and unfortunately this mismatch of language and culture may contribute to
some students’ poor performance in school (Agirdag, 2009; Artiles, Rueda, Salazar, &
Higareda, 2002; Gay, 2000; Harry & Klingner, 2005; Harry, Torguson, Katkavich, &
Guerrero, 1993; Villegas & Lucas, 2007). Further, some schools have effective parent
programs that are inclusive of all families while at other schools only mainstream families
are represented. As we better understand these important relationships, educators are
giving greater attention to the impact that ethnicity, language, culture, and background
have on students’ learning (Au & Blake, 2003; August & Shanahan, 2006; MacSwan,
2000).
Clearly, we as educators need to consider each student’s unique abilities in order to
provide an appropriate education to English learners. Are the students’ parents professionals
or migrant workers? Did the students learn English while living in a refugee camp or
through a private tutor? Is the student a recent immigrant or U.S. born? Do the parents
support ­primary-​­language instruction or not? Have the students been educated at grade
level, or do they have significant gaps in their education? The answers to these questions
may impact programming decisions.

Student Profiles
While the diverse backgrounds of individuals do not fit neatly into categories, four
general profiles emerge among English learners:

1. Balanced bilingual
2. Monolingual/literate in native language
3. Monolingual/preliterate in native language
4. Limited bilingual

Nico is a ­tenth-​­grader who was born in Guatemala. He moved to Southern California in

the second grade. Before coming to this country, he was a good student and learned to
read and write in Spanish. When he began school in the United States, he was placed in a
bilingual classroom where he received some n­ ative-​­language support before transitioning
into English instruction. Now in high school, he is performing at or above grade level in
mainstream classes. Because Nico can speak, read, and write well in both languages, his
teacher is considering him for the gifted program at his school.
 Your Turn 3
Chapter 1
If a student who is an English learner is struggling on tests and in class assignment,
Teaching English
what are several steps that teachers need to take to support this student?
Learners with
Diverse Abilities

Nico and other students like him are not the subject of this book because they have
achieved a ­balanced-​­bilingual status. Indeed, duplicating his experience is the goal of
this book: helping individuals to become academically successful in English while
maintaining their first languages. We have written this book to assist teachers in
providing a ­high-​­quality education to all ­students—​­including those from diverse
backgrounds who are not yet proficient in English, as well as students who have
learning challenges.
Students who have not yet achieved ­balanced-​­bilingual status are of concern to us;
they are monolingual literate or preliterate in their native language or limited bilingual
status students. These students require special attention, knowledge, and strategies
including assessment and review to enhance their opportunities to learn and help them
succeed in school.

Watch the following video clip and list the ways a teacher can adjust
­assessment, review, and teaching strategies to support English learners.

Rahul is a recent immigrant who attends middle school. He has ­grade-​­level academic
ability in his native language but speaks very little English. Because he has lived all his
13 years outside the United States, certain kinds of cultural knowledge present difficulties
for him. Rahul is quite shy and does not seek help readily. He has excellent social and
academic language skills in his native language and has studied English for a few years,
but his proficiency is quite limited. His history of learning and behavior at school, at
home, and in the community is positive. He is described as a good citizen and a student
who demonstrates appropriate behavior in most settings.
When Agnessa was 6 years old, an American family adopted her from an orphanage
in Russia. She has an older brother who is the biological child of her parents. Now in
third grade, Agnessa has very limited literacy skills. Even her spoken English is quite
limited when she interacts with students and the teacher in class. Her family is concerned
that Agnessa doesn’t seem to be making sufficient academic progress, and she has had a
number of behavior problems in school. She has been caught stealing twice this year, and
she is often uncooperative in class.
Born in an urban U.S. city, Luisa is a friendly 15‑­year-​­old who sits quietly in class
as if she understands everything. When written assignments are given, she writes them
down and begins to work. Her handwriting, however, is illegible, and her spelling is
extremely poor. Spanish is her first language, although her family speaks a mix of
English and Spanish at home. She writes in English in a ­knowledge-​­telling mode without
recognizable structure in her sentences or paragraphs. Luisa can converse quite well in
both languages, but for some reason has not made academic progress in either language.
Although she is popular at school, she is at risk of dropping out because of consistent
underachievement.
The purpose of this book is to provide information for teaching English learners with
diverse abilities, such as Rahul, Agnessa, and Luisa. Learning a new language while
learning in and through that language is a complex endeavor affected by a variety of
 4 factors, some of which are shown in Figure 1.1. Effective programs for English learners
take a systematic approach in evaluating the needs of these students and then providing
Chapter 1
the kind of instruction that meets their needs. For all students in our schools to achieve
Teaching English
their potential both as learners and as productive members of our society, h­ igh-​­quality
Learners with
programs are essential.
Diverse Abilities
Because of the tremendous influx of English learners into our schools, the need for
­programs—​­as well as procedures for placing students in ­programs—​­has often outpaced
program development. As a result of this uneven growth, terminology varies from state to
state and region to region, and the terms used in this book may differ from those used in
each school.
­High-​­quality programs include evaluation of English learners in a variety of areas to
determine their needs, including ­native-​­language knowledge, ­English-​­language
knowledge, school experience and academic background, and learning and behavior
patterns (see Figure 1.2). Once an appropriate assessment has been done, instructional

Figure 1.1 Visual Display of ­Language-​­Learner Dimensions

LANGUAGE
KNOWLEDGE

e
nc
pe d
Ex an
l

rie
ge na
ua tio

ol y
e

Sc icie c
ho nc
Ag

i
ng sa

Pr dem
La ver

of
a
n

Ac
Co

• Philosophical, religious, • Grade-level standards

or political conversation • ELL standards

GRADE LEVEL
• Advanced • Study skills and advanced
conversational skills reading skills
LEVELS OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

• Use of correct grammar

Preschool
• Reading and writing
Learning and Behavioral Abilities

• Vocabulary develop- fluency

Elementary

ment across useful • Expository writing

conversational areas
Secondary

• Expository reading
• Use of sentences
• Reading comprehension
• Adequate social skills
communication
• Narrative composition
• Use of phrases or
beginning • Narrative reading
communication • Beginning writing
• One- and two-word • Beginning reading
phrase or initial - decoding
language expression - comprehension
• Receptive development • School skills
• Listening only - following directions
LE ENT

- cooperation
E
DG
OW NT

- listening
KN CO

PRIMARY- AND ENGLISH-LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE

Figure 1.2 Process for the Assessment and Education of English Learners 5
Chapter 1
Teaching English
Native Language
Learners with
• Assessment Diverse Abilities
• Instruction

English Language
• Assessment
• Instruction

Academic Background
• Assessment
• Instruction

Learning and Behavior Challenges

• Prereferral Interventions
• Assessment
• Instruction

plans can be developed to support learners in attaining ­grade-​­level standards. Let’s take a
look at each aspect of the assessment process.

­Native-​­Language Knowledge
As mentioned, students enter school with varying levels of ­native-​­language development.
These levels range from ­low-​­proficiency to a­ bove-​­grade-​­level skills in oral language,
reading, and writing. We know that students who speak their native languages fluently
and have developed ­age-​­appropriate literacy skills have increased opportunities for
developing language and literacy skills in English (August & Shanahan, 2006; Baca &
Cervantes, 2004; Cummins, 1989; Saunders & Goldenberg, 2010). Further, those who
have developed a rich repertoire of knowledge and concept comprehension in their native
languages have better opportunities for learning English because their knowledge can be
transferred to English (­Barratt-​­Pugh & Rohl, 2001; Cazden, 1992; Krashen, 1982). For
example, an individual who understands that the earth rotates around the sun would know
that concept regardless of the language the teacher speaks when talking about it.

Watch this video clip of a dual language classroom and note some of the
concepts that students may learn in Spanish that may warrant native lan-
guage assessment.

Your Turn
What are the benefits of Native language development in students in school in the
United States? Reflect on the strengths and challenges of Native language instruction.
 6 Those students who have not had solid literacy models in their native languages have
more difficulty developing literacy in another language (in this case, English) (Franklin &
Chapter 1
Thompson, 1994; Howard, Christian, & Genesee, 2003). An assessment to determine the
Teaching English
student’s level of ­native-​­language proficiency will provide valuable information for
Learners with
making placement and instruction decisions.
Diverse Abilities

Assessment
In Agnessa’s case, a home language survey would be given when she enrolled in school
to determine her native language, as required by federal law. The result would indicate
that her native language is Russian. Next, a competent speaker of Russian would assess
Agnessa’s ­native-​­language knowledge (Cloud, Genesee & Hamayan, 2009). If ­native-​
­language professionals are unavailable, personnel from other districts or geographic areas
may be hired. Finally, if trained personnel are completely unavailable, community
members may be used to ascertain the student’s abilities. When using this option, it
should be indicated on the record that the student could not be adequately assessed and
that valid, reliable judgments about the language and cognitive abilities of the student
could not be made (Baca & Almanza, 1996). This is especially important when the
student is being considered for special services, such as special education. Another good
resource for school personnel is the student’s family since they are able to provide input
and insights into the student’s range of skills, including daily living skills (Chang, 1992;
Gonzalez et al., 1993).
An assessment of Agnessa’s ­native-​­language skills includes measuring ­oral-​­language
proficiency and reading and writing skills (Hoover & Patton, 2005; S ­ chiff-​­Myers, Djukic,
­Lawler-​­McGovern, & Perez, 1994). Once Agnessa’s ­native-​­language skills have been
assessed, results can be compared to g­ rade-​­level competencies as much as possible
(Hoover & Patton, 2004; Perez, 1993; ­Saville-​­Troike, 1984). If as a t­hird-​­grader Agnessa
can write a comprehensible 50‑word story that is organized and uses a variety of
interesting vocabulary words, then the n­ ative-​­language evaluator will list those skills and
determine her approximate academic grade level. Agnessa has approximately ­first-​­grade
level writing and has good comprehension when a story is read to her, but because she is
below grade level in literacy in both languages, Agnessa will need more intensive literacy
interventions.

Watch this video of an individualized math assessment that also allows for
the assessment of language including academic language in math. What
does the teacher learn by asking this student questions about fractions?

Instruction
There are a variety of program models for teaching English learners, summarized in
Table 1.1. They include sheltered instruction, transitional bilingual education,
developmental bilingual education, t­wo-​­way immersion, English language development,
and newcomer programs. While Lau v. Nichols, the landmark case that affirmed the rights
of English learners to receive an education equal to that of their E
­ nglish-​­speaking peers,
gave preference to bilingual education for meeting the needs of these students, the law
was written broadly enough that its interpretation has led to a number of different
programs being implemented for English learners (Aguila, 2010; Gandara, Moran, &
Garcia, 2004).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 “Sighing out a faint adieu
To truffles, salmis, toasted cheese.”

Especially painful to Byron was the report that Marie Louise (1791–
1849), Napoleon’s widow, who had been secretly married to her
chamberlain, Adam de Neipperg, had attended the Congress, and
had become reconciled to her first husband’s captors. One section of
the satire paints a picture of her leaning on the arm of the Duke of
Wellington, “yet red from Waterloo,” before her husband’s ashes
have had time to chill.
The most bitter, and, at the same time, the most just satire in the
poem is directed at the English landed gentry:

“The last to bid the cry of warfare cease,

The first to make a malady of peace.”

The rise in prices due to the long-continued war had fattened the
purses of the farmers and land-holders in England, and led them to
wish secretly for the continuance of the struggle. Byron attacks
severely their grudging assent to proposals of peace, and, in a
succession of rhymes on the word “rent,” points out the selfishness
of their position. The diatribe contains some of Byron’s most
passionate lines:

“See these inglorious Cincinnati swarm,

Farmers of war, dictators of the farm;
Their ploughshare was the sword in hireling hands,
Their fields manured by gore of other lands;
Safe in their barns, these Sabine tillers sent
Their brethren out to battle—why? for rent!”

Although an occasional touch of mockery reminds us of Don

Juan, The Age of Bronze, in method, shows a reversion to the
invective manner of English Bards. It can hardly be said, however,
that this later satire is any advance over the earlier poem. Its
allusions are now unfamiliar to the average reader, and the names
once so pregnant with meaning have faded into dim memories.
Although The Age of Bronze has sagacity and practicality, it lacks
unity and concentration. Without the vehement sweep of English
Bards, it is also too rhetorical and declamatory. Most readers,
despite the flash of spirit which now and then lights its pages, have
found the satire dull.
The Blues, so little deserving of attention in most respects, is
unique among Byron’s satires for two reasons: it is written in the
form of a play, and it employs the anapestic couplet metre, used by
Anstey and later by Moore. Byron’s first reference to it occurs in a
letter to Murray from Ravenna, August 7, 1821: “I send you a thing
which I scratched off lately, a mere buffoonery, to quiz the Blues, in
two literary eclogues. If published, it must be anonymously—don’t let
my name out for the present, or I shall have all the old women in
London about my ears, since it sneers at the solace of their ancient
379
Spinsterstry.” On September 20, 1821, he calls it a “mere
380
buffoonery, never meant for publication.” Murray, following his
usual custom with literature which was likely to get him into trouble,
cautiously delayed publication, and the poem was turned over to
John Hunt and printed in The Liberal, No. III (pages 1–24), for April
26, 1823. It was not attributed to Byron by contemporary critics, most
of them giving Leigh Hunt credit for the authorship.
There is nothing in Byron’s letters to explain the immediate
motive which led the poet to scribble a work so unworthy of his
genius. In his journal kept during his society life in London there are
several references to the “blues,” and later he made some
uncomplimentary allusions to them in Beppo and Don Juan. In a
sense his efforts to ridicule them seem to parallel the attacks of
Gifford on a coterie equally harmless and inoffensive.
In form the satire is a closet drama in two acts, each containing
approximately 160 lines. The characters represented are intended, in
many instances, for living persons. Thus, in the first act, which takes
place before the door of a lecture room, Inkel, who is apparently
Byron, converses with Tracy, who may be Moore. Within, Scamp,
probably Hazlitt, is delivering a discourse to a crew of “blues,
dandies, dowagers, and second-hand scribes.” Among the subjects
for discussion between the two men is Miss Lilac, a spinster, and
heiress, and a Blue, who is doubtless a caricature of Miss Milbanke,
the later Lady Byron. References to “Renegado’s Epic,” “Botherby’s
plays,” and “the Old Girl’s Review” indicate that Byron has returned
to some favorite subjects for his satire.
The second act is located at the home of Lady Bluebottle, who
resembles closely Lady Holland, the well-known Whig hostess and
one of Byron’s friends. Sir Richard Bluebottle, in a monologue,
complains of the crowd of,
“Scribblers, wits, lecturers, white, black, and blue,”
who invade his house and who are provided for at his expense. In
the scene which ensues, Inkel acts as a sort of interlocutor, with the
others as a chorus. Wordsworth, the “poet of peddlers,” is satirized in
the old fashion of English Bards as the writer who,

“Singing of peddlers and asses,

Has found out the way to dispense with Parnassus.”

Southey is referred to as “Mouthy.” Of the other figures, Lady

Bluemont is, perhaps, Lady Beaumont, and Miss Diddle, Lydia
White, “the fashionable blue-stocking.” When the party breaks up, Sir
Richard is left exclaiming,
“I wish all these people were damned with my marriage.”
On May 6, 1823, Byron finished Canto XVI of Don Juan. The
fourteen extant stanzas of Canto XVII are dated May 8th. Shortly
after he made preparations for his expedition to Greece, and, on July
23, 1823, sailed in the Hercules, with Gamba and Trelawney, for
Cephalonia. From this time on, his work in poetry practically ceased.
He wrote Moore from Missolonghi, March 4, 1824: “I have not been
quiet in an Ionian Island but much occupied with business.... Neither
381
have I continued Don Juan, or any other poem.” He devoted
himself to drilling Greek troops, holding conferences with leaders,
and corresponding with the patriot parties. A fever, brought on by
over-exposure, attacked him on April 11th, on the 19th, he died. His
remains were brought to England, and buried in the little church of
Hucknall Torquard, only a few miles from Newstead Abbey.
 CONCLUSION
Mr. Augustine Birrell, in an illuminating essay on the writings
of Pope, brings forward, with reference to satire, a standard of
judgment which merits a wider application. “Dr. Johnson,” says Mr.
Birrell, “is more to my mind as a sheer satirist than Pope, for in satire
character tells more than in any other form of verse. We want a
personality behind—a strong, gloomy, brooding personality; soured
and savage if you will—nay, as sour and savage as you like, but
spiteful never.” Without subscribing unreservedly to Mr. Birrell’s
preference of Johnson over Pope, we may still point out that the
most conspicuous feature of Byron’s satire, as, indeed, of most of his
other poetry, is the underlying personality of the author, too powerful
and aggressive to be obscured or hidden. There have been satirists
who, in assuming to express public opinion, have succeeded in
partly or entirely effacing themselves, and who have thus acted in
the rôle of judicial censors, self-appointed to the task of voicing the
sentiments of a party. In the poetry of the Anti-Jacobin, it is by no
means easy to detect where the work of one Tory satirist leaves off
and that of another begins. So in Dryden’s work we are seldom
confronted directly by the emotions or partialities of the writer
himself; Absalom and Achitophel gives the impression of a cool
impersonal commentary on certain episodes of history, prejudiced
perhaps, but carried on with real or feigned calmness. Byron’s satire
is of a different sort; we can read scarcely a page without
recognizing the potency of the personality that produced it. Just as in
Childe Harold the hero usually represents Byron himself in some of
the phases of his complex individuality; just as the Lara and the
Corsair of his verse romances and the Cain and Manfred of his
dramas are reflections of the misanthropical, theatrical and skeptical
poet; so, in the satires, no matter what method he uses, it is always
Byron who criticises and assails.
 Most of the characteristics which make up this personality
accountable for Byron’s satiric spirit have been brought out and
discussed in previous chapters. The most important of all, probably,
is the haste and impetuosity with which he was accustomed to act. In
this respect he may be again contrasted with Dryden, who
proceeded to satirize an enemy after due preparation, without
apparent agitation or excitement, much as a surgeon performs a
necessary operation. Even Pope, sensitive and irritable though he
was, did not usually strike when his temper was beyond his control.
Byron, on the other hand, was, in most cases, feverish and
impulsive; what he thought to be provocation was followed at once
by a blow. He did not adopt a position of unmoved superiority, but,
both too proud and too impatient to delay, sought instinctively to
settle a dispute on the spot. Except in some instances notable
because of their rarity, Byron seems to have had no understanding
of the method of toying with a prospective victim; he planned to close
with his opponent, to meet him in a grapple, and to overwhelm him
by sheer energy and intrepidity.
This want of restraint had, of course, some favorable results on
his satire; the work was indisputably vigorous, effective because of
the ungoverned passion which sustained it. At the same time this
hasty action was detrimental to Byron’s art, and accounts, in part, for
the frequent lack of subtlety in his satire. We may be roused
temporarily by the fury of the lines; but when, in less enthusiastic
moods, we examine the details, we miss the technique and the
transforming craftsmanship of the supreme artist. Only in The Vision
of Judgment did he devote himself to devising means for gaining his
end in the most dexterous fashion; and the consequence is that
poem is the finest of his satires. In the earlier satires we have Byron,
the man, talking out spontaneously, angrily, unguardedly, without
second thought or reconsideration, like Churchill, a mighty wielder of
the bludgeon but a poor master with the rapier.
Byron’s satiric spirit was always combative rather than
argumentative or controversial. He preferred to assail men rather
than principles. When he disliked an institution or a party, his
invariable custom was to select some one as its representative and
to proceed to call him to account. It is this desire to war with persons
and not with theories that explains his attacks on Castlereagh, whom
he never knew, but whom he singled out as the embodiment of
England’s repressive policy. By nature Byron was much more ready
to quarrel with the Foreign Minister as an individual than he was to
discuss the prudence and expediency of that statesman’s measures.
The characteristics so far mentioned could belong only to a
daring and fearless man. Byron never hesitated to avow his ideas,
nor did he ever retract his invective except in cases in which he had
been convinced that he was unjust. He published the Lines to a Lady
Weeping under his own name at a time when no one suspected his
authorship. For years he satirized European sovereigns without
showing the slightest sign of trepidation. He espoused unpopular
causes, and often, of his own choice, ran close to danger, when
mere silence would have assured him security.
But despite the fact that Byron’s hatreds were seldom disguised
and that he was, on the whole, open and manly in his satire, there is
another side to his nature which cannot be left unnoticed. He was,
unfortunately, implicated in certain incidents which leave him under
the suspicion of a kind of treachery towards his friends. His lampoon
on Samuel Rogers, beginning,

“Nose and chin would shame a knocker;

Wrinkles that would puzzle Cocker;”

and ending,

“For his merits, would you know ’em?

Once he wrote a pretty Poem,”

unpublished during his lifetime, was nevertheless a malicious squib

directed at a man who had been one of his closest companions.
There can be no doubt, too, that Byron’s satiric ballad on Hobhouse,
“My boy Hobbie, O,” sent secretly to England, was a true stab in the
back, administered to the man who had been his loyal friend. Byron,
moreover, was not always accurate in his charges. Like most
satirists, he exaggerated to gain his point, and made claims which
the evidence did not justify. Nor is it in his favor that he chose to
attack his wife in public lampoons, and wrote scurrilous epigrams
upon dead statesmen.
This lack of delicacy aside, however, it must be recognized that
Byron’s satire was often exerted in condemning real evils, and that
he performed a definite service to humanity. More than any other
man of his time he insisted on liberty of speech and action in a
period when reactionary politicians were in the ascendant. He
combated the perennial forms of hypocrisy and cant which appear
constantly in England. Neither Dryden nor Pope had been the
consistent champion of great causes; but Byron so often employed
his satire for beneficial purposes that, despite the vituperation with
which it was greeted by conservatives, it became a powerful
influence for good.
It may be said, in general, of the substance of Byron’s satires,
that he devoted very little attention to the faults and foibles of
mankind, taken as a whole. He was usually moved to satire by some
contemporary person, event, or controversy, and his criticism was
definite, levelled at some specific abuse or evil. In his youth he
showed a disposition to take a lofty moral stand, and to preach
against vice; but he was ill-suited to didacticism, and soon forsook it
altogether. After 1812, his satire had a very intimate connection with
the life around him in politics, society, and literature, and reflected
the manners and moods of the age. It is to be noted, too, that Byron
was, in theory at least, in opposition to the spirit of his time. His belief
in liberal doctrines led him to resist much that seemed safe and solid
to those in his own class of life. He was not, in his later days, in
sympathy with the situation in Europe; and he died too soon to see
his progressive ideas bear fruit in the revolutions of 1830 and the
Reform Bill of 1832.
In literature Byron satirized, throughout his career, the
representatives of the older romantic school: Wordsworth, Coleridge,
and Southey. He did this mainly on the ground that their principles of
poetry were subversive of the rules handed down by his avowed
masters, Pope and Gifford. In thus defending the name and
doctrines of Pope, Byron was consistent during his literary lifetime,
although he himself wandered from the path which he persistently
asserted to be the only right one. In inveighing against Southey, he
was, of course, animated largely by personal spite. For minor
poetasters, scribblers who might have been made the puppets of a
modern Dunciad, Byron had little but silent contempt. In literary
satire, then, he presents the strange spectacle of a radical striving
desperately to support a losing cause, and that cause a conservative
one. Progressive in nearly every other respect, Byron persisted in
opposing any attempt to deviate from the standard established by
Pope.
Byron’s satire on society was partly the result of pique. He who
had been for some time its idol, found himself expelled from English
society, and, in retaliation, exposed its absurdities and follies. At the
same time it is unquestionable that he furthered a reform in ridiculing
the cant and sham of English high life. It was in his last saner days
that he wrote the cantos of Don Juan which treat of the all-pervasive
hypocrisy of fashionable circles, and the satire, even to-day, rings
true. It is noticeable that he seldom satirizes fads or fashions, and
that he rarely, after 1812, attacks private immorality. His zeal is
devoted to unveiling pretence, and to describing this outwardly
brilliant gathering as it really is.
Since Byron was a radical and a rebel, his satire was devoted,
so far as it concerned itself with political questions, to the glorification
of liberty in all its forms, and to the vigorous denunciation of
everybody and everything that tended to block or discourage
progressive movements. In defence of freedom and in resistance to
oppression, his satire found its fullest mission and its amplest
justification. When continental Europe of the middle nineteenth
century thought of Byron, it pictured him as a nobleman who had
assailed tyrannical monarchy, who had aided Italy and Greece in
their struggles for independence, and who had been willing to fight
for the sake of the principles in which he believed. The words of
Byron’s political creed have a noble ring: “The king-times are fast
finishing. There will be blood shed like water, and tears like mist; but
the peoples will conquer in the end. I shall not live to see it, but I
foresee it.”
The broader philosophical satire on humanity in which he was
more and more inclined to indulge as he reached maturity is
essentially shallow and cynical. As soon as Byron became indefinite,
as soon as he undertook to preach, he grew unsatisfactory, for he
had no lesson to teach beyond the pessimism of Ecclesiastes.
All these objects for satire afforded Byron an opportunity for
expressing some much-needed criticism. The most unworthy
sections of his satire are those devoted to mere revenge: the
unchivalric lines on Lady Byron and Mrs. Clermont; the violent abuse
of Southey and Jeffrey; and the treacherous thrusts at Rogers and
Hobhouse. In these passages the satirist descends to the lower level
of Churchill and Gifford.
It remains to say a word of Byron’s methods, a word merely of
recapitulation. Preferring directness always, he was inclined by
nature to go straight to his goal, to speak his mind out without
pausing to devise subtle or devious plans of attack. Except in his
Italian satires his procedure was simple enough: he hurled epithets,
made scandalous and scurrilous charges, and thought out offensive
comments, writing usually in the first person and meeting his
enemies face to face in the good old way of his eighteenth century
predecessors. It is, perhaps, unsafe, with Don Juan and The Vision
of Judgment before us, to assert that he was incapable of finesse
and cunning; but, for the most part, even in these poems, he was
more fond of abuse than he was of innuendo and crafty insinuation.
His impetuosity and irrepressible impulsiveness, to which we have
had occasion so often to refer, did not allow him to dwell
scrupulously on artistic effects.
He had, however, two distinct satiric moods: the one, savage,
stern, and merciless; the other, mocking, scornful, and humorous.
The one resulted in invective, the other, in ridicule and burlesque.
One came to him from Juvenal, Pope, and Gifford; the other he
learned from Moore, Frere, and the Italians. Thanks to his versatility,
he was successful in using both; but his real genius was shown more
in the contemptuous mirth of The Vision of Judgment than in the fury
of English Bards.
Unlike Pope, Byron was no adept at framing pointed phrases.
The beauty of Pope’s satire lies in the single lines, in the details and
the finish of an epithet. Byron’s work, on the other hand, should be
estimated with regard to the general effect. Few recall particular lines
from the passage on Southey in The Vision of Judgment; yet every
one remembers the complete caricature of the laureate. Pope
manipulated a delicate and fine stencil; Byron painted on the canvas
with broad sweeping strokes.
Byron was the last of the great English satirists in verse, and he
has had no imitators who have been able to approach his unique
style and manner. It is a curious fact that his influence after his death
on nineteenth-century English satire has been almost negligible. The
causes of this decline in satire since Byron’s day are not altogether
easy to explain. Perhaps it may be accounted for as accompanying
the general lack of interest in poetry of any sort so common to-day.
Possibly it may be due to the stringency of the laws against libel,
which has resulted in the situation described by Sir George
Trevelyan in his Ladies in Parliament:

“But now the press has squeamish grown, and thinks invective
rash:
And telling hits no longer lurk ’neath asterisk and dash;
And poets deal in epithets as soft as skeins of silk,
Nor dream of calling silly lords a curd of ass’s milk.”

In the twentieth century great political problems are usually fought

out in the newspapers or in prose pamphlets; the editorials of our
daily journals take the place of satires like The Age of Bronze.
Doubtless, too, we have grown somewhat refined in our sensibilities
and fastidious in our speech, so that we shrink from the cut-and-
slash method in poetry. At any rate our English satire since 1830 has
inclined toward raillery and humor, wholly unlike the ardent
vindictiveness of the men under the Georges. The old régime died
away with Byron; and in its stead we have had the polished
cleverness of Praed, the gentle cynicism of Thackeray, the mild
sentimentality of Looker and Dobson. Not until very recently have
flashes of the invective spirit appeared in the work of William Watson
and Rudyard Kipling. The great issues of the twentieth century have
stimulated no powerful English satirist in verse.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
The standard edition of Byron’s Poetical Works is that by Ernest
Hartley Coleridge in seven volumes (London, 1904), which contains
an exhaustive bibliography of the successive editions and
translations of different poems. The most complete collection of the
Letters and Journals is that by Rowland E. Prothero in six volumes
(London, 1902). Any study of Byron must be largely based on these
comprehensive and scholarly works. A fairly detailed list of critical
articles on Byron was compiled by Roden Noel in his Life of Lord
Byron; this, however, needs to be supplemented and revised in the
light of recent investigation.
The following list includes only the more important sources of
information for this treatise.

Ackermann, R. Lord Byron, Heidelberg, 1901.

Anti-Jacobin, Poetry of the, edited by Charles Edmonds, London,
1890.
Armstrong, J. L. Life of Lord Byron, London, 1858.
Arnold, Matthew. Byron (In his Essays in Criticism, Second
Series, London, 1903).
Austin, Alfred. A Vindication of Lord Byron, London,
1869.
Byron and Wordsworth (In his Bridling of
Pegasus, London, 1910.)
Bell, John. Fugitive Poetry, London, 1790. 18 vols.
in 9.
Beyle, Henri. Lord Byron en Italie (In his Racine, Paris,
1854).
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 FOOTNOTES
1
That satire is primarily destructive criticism was asserted by
Heinsius in a familiar passage quoted approvingly by Dryden
in his Essay on Satire:—“Satire is a kind of poetry—in which
human vices, ignorance, and errors, and all things besides,
which are produced from them in every man, are severely
reprehended.” The same theory is expressed by De
Gubernatis in his Storia della Satira:—“La satira è, sovra ogni
cosa, una negazione.”
2
See Poetry, VII, 1.
3
In the Preface to Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden is inclined
to take pride in his fairness:—“I have but laughed at some
men’s follies, when I could have declaimed against their vices;
and other men’s virtues I have commended, as freely as I have
taxed their crimes.”
4
Epilogue to the Satires, Dialogue II., 212–217.
5
See Chesterton’s Pope and the Art of Satire.
6
Both methods are illustrated in a line of the Dunciad:—
“My H—ley’s periods, or my Blackmore’s numbers.”

7
In the Dramatis Personæ of Absalom and Achitophel only two
women appear, and they are spoken of in the poem in a
complimentary way.
 8
Byron particularly emphasizes the correctness and moral tone
of Pope: he is “the most perfect of our poets and the purest of
our moralists” (Letters, v., 559); “his moral is as pure as his
poetry is glorious” (Letters, v., 555); “he is the only poet that
never shocks” (Letters, v., 560).
9
Gay’s Alexander Pope, his safe Return from Troy (1720) is
interesting as being one of the rare examples of the use of the
English octave stanza between Lycidas and Beppo.
10
Letters, v., 252.
11
In speaking of the art of rhyming to Trelawney, Byron said:—“If
you are curious in these matters, look in Swift. I will send you a
volume; he beats us all hollow, his rhymes are wonderful.”
12
Cf. Swift’s The Puppet Show with Byron’s Inscription on the
Monument of a Newfoundland Dog.
13
For a contemporary characterization of the unscrupulous
satirists of the period see Cowper’s Charity, 501–532, in the
passage beginning,
“Most satirists are indeed a public scourge.”
14
Examples are The Thimble (1743) by William Hawkins (1722–
1801) and the Scribleriad (1752) by Richard Owen Cambridge
(1717–1802).
15
State Dunces (1733) and The Gymnasiad (1738) by Paul
Whitehead (1710–1744); The Toast (1736) by William King
(1685–1763); and a succession of anonymous poems, The
Battle of the Briefs (1752), Patriotism (1765), The Battle of the
Wigs (1763), The Triumph of Dulness (1781), The Rape of the
Faro-Bank (1797), and The Battle of the Bards (1799).
16
The most important is Churchill’s Rosciad (1761), with the
numerous replies which it elicited: the Churchilliad (1761), the
Smithfield Rosciad (1761), the Anti-Rosciad (1761), by
 Thomas Morell (1703–1784), and The Rosciad of Covent
Garden (1761) by H. J. Pye (1745–1813). Among other satires
of the same class may be mentioned the Smartiad (1752) by
Dr. John Hill (1710–1775), with its answer, the severe and
effective Hilliad (1752) by Christopher Smart (1722–1771); the
Meretriciad (1764) by Arthur Murphy (1727–1806); the
Consuliad (1770), a fragment by Chatterton; the Diaboliad
(1777), with its sequel, the Diabolady (1777) by William
Combe (1741–1823); and finally the Criticisms on the Rolliad,
Gifford’s Baviad and Mæviad, the Simpliciad, and the
Alexandriad (1805).
17
The Scandalizade (1750); The Pasquinade (1752) by William
Kenrick (1725–1779); The Quackade (1752); The Booksellers
(1766); The Art of Rising in the Church (1763) by James Scott
(1733–1814); The Senators (1772); and The Tribunal (1787).
18
A few typical controversial satires of this decade are: The
Race (1762) by Cuthbert Shaw (1739–1771); The Tower
(1763); The Demagogue (1764) by William Falconer (1732–
1769); The Scourge (1765); and The Politician (1766) by E. B.
Greene (1727–1788).
19
Some characteristic examples are the Epistle to Cornbury
(1745) by Earl Nugent (1702–1788); the Epistle to William
Chambers (1773) and the Epistle to Dr. Shebbeare (1777) by
William Mason (1724–1797); and the Epistle to Dr. Randolph
(1796), as well as numerous other epistles, by T. J. Mathias.
20
See Macaulay’s Essay on Horace Walpole, page 35.
21
An Essay on the Different Styles of Poetry (1713) by Thomas
Parnell (1679–1718); The Danger of Writing Verse (1741) by
William Whitehead (1715–1785); A Prospect of Poetry (1733);
The Perils of Poetry (1766); and The Wreath of Fashion (1780)
by Richard Tickell (1751–1793).
22
The anonymous Manners of the Age (1733); Manners (1738)
by Paul Whitehead; The Man of Taste (1733) by James