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Understanding Psychology 12th Edition

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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

Chapter 08
Cognition and Language

Multiple Choice Questions

1.

_____ psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking,
language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, and judging.

A.
Clinical

B.
Developmental

C.
Cognitive

D.
Evolutionary

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Cognition

8-1
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

2.

Which of the following is TRUE about mental images?

A.
They refer only to visual representations.

B.
They have only a few of the properties of the actual stimuli they represent.

C.
They are representations in the mind of an object or event.

D.
They cannot be rotated.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Mental Images

8-2
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

3.

Which of the following statements best expresses the nature of mental images?

A.
They are binary in format.

B.
They are always auditory in format.

C.
They may be produced by any sensory modality.

D.
They are linguistic.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Mental Images

8-3
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

4.

Dr. Randazza shows participants a stylized map of a fictitious city. The map includes landmarks, such as a post office, a
library, a shopping mall, a bus depot, and an airport. Some of the landmarks are close together, such as the library and the
post office. Others are far apart, such as the airport and the shopping mall. Dr. Randazza removes the map. Participants are
asked to imagine walking from one landmark to another, either a nearby one or a more distant one. Participants press a key
when they have reached the destination in their minds. Based on mental imagery, what do you think Dr. Randazza should
find? What would such a result say about mental imagery?

A.
Participants should take the same amount of time to travel mentally between distant as between close landmarks. This result
would suggest that mental imagery reflects the actual actions the participants perform with respect to real objects.

B.
Participants should take the same amount of time to travel mentally between distant as between close landmarks. This result
would suggest that mental imagery does not reflect the actual actions the participants perform with respect to real objects.

C.
Participants should take longer to travel mentally between distant than between close landmarks. This result would suggest
that mental imagery reflects the actual actions the participants perform with respect to real objects.

D.
Participants should take longer to travel mentally between distant than between close landmarks. This result would suggest
that mental imagery does not reflect the actual actions the participants perform with respect to real objects.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Mental Images

8-4
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

5.

Clint is mentally rehearsing his golf swing in his mind's eye. Based on mental imagery, which of the following statements is
most accurate?

A.
Clint's mental rehearsal should improve his golf swing. Performing the task involves the same network of brain cells as the
network used in mentally rehearsing it.

B.
Clint's mental rehearsal should do little to improve his golf swing. The brain areas active during Clint's mental rehearsal
should be the same as those active when Clint actually swings the golf club.

C.
Clint's mental rehearsal should improve his golf swing. The brain areas active during Clint's mental rehearsal should be
different than those active when Clint actually swings the golf club.

D.
Clint's mental rehearsal should do little to improve his golf swing. The brain areas active during Clint's mental rehearsal
should be different than those active when Clint actually swings the golf club.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Mental Images

8-5
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

6.

Mental representations of objects are called _____; mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people are called _____.

A.
images; concepts

B.
images; images as well

C.
concepts; concepts as well

D.
concepts; images

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Concepts
Topic: Mental Images

8-6
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

7.

Which of the following is most nearly synonymous with the term concept, as it is used by cognitive psychologists?

A.
Idea

B.
Relationship

C.
Category

D.
Image

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Concepts

8-7
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

8.

Mental groupings of objects, events, or people that share common features are called:

A.
concepts.

B.
ideas.

C.
heuristics.

D.
algorithms.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Concepts

8-8
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

9.

A prototype is:

A.
the most typical or highly representative example of a concept.

B.
the first example of a concept that one encounters.

C.
the least frequent example of a concept.

D.
the most unusual or distinctive example of a concept.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Concepts

8-9
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

10.

Which of the following is most likely the prototype of the concept "fruit"?

A.
Carrot

B.
Apple

C.
Tomato

D.
Blueberry

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Concepts

8-10
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

11.

Those raised in the United States are most likely to use _____ relationships to categorize.

A.
semantic

B.
functional

C.
categorical

D.
thematic

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Concepts

8-11
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

12.

_____ is the process by which information is used to draw conclusions and make decisions.

A.
Reasoning

B.
Negotiating

C.
Predicting

D.
Conceptualizing

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Reasoning

8-12
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

13.

Which of the following individuals is NOT engaged in reasoning, as psychologists define the term?

A.
Clay, who is deciding which make and model of used car is least likely to present a maintenance headache, based on his
friends' testimonials

B.
Darla, who is concluding that a particular model of used car is a poor investment over the longer term, based on a report in a
consumer magazine

C.
Emilio, who is dreaming about a novel way to earn the cash for a new used car

D.
Mark, who is deciding which college to go to, based on the reviews each of them has received

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Reasoning

8-13
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

14.

You check the time on your phone. Your friend should be out of class by now. You call her. She should answer if she is out
of class. In this example, your thought processes are best seen as exemplifying:

A.
problem solving.

B.
conceptualization.

C.
reasoning.

D.
creativity.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Reasoning

8-14
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

15.

Reasoning from the general to the specific is called:

A.
algorithms.

B.
heuristics.

C.
mental sets.

D.
deductive reasoning.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Formal Reasoning

8-15
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

16.

Formal reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from the specific to the general is known as _____ reasoning.

A.
divergent

B.
syllogistic

C.
analogical

D.
inductive

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Formal Reasoning

8-16
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

17.

A detective tries to get a general picture of a murder from the specific evidence associated with the murder. This is an
example of _____ reasoning.

A.
convergent

B.
divergent

C.
inductive

D.
analogical

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Formal Reasoning

8-17
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

18.

Which type of reasoning do psychologists use when they study a sample of participants and then use the information they
observe to form a conclusion about the broader population from which the sample is drawn?

A.
Divergent

B.
Syllogistic

C.
Analogical

D.
Inductive

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Formal Reasoning

8-18
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

19.

One can use a(n) _____ even if he or she doesn’t understand why it works.

A.
heuristic.

B.
algorithm.

C.
premise.

D.
syllogism.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Algorithms

8-19
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

20.

A rule that guarantees the solution to a problem when it is correctly applied is termed as a(n):

A.
heuristic.

B.
algorithm.

C.
premise.

D.
syllogism.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Algorithms

8-20
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

21.

Which of the following is TRUE of algorithms?

A.
In cases where heuristics are not available, we may use algorithms.

B.
Even if it is applied appropriately, an algorithm cannot guarantee a solution to a problem.

C.
Algorithms may sometimes lead to errors.

D.
We can use an algorithm even if we cannot understand why it works.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Algorithms

8-21
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

22.

Which of the following is TRUE of heuristics?

A.
In cases where algorithms are not available, we may use heuristics.

B.
If applied appropriately, a heuristic guarantees a solution to a problem.

C.
Heuristics never lead to errors.

D.
Heuristics decrease the likelihood of success in finding a solution.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-22
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

23.

Which of the following terms best captures the meaning of the term heuristic, as cognitive psychologists use it?

A.
Principle

B.
Formula

C.
Strategy

D.
Program

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-23
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

24.

When you play tic-tac-toe using certain mental shortcuts, you are using cognitive strategies psychologists call:

A.
algorithms.

B.
mental sets.

C.
heuristics.

D.
syllogistic reasoning.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-24
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

25.

Matt picks up a pamphlet at a counseling center titled How to Succeed at College Course Work. Which type of problem-
solving strategies is most likely offered in this pamphlet?

A.
Algorithms

B.
Insights

C.
Heuristics

D.
Syllogisms

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-25
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

26.

Which of the following most likely makes use of heuristics?

A.
A chemical equation for the synthesis of sulfuric acid

B.
A recipe for making cookies on the back of a box of cornflakes

C.
An article by a Nobel Prize winner titled "How to Succeed in Science"

D.
A computer program for keeping track of inventory at a department store

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-26
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

27.

Which of the following is an advantage of the use of heuristics?

A.
A heuristic will present a clearly defined solution to a problem.

B.
A heuristic is often efficient.

C.
A heuristic is guaranteed to result in a correct response.

D.
A heuristic results in only one possible solution to a problem.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-27
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

28.

Which of the following is TRUE of heuristics?

A.
Heuristics always lead to correct solutions of a problem.

B.
Heuristics are a slower way to solve problems than are other strategies.

C.
Heuristics represent commonly used approaches to the solution of a problem.

D.
Heuristics are used by computers but not by humans as problem-solving tools.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-28
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

29.

Lori and Monica are looking at the cans of coffee on display at a local supermarket. They are trying to decide which of two
different-sized cans will be the better buy. Lori attempts to divide the price of each can by the number of ounces of coffee
each can contains. Monica suggests that "the larger size is usually a better buy." Lori is using a(n) ____, whereas Monica is
using a(n) _____.

A.
heuristic; algorithm

B.
algorithm; heuristic

C.
prototype; algorithm

D.
heuristic; prototype

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Algorithms
Topic: Heuristics

8-29
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

30.

_____ may sometimes lead to errors.

A.
Theorems

B.
Heuristics

C.
Algorithms

D.
Statements

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-30
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

31.

When you use the availability heuristic, you are:

A.
making frequency estimates based on the ease with which things come to mind.

B.
overcoming mental set.

C.
mistaking visual images and other forms of mental representations for reality.

D.
assuming that something is typical of its class.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-31
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

32.

Suppose you meet a woman who killed her stepdaughter, and then later when you meet another woman who is having trouble
with her stepdaughter, you are most likely to think that this woman too will kill her stepdaughter. You come to this
conclusion as a result of:

A.
functional fixedness.

B.
the representativeness heuristic.

C.
the availability heuristic.

D.
confirmation bias.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-32
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

33.

Carl is the only person from New Zealand that Craig has ever met. Carl strikes Craig as being quite friendly and funny. When
Carl asks Craig what he would expect to find if he went to New Zealand, Craig says that he would expect the people to be
quite friendly and funny. What might Craig have used to make this judgment?

A.
The familiarity heuristic

B.
Confirmation bias

C.
Functional fixedness

D.
The availability heuristic

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-33
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

34.

The _____ heuristic involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from
memory.

A.
availability

B.
representativeness

C.
confirmation

D.
frequency

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-34
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

35.

According to the _____ heuristic, we assume that events we remember easily are likely to have occurred more frequently in
the past—and are more likely to occur in the future—than events that are harder to remember.

A.
availability

B.
representativeness

C.
confirmation

D.
frequency

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-35
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

36.

Following the September 11, 2001, Twin Towers attacks, many Americans opted to drive rather than fly. The media coverage
of the hijackings caused Americans to overestimate the danger of flying. As it was an event they remember easily, they
assumed it could occur frequently. This example illustrates:

A.
the availability heuristic.

B.
the representativeness heuristic.

C.
confirmation bias.

D.
stereotypic bias.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-36
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

37.

When people are asked which is more common, death by homicide or death by stroke, they often choose homicide because
they hear more about murders than they do about strokes. In this instance, people are led astray in their judgments by:

A.
the representativeness heuristic.

B.
stereotypic bias.

C.
confirmation bias.

D.
the availability heuristic.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-37
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

38.

Last week, Mike heard about five separate airplane crashes on the news. Even though, in general, motorcycle accidents
account for more accidents than plane crashes do, Mike decides to ride his motorcycle from Washington to Atlanta instead of
flying. Which bias is reflected in Mike's decision?

A.
The availability heuristic

B.
Confirmation bias

C.
Syllogistic error

D.
The representativeness heuristic

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-38
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

39.

Joanne does not go out at night because she hears from her local news station about the large number of muggings and
robberies that occur in her city. However, crime in Joanne's city has actually gone down in the past few years. Joanne is
falling victim to:

A.
the representativeness heuristic.

B.
functional fixedness.

C.
the availability heuristic.

D.
confirmation bias.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-39
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

40. "You always clam up when I ask you what's wrong," Iris tells her boyfriend. Iris is
probably making this frequency judgment because she can remember a few times that her
boyfriend would not tell her what was bothering him. Iris is using the _____ heuristic.
A.

representativeness

B.
availability

C.
functional

D.
frequency

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-40
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

41.

In a(n) _____ heuristic, known items are seen as superior to those that are unknown.

A.
representativeness

B.
availability

C.
functional

D.
familiarity

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-41
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

42.

When you go to the supermarket, you see the brand of cookies you usually buy, and settle for it. Usually it is a good rule of
thumb because it saves a lot of time. You do not ponder over every type of cookie available in the store. This is an example
of a(n) _____.

A.
representativeness heuristic

B.
syllogistic reasoning

C.
algorithm

D.
familiarity heuristic

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Heuristics

8-42
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

43.

_____ intelligence is the field that examines how to use technology to imitate the outcome of human thinking, problem
solving, and creative activities.

A.
Artificial

B.
Bodily-kinesthetic

C.
Spatial

D.
Existential

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Artificial Intelligence

8-43
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

44.

Which of the following sequences best reflects the order of the three broad phases of the problem-solving process, from first
to last?

A.
Preparation → judgment → production

B.
Judgment → production → preparation

C.
Preparation → production → judgment

D.
Judgment → preparation → production

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Problem Solving

8-44
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

45.

In _____ problems, the nature of the problem and the information needed to solve it are clear. In _____ problems, either or
both the nature of the problem and the information required to solve it are unclear.

A.
well-defined; ill-defined

B.
algorithmic; heuristic

C.
arrangement; inducing structure

D.
transformation; arrangement

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Preparation

8-45
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

46.

Which of the following is an ill-defined problem?

A.
Navigating to a museum in a nearby city

B.
Composing a good concerto

C.
Finding out where several well-known authors were born

D.
Playing Scrabble

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Preparation

8-46
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

47.

"Convert to a mixed numeral: 18/5," states one problem on a fifth-grader's arithmetic text. This is a(n) _____ problem. It is
best solved through the application of _____.

A.
well-defined; algorithms

B.
well-defined; heuristics

C.
ill-defined; algorithms

D.
ill-defined; heuristics

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Algorithms
Topic: Preparation

8-47
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

48. Dr. Ireland's class is attempting to find derivatives, whereas Dr. Jamison's class is
developing campaign strategies for a local politician. Which of the following statements is
most likely TRUE?
A.

Dr. Ireland's class is solving a well-defined problem.

B.
Dr. Jamison's class is solving a well-defined problem.

C.
Dr. Ireland's class is using syllogistic reasoning.

D.
Dr. Jamison's class is using familiarity heuristic.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Preparation

8-48
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

49.

_____ problems require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion.

A.
Arrangement

B.
Inducing structure

C.
Transformation

D.
Prescriptive

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Preparation

8-49
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

50.

In problems of _____, a person must identify the existing relationships among the elements presented and then construct a
new relationship among them.

A.
arrangement

B.
inducing structure

C.
transformation

D.
prescription

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Preparation

8-50
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

51.

_____ problems consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for changing the initial state into the goal state.

A.
Arrangement

B.
Inducing structure

C.
Transformation

D.
Prescriptive

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Preparation

8-51
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

52.

Which of the following problem types is correctly matched with its description?

A.
Arrangement—moving from an initial to a goal state according to a specific method

B.
Inducing structure—identifying relationships among problem elements and constructing new relationships

C.
Transformation—rearranging or recombining elements to satisfy a particular criterion

D.
Transformation—identifying relationships among problem elements and constructing new relationships

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Preparation

8-52
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

53.

Janelle is solving anagrams; Kamika is puzzling over verbal analogies; Lamar is playing chess with a friend. Which
alternative below correctly matches each individual with the type of problem he or she is solving?

A.
Janelle—arrangement; Kamika—transformation; Lamar—inducing structure

B.
Janelle—transformation; Kamika—inducing structure; Lamar—arrangement

C.
Janelle—arrangement; Kamika—inducing structure; Lamar—transformation

D.
Janelle—transformation; Kamika—arrangement; Lamar—inducing structure

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Preparation

8-53
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

54.

Thomas Edison invented the light bulb only because he experimented with thousands of different kinds of materials for a
filament before he found one that worked (carbon). This shows that at the most basic level, we can solve problems through
_____.

A.
the availability heuristic

B.
means-ends analysis

C.
insight

D.
trial and error

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Production

8-54
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

55.

_____ involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists.

A.
Forming subgoals

B.
Means-ends analysis

C.
Insight

D.
Trial and error

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Production

8-55
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

56.

In the context of problem solving, the most frequently used problem-solving heuristic is:

A.
forming subgoals.

B.
means-ends analysis.

C.
insight.

D.
trial and error.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Production

8-56
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

57.

Millie is stumped by a problem on her pre-calculus text. She furtively glances at the answer provided in the back of the text
to get an idea of how the solution should look before she returns to the problem. Millie's strategy most closely resembles the
problem-solving heuristic of:

A.
forming subgoals.

B.
trial and error.

C.
working backward.

D.
insight.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Production

8-57
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

58.

A political science professor attempts to facilitate her students' completion of a term paper assignment by requiring to first
submit a topic statement, then a list of references, then a draft of the introduction, then, finally, the completed paper. The
professor is encouraging her students to use the problem-solving strategy of:

A.
forming subgoals.

B.
working backward.

C.
means-ends analysis.

D.
trial and error.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Subgoals

8-58
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

59.

Which problem-solving strategy or method is correctly matched with its definition?

A.
Means-ends analysis—dividing a problem into intermediate steps

B.
Forming subgoals—focusing on a problem's goal rather than its starting point

C.
Working backward—reducing the apparent difference between the current state of the problem and the goal

D.
Insight—experiencing a sudden awareness of the relationships among a problem's components

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Insight

8-59
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

60.

Kent and Kirsten are both trying to reduce their consumer debt. Kent isolates several more concrete problems he can solve to
achieve his goal, such as paying the highest-interest debts first and freezing credit card spending. Kirsten simply pays her
largest debt first because this would seem to be the fastest way to move her debt as close to zero as possible. Kent's plan
reflects the problem-solving strategy of _____, while Kirsten's method illustrates the strategy of _____.

A.
forming subgoals; trial and error

B.
means-end analysis; trial and error

C.
working backward; means-end analysis

D.
forming subgoals; means-end analysis

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Difficult
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Production
Topic: Subgoals

8-60
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

61.

The study of insight is associated with the German psychologist _____; he studied problem solving among _____.

A.
Kohler; chimpanzees

B.
Kohler; humans

C.
Wundt; cats

D.
Wundt; humans

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Insight

8-61
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

62.

_____ is defined as a sudden awareness of the relationship among problem elements; it is thought to lead rapidly to the
problem's solution.

A.
Convergent thinking

B.
Divergent thinking

C.
Insight

D.
Creativity

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Insight

8-62
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

63.

Which of the following is a key characteristic of insight?

A.
Brevity

B.
Complexity

C.
Uniqueness

D.
Suddenness

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Insight

8-63
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

64.

The apparent suddenness of insightful problem solutions:

A.
may rest in part on the foundation of trial and error.

B.
may be based on the availability heuristic.

C.
has been affirmed by empirical research.

D.
requires the application of confirmation bias.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Insight

8-64
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

65.

For which of the following types of problems is the evaluation of solutions least likely to prove difficult?

A.
Well-defined problems

B.
Ill-defined problems

C.
Divergent thinking problems

D.
Associative thinking problems

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Judgments

8-65
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

66.

Which of the following impediments to effective problem solving is incorrectly matched with an illustrative problem?

A.
Confirmation bias—problem of security in the Middle East

B.
Functional fixedness—water jar problem

C.
Mental set—water jar problem

D.
Functional fixedness—candle problem

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Functional Fixedness

8-66
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

67.

_____ refers to the tendency of old patterns of problem solving to persist.

A.
Mental set

B.
Representativeness heuristic

C.
Availability heuristic

D.
Syllogistic frame

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Mental Set

8-67
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

68.

Zelma is asked to think of all the words beginning with the letters "squ," such as squeak. She is then given a fill-in-the-blank
task where one of the items is "s _ _ o n g." Zelma keeps trying to make "squong" a word, and she has trouble thinking of the
common word "strong." Zelma's ability to solve this problem has been hampered by:

A.
syllogistic reasoning.

B.
mental set.

C.
the confirmation bias.

D.
the representativeness heuristic.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Confirmation Bias

8-68
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

69.

Which of the following statements best expresses the relationship between mental and functional fixedness?

A.
Functional fixedness is an example of a broader phenomenon known as mental set.

B.
Mental set is actually a specific instance of functional fixedness.

C.
Mental set and functional fixedness are the same thing.

D.
Functional fixedness and mental set are distinct problem-solving impediments.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Functional Fixedness
Topic: Mental Set

8-69
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

70.

Alyssa uses a shoe as a hammer and a butter knife as a screwdriver while making several minor household repairs. Which of
the following statements best characterizes Alyssa's problem solving?

A.
She is constrained by a powerful mental set.

B.
She has been released from functional fixedness.

C.
She is taking advantage of the representative heuristic.

D.
She is forming subgoals.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Functional Fixedness

8-70
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

71.

A jeweler is unable to fix a particular mounting in a ring because she can imagine only the conventional uses of her tools.
Which of the following does this best demonstrate?

A.
Syllogistic reasoning

B.
Functional fixedness

C.
Algorithmic thinking

D.
Means-end analysis

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Functional Fixedness

8-71
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

72. Henry's dog Sparky has been rolling in the mud. Henry must bathe Sparky before the dog
gets mud all over the carpet. However, Henry is unable to find the plug for the tub. Sitting on
the counter right beside the tub is a fifty-cent piece. In his frustration, Henry fails to see that
the coin could be used as an emergency plug for the tub. What happened to Henry?
A.

He took a heuristic approach.

B.
He fell prey to confirmation bias.

C.
He suffered from mental set.

D.
He employed representational thought.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Mental Set

8-72
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

73.

_____ is the tendency to seek out and give greater weight to information that supports one's initial hypothesis and to ignore
contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions.

A.
Functional fixedness

B.
A mental set

C.
Confirmation bias

D.
Representativeness heuristic

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Confirmation Bias

8-73
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

74.

Which of the following impediments to effective problem solving is correctly matched with its definition?

A.
Functional fixedness—the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist

B.
Mental set—the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its customary use

C.
Confirmation bias—the tendency to favor existing hypotheses and to ignore evidence favoring alternatives

D.
Representative heuristic—involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled
from memory

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Confirmation Bias

8-74
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

75.

Nigel often cites newspaper editorials favoring the presidential candidate he supports. He appears to ignore editorials’
criticism of the candidate. Nigel appears to be prone to:

A.
functional fixedness.

B.
mental set.

C.
the confirmation bias.

D.
the representativeness heuristic.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Confirmation Bias

8-75
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

76.

Sandy, a true believer in astrology, reads in her horoscope that today is her lucky day. She gets so excited that she spills
coffee all over herself, necessitating a change of clothes. As a result, she is late for work and for a very important meeting,
which in turn gets her into serious trouble with her boss. In the evening, her brother is taken to the emergency room. On her
way to visit him, Sandy finds a dime in the hospital parking lot. What will Sandy do, based on the research on confirmation
bias?

A.
Sandy will renounce astrology as completely wrong because of all the horrible things that happened on her "lucky day."

B.
Sandy will begin to question her belief in astrology because of all the horrible things that happened on her "lucky day."

C.
Sandy will seize on the dime she found as evidence of astrology's accuracy.

D.
Confirmation bias has little or no relevance to how Sandy will think about astrology in the future.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Confirmation Bias

8-76
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

77.

The ability to generate original ideas or develop novel solutions to problems is known as:

A.
convergent thinking.

B.
insight.

C.
creativity.

D.
syllogistic reasoning.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

8-77
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

78.

Which of the following statements accurately expresses one failing of cognitive psychologists' study of problem solving?

A.
Cognitive psychologists have failed to identify the strategies people use in solving problems.

B.
Cognitive psychologists have failed to explain why some people generate better solutions than others do.

C.
Cognitive psychologists have failed to specify how people represent problems in their minds.

D.
Cognitive psychologists have failed to identify the barriers to effective problem solving that people face.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

8-78
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

79.

Someone relying on convergent thinking would answer _____ to the query "What can you do with a toothbrush?"

A.
"You brush your teeth with it"

B.
"You use it for painting"

C.
"You use it for cleaning tools"

D.
"You use it to make toys"

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

8-79
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

80.

Someone relying on divergent thinking would answer _____ to the query "What can you do with a pencil?"

A.
"You write with it"

B.
"You use it for sketching"

C.
"You use it when you can't find a pen"

D.
"You use it for making toys"

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

8-80
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

81.

As compared to less creative individuals, creative people:

A.
prefer more complex stimuli.

B.
are more dependent.

C.
are more interested in concrete problems.

D.
have a narrower range of interests.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

8-81
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

82.

Which of the following is TRUE of creativity?

A.
One factor that is closely related to creativity is intelligence.

B.
Traditional tests are a good way to gauge an individual's creativity.

C.
Highly creative individuals show signs of convergent thinking.

D.
Cognitive complexity is an important aspect of creativity.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

8-82
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

83.

Which of the following factors is NOT closely related to creativity?

A.
Cognitive complexity

B.
Abstract problems

C.
Range of interests

D.
Intelligence

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

8-83
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

84.

Traditional intelligence tests tend to assess _____ thinking; tests of creativity tap into _____.

A.
divergent; convergent thinking

B.
divergent; divergent thinking as well

C.
convergent; divergent thinking

D.
convergent; convergent thinking as well

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

8-84
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

85.

Critical or creative thinking may be enhanced by each of the following strategies EXCEPT:

A.
using analogies.

B.
considering opposites.

C.
avoiding heuristics.

D.
experimenting with solutions.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

8-85
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

86.

Phonology is the study of the _____ in a language.

A.
combination of words

B.
speech sounds

C.
order of words

D.
meaning of words

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: List the basic components of language and grammar.
Learning Outcome: 25-1
Topic: Grammar

8-86
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

87.

Linguists have identified more than _____ different phonemes among all the world's languages.

A.
26

B.
800

C.
52

D.
an infinite number

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: List the basic components of language and grammar.
Learning Outcome: 25-1
Topic: Grammar

8-87
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

88.

Approximately how many phonemes are found in English?

A.
26

B.
more than 800

C.
52

D.
an infinite number

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: List the basic components of language and grammar.
Learning Outcome: 25-1
Topic: Grammar

8-88
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

89.

Dr. Salim is a linguist studying the rules that guide the order of words and phrases in several of the world's languages. Dr.
Salim is a(n):

A.
syntactician.

B.
semanticist.

C.
phonologist.

D.
translator.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: List the basic components of language and grammar.
Learning Outcome: 25-1
Topic: Grammar

8-89
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

90.

In written language, letters most closely represent _____, whereas sentences may be said to reflect _____.

A.
syntax; semantics

B.
syntax; phonemes

C.
phonemes; syntax

D.
phonemes; semantics

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: List the basic components of language and grammar.
Learning Outcome: 25-1
Topic: Grammar

8-90
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

91.

Which of the following sequences correctly orders the components of a language, from the smallest or most specific to the
broadest?

A.
Phoneme → syntax → semantics

B.
Syntax → semantics → phoneme

C.
Phoneme → semantics → syntax

D.
Syntax → phoneme → semantics

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: List the basic components of language and grammar.
Learning Outcome: 25-1
Topic: Grammar

8-91
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

92.

Which of the following language acquisition stages or phenomena is correctly matched with an illustrative example?

A.
Babbling—"Goo goo, ga ga."

B.
Telegraphic speech—"I ran from the library to the bus stop."

C.
Overgeneralization—"Daddy has come home."

D.
Overgeneralization—"Drawing house"

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

8-92
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

93.

What is meant by the notion of a critical period for language acquisition?

A.
It is the period of transition between one-word and two-word utterances.

B.
It is the time in one's childhood in which one is particularly sensitive to language cues and most easily acquires language.

C.
It is the period isolated children spend by themselves before someone teaches them a language.

D.
It is the period between six and ten years of age in which certain complex aspects of syntax are learned.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

8-93
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

94.

A girl named Genie was exposed to virtually no language from the age of 20 months till the age of 13. In what way does
Genie's case offer support for the notion of a critical period in language acquisition?

A.
With intensive instruction, Genie acquired a sizeable vocabulary after the age of 13; moreover, she eventually mastered the
rules of syntax.

B.
Even with intensive instruction, Genie acquired only a very small vocabulary after the age of 13; furthermore, she never
mastered the complexities of a language.

C.
Once she was no longer isolated, Genie acquired a sizeable vocabulary and eventually mastered the rules of syntax, even
without intensive formal instruction.

D.
Genie's case is irrelevant to the notion of a critical period.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

8-94
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

95.

Tina is 6 months old, Vincenzo is 2 years and 7 months old, and Wayne is 3 years and 6 months old. Which alternative below
correctly pairs each child with the appropriate language acquisition stage or phenomenon?

A.
Tina—overgeneralization; Vincenzo—babbling; Wayne—telegraphic speech

B.
Tina—babbling; Vincenzo—telegraphic speech; Wayne—overgeneralization

C.
Tina—telegraphic speech; Vincenzo—babbling; Wayne—overgeneralization

D.
Tina—babbling; Vincenzo—overgeneralization; Wayne—telegraphic speech

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

8-95
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

96.

You are creating a language development timeline for a class presentation. Along the top of a display board, you write the
following ages in sequence: 6 months → 1 year → 2 years → 3 years. How should you label these ages, from youngest to
oldest?

A.
Babbling → first words → telegraphic speech → overgeneralization

B.
Babbling → overgeneralization → first words → telegraphic speech

C.
Babbling → first words → overgeneralization → telegraphic speech

D.
Overgeneralization → babbling → first words → telegraphic speech

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

8-96
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

97.

Dorian is 2 years old. Constance is 2 years and 5 months old. Dorian's vocabulary probably contains _____ words, while
Constance's vocabulary contains _____ words.

A.
about 100; several hundred

B.
about 50; about 100

C.
about 50; several hundred

D.
several hundred; about 1000

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

8-97
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

98.

"All gone milk," says 2-year-old Wesley, placing the empty glass on the table. Wesley's remark exemplifies the language
acquisition phenomenon termed:

A.
babbling.

B.
telegraphic speech.

C.
holographic speech.

D.
agrammatism.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

8-98
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

99.

Ricky tells his grandmother, "Momma holded the rabbit." In the context of language, Ricky's statement exemplifies:

A.
idiomatic speech.

B.
telegraphic speech.

C.
babbling.

D.
overgeneralization.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

8-99
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

100.

Connie is telling her mother a story about a scary dog she encountered in the neighbor's yard. "Then I runned away," Connie
concludes. Which language acquisition phenomenon is Connie demonstrating? How old is Connie likely to be?

A.
Connie is babbling. She is probably about 2 years old.

B.
Connie is overgeneralizing. She is probably 3 to 4 years old.

C.
Connie is babbling. She is probably about 4 years old.

D.
Connie is overgeneralizing. She is probably 5 to 6 years old.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

8-100
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

101.

The theory that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning is known as the _____
approach.

A.
learning-theory

B.
nativist

C.
interactionist

D.
prescriptive

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Theories of Language Development

8-101
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

102.

The theory that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language development is known as the _____ approach.

A.
learning-theory

B.
nativist

C.
interactionist

D.
prescriptive

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Theories of Language Development

8-102
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

103.

The nativist approach to language acquisition is associated with:

A.
B. F. Skinner.

B.
Benjamin Whorf.

C.
Noam Chomsky.

D.
Wolfgang Kohler.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Theories of Language Development

8-103
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

104.

The view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and
environmental circumstances that help to teach language is known as the _____ approach.

A.
learning-theory

B.
nativist

C.
interactionist

D.
prescriptive

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Theories of Language Development

8-104
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

105.

Theorists taking an interactionist approach to language acquisition:

A.
reject both the learning theory and nativist approaches.

B.
agree that the brain is hardwired to acquire language.

C.
downplay the role of the environment in language acquisition.

D.
remain unconvinced by the idea of a language-acquisition device.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Theories of Language Development

8-105
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

106.

The notion that language shapes and determines the way people in a particular culture perceive and understand the world is
known as the _____ hypothesis.

A.
output

B.
interaction

C.
linguistic-relativity

D.
monitor

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Identify the issues that arise with the linguistic relativity hypothesis, animal language, and bilingual education.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

8-106
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

107.

The _____ hypothesis suggests that language leads to thought.

A.
output

B.
interaction

C.
linguistic-relativity

D.
monitor

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Identify the issues that arise with the linguistic relativity hypothesis, animal language, and bilingual education.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

8-107
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

108.

Which figure best approximates the number of Americans for whom English is a second language?

A.
13 million

B.
25 million

C.
55 million

D.
100 million

APA Outcome: 1.1


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Identify the issues that arise with the linguistic relativity hypothesis, animal language, and bilingual education.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Bilingualism

8-108
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

109.

In seven states, including Texas and Colorado, more than _____ of the students are not native English speakers.

A.
5%

B.
10%

C.
15%

D.
25%

APA Outcome: 1.1


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Identify the issues that arise with the linguistic relativity hypothesis, animal language, and bilingual education.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Bilingualism

8-109
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

110.

Students are educated in their native language and in English simultaneously in _____, whereas they are educated only in
English in _____.

A.
immersion programs; bilingual education

B.
bilingual education; immersion programs

C.
an alternation approach; immersion programs

D.
immersion programs; alternation programs

APA Outcome: 1.2


Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Identify the issues that arise with the linguistic relativity hypothesis, animal language, and bilingual education.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Bilingualism

Worksheet Questions

111. Estelle is playing with images and concepts in her mind. Her cognitive psychology professor would say that she is
thinking.

APA Outcome: 1.1


APA Outcome: 1.3
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Cognition

8-110
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

112.

Mental images are representations in the mind of an object or event.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Mental Images

113.

A researcher finds that her participants think most readily of a carrot when prompted with the category "vegetable." On this
basis, the researcher might argue that a carrot is the prototypical vegetable.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Concepts

114.

A high school physics teacher reassures his class that no matter how confusing that week's word problems appear, they can
be solved quite handily through the use of the formula F = MA. The teacher has offered his students a(n) algorithm.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Algorithms

115. Arrangement problems require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements in a way that will
satisfy a certain criterion.

APA Outcome: 1.2

8-111
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Preparation

116.

A calculus problem has one correct answer and contains all the information necessary for its solution; thus, it is a(n) well-
defined problem.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Preparation

117.

Because they involve rules for moving from an initial to a goal state, many board games may be seen as examples of
transformation problems.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Preparation

118. Renee has an idea of how her living room ought to look. She is moving the furniture, paintings, and accessories to get
closer to that picture in her head. Renee is using the problem-solving technique of means-ends analysis.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Production

119. "Eureka! I've got it!" That sudden awareness of the path toward a problem's solution is
termed insight.

8-112
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Insight

120.

Functional fixedness may be seen as a particular example of mental set.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Functional Fixedness

121.

People seek and remember evidence in support of their existing hypotheses; they ignore or discount contradictory evidence.
In other words, people are prone to confirmation bias.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Recognize general problem-solving strategies and common obstacles to effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-2
Topic: Confirmation Bias

122.

"How many uses can you think of for a brick?" asks the examiner. You are taking a test of divergent thinking.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

123.

8-113
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

The process of forming subgoals is known as fractionation.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

124.

The rules indicating how words and phrases may be combined to form legitimate sentences are referred to as syntax.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: List the basic components of language and grammar.
Learning Outcome: 25-1
Topic: Grammar

125.

If children are not exposed to language during a(n) critical period early in life, they may never acquire it.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

126. "Sophie kitty," Tara says, when her aunt asks her whether the stuffed animal belongs to her or to her sister. Tara's reply
exemplifies telegraphic speech.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

8-114
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

127.

In the context of language acquisition, Skinner is to learning theory, what Chomsky is to nativism.

APA Outcome: 1.1


Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Theories of Language Development

128.

Chomsky suggested that the human brain has an inherited neural system that lets us understand the structure language
provides. This is known as universal grammar.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Theories of Language Development

129. According to the linguistic-relativity hypothesis, language provides us with categories that we use to
construct our view of people and events in the world around us.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Identify the issues that arise with the linguistic relativity hypothesis, animal language, and bilingual education.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

130. In immersion programs, students are immediately plunged into English instruction in all subjects.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Identify the issues that arise with the linguistic relativity hypothesis, animal language, and bilingual education.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Bilingualism

8-115
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

Essay Questions

131.

Describe in as much detail as you can the mental representation of objects and categories. Provide illustrative examples
where appropriate.

Students' examples may vary.

The answer should contain the following points:

Objects. Objects are represented by mental images. Mental images are not only visual; they can be produced by any of our
sensory systems. A familiar example might be the experience of "hearing" a song in one's head. Images retain many of the
properties of the objects they represent; in addition, we can often perform the same operations on images that we can on the
real objects they represent. For example, it takes longer to scan an image of a large object than it does to scan an image of a
small object, just as it takes longer to scan an actual large object than a small one. We can also rotate an object's image in our
mind, just as we can rotate objects in the physical world. Mental images have been used to enhance the practice and
performance of athletes and musicians.

Categories. Categories of objects, events, and people that are similar in some way are represented by concepts. Concepts
enable us to respond appropriately to stimuli in the environment and to identify novel objects. Some concepts, such as
geometrical shapes and kinship terms, may be represented by a unique set of properties or features (e.g., triangle—three
sides, interior angles sum to 180 degrees). Most concepts are represented by a best or most typical example, or prototype. An
apple, for example, may be the prototypical fruit. Other objects are categorized as fruits to the extent that they resemble an
apple.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Define cognition, and explain the processes involved in thinking.
Learning Outcome: 23-1
Topic: Concepts
Topic: Mental Images

8-116
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

132.

Distinguish between an algorithm and a heuristic. Provide an example of each.

Students' examples may vary.

Algorithm vs. heuristic. An algorithm is a rule that is guaranteed to produce a solution to a problem if it is applied correctly.
An example might be a formula in physics: If F = MA is appropriately applied to a particular word problem, the solution will
result. A heuristic is a cognitive strategy that may result in the solution to a problem, but it is not guaranteed to do so.
Heuristics require less time, expertise, and cognitive effort to apply than do algorithms. In addition, for certain problems, no
algorithm may exist. An example of a heuristic is to assume that one can afford the mortgage to a house if the house costs 2.5
times one's salary or less; applying this rule is easier than calculating and projecting mortgages for houses of different prices.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 4.1
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Algorithms
Topic: Heuristics

8-117
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

133.

Can computers think? Provide as thoughtful an answer as you can, considering the ability of current computers to solve
complex problems and to demonstrate creativity.

Students' answers may vary.

The following text information is relevant to the answer:

Computers can solve complex problems. For example, computer programs can evaluate potential chess moves and ignore
unimportant possibilities. Computers can also create new compositions in the style of such masters as Bach, complete with
the full scope and emotional appeal of actual Bach works.

It is a matter of opinion, though, as to whether mimicking someone else's creativity is the same as being completely original
on one's own.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 4.1
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the processes involved in reasoning, forming judgments, and making decisions.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Artificial Intelligence

8-118
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

134.

Distinguish between well-defined and ill-defined problems. Provide an example of each.

Students' examples may vary.

The answer should contain the following elements:

Well-defined vs. ill-defined problems. In well-defined problems, the nature of the problem is clear, as is the information
needed to solve it. An example might be an algebra word problem. In ill-defined problems, either or both the nature of the
problem or the information needed to solve it is unclear. Determining how to get along with a prickly supervisor may be one
example.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 24-1
Topic: Preparation

8-119
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

135.

Identify and describe three different problem-solving strategies described in your text. Suggest how each strategy might be
fruitfully applied in one or more college courses.

The answer should mention the strategies described below. Examples may vary.

Means-ends analysis: Means-ends analysis involves repeatedly comparing the current state of the problem to the goal state
and attempting to reduce the difference between the two. In an art course, for example, one might have an idea of the piece
one would like to create; one might try to reduce the difference between the current piece and the desired one by shading
here, adding a brush stroke there, smoothing this portion of the clay a little, and so on.

Forming subgoals: This strategy involves dividing a problem into a series of intermediate steps, then solving those. A
computer program assignment might offer an example: one might code one section of the program, then another, and so on.
A term paper might be divided into separate introduction, body, conclusion, and reference assignments.

Working backward: The strategy involves focusing on the goal rather than the current state of the problem, then determining
the action that would most immediately produce the goal. A common example is looking up the answer to a mathematics
problem, and then figuring out the preceding steps.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 4.1
Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the heuristics used for generating possible solutions to problems, and explain how solutions should be
evaluated.
Topic: Production

8-120
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

136.

How do psychologists define creativity? Identify some of the cognitive processes and personality characteristics that appear
to be associated with creativity. How might you describe the relationship between creativity and intelligence? To what extent
does this relationship reflect the traditional assessment of intelligence?

The answer should mention the following points:

Creativity—the ability to generate novel, yet appropriate solutions to problems. Creativity is associated with divergent
thinking—considering multiple, original answers to questions or solutions to problems. It is associated with a preference for
cognitive complexity—a preference for elaborate or intricate stimuli or thought patterns. Creative individuals often have
wide-ranging interests and an interest in abstract or philosophical problems. They tend to be independent and autonomous.

Creativity is only weakly associated with intelligence, probably because traditional intelligence tests are strongly centered on
convergent, rather than divergent, thinking problems.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

8-121
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

137.

Describe several techniques that may improve critical or creative thinking. How might these techniques help problem solvers
overcome some of the impediments to effective problem solving?

The answer should identify three of the following techniques. Definitions should be provided where necessary.

Redefine problems—represent problems at more concrete or more abstract levels.

Use subgoals—divide a problem into smaller steps.

Adopt a critical perspective—evaluate assumptions and arguments carefully, rather than passively accepting them.

Consider the opposites of concepts.

Use analogies—look for parallel examples outside the problem, such as in the animal world.

Think divergently—consider usual uses of objects.

Use heuristics—use cognitive shortcuts to aid problem solving.

Experiment with solutions—consider multiple solutions, even wacky ones.

These strategies may help one break out of the confines of mental set and functional fixedness, that is, persisting in old
patterns of problem solving and considering only the most conventional uses of objects.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the factors that contribute to creativity, and the role of creativity in problem solving and critical thinking.
Learning Outcome: 24-3
Topic: Creativity

8-122
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

138.

Your friend asks you, "So, what did you do last night?" Write two or three sentences in response to your friend; use your
sentences to illustrate the three components of language described in your text.

Students' answers may vary.

The answer should be similar to the following:

"I met two friends for pizza. We then went to the library for two hours to work on a homework assignment. After that, I
watched TV for a while."

Phonemes: speech sounds. The vowel sound in "I" and the beginning consonant in "met" are examples.

Syntax: rules to order words so that the appropriate meaning is communicated. For example, in the last sentence, "TV
watched I" would not convey the idea that it was I who watched the television set. Similarly, "Met pizza friends I two" would
barely get across the idea of what happened, if at all.

Semantics: the external meaning of language. Taken together, the three sentences in the example allow the listener to
construct a mental picture or model of how the evening went; they take the listener into a meaningful world.

APA Outcome: 1.2


APA Outcome: 1.3
Bloom's: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: List the basic components of language and grammar.
Learning Outcome: 25-1
Topic: Grammar

8-123
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

139.

Describe babbling, telegraphic speech, and overgeneralization. Provide an example of each. At which ages might you expect
children to demonstrate each of these language development phenomena?

The answer should include definitions and examples similar to the following:

Babbling: Speech-like but meaningless sounds, such as "goo goo, ga, ga." Children babble from about 3 months to
approximately 1 year of age.

Telegraphic speech: Brief sentence-like constructions which omit noncritical words. Example: "Mommy home." Telegraphic
speech is common around age 2.

Overgeneralization: Applying grammatical rules even when doing so results in an error. Example: "It costed one dollar."
Overgeneralization is common among children 3-4 years of age.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Language Development

8-124
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language

140.

Contrast learning-theory and nativist approaches to language development. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of each
approach.

The answer should include the following points:

Learning theory: By this account, language is acquired through reinforcement—parents shape their children's successive
approximations to adult language. The more parents speak to their children, the more proficient the children become in their
native language. However, in reality, adults reinforce incorrect language use by their children just as often as they reinforce
correct use, calling into question the central role of shaping in the theory.

Nativist theory: Associated with Noam Chomsky, the nativist approach to language development suggests that humans have
an innate capacity to acquire language that unfolds as a result of biological maturation. All the world's languages share a
common underlying structure called a universal grammar. The brain has a neural system called the language-acquisition
device that allows us to acquire this universal grammar, as well as develop strategies for learning our particular language.
Neuroscientists have identified brain areas closely involved in language; in addition, genes have been identified that
contribute to language acquisition. Critics of the nativist approach suggest that the ability of nonhuman animals—e.g.,
chimpanzees—to acquire language argues against such uniquely human constructs as a universal grammar and a language-
acquisition device.

APA Outcome: 1.2


Bloom's: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Describe the developmental processes of language and the theories of language acquisition.
Learning Outcome: 25-2
Topic: Theories of Language Development

8-125
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McGraw-Hill Education.
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Residuen, die je nach den Hypothesen über das Verhältnis von Leib
und Seele als physiologische, psychische oder psycho-
physiologische gedeutet werden. Beliebig herausgegriffene Beispiele
wissenschaftlicher Theorien sind ferner: die Atomtheorie der Materie
(Demokrit; Dalton); die Newtonsche Gravitationstheorie (Annahme
einer Schwerkraft zur Erklärung der Anziehung der Weltkörper); die
Relativitätstheorie Einsteins; die Quantentheorie Plancks; die
James-Langesche Gefühlstheorie; die W. A. Wolffsche Theorie über
die Entstehung der Homerischen Epen.
Eine Theorie kann als bewiesen gelten, sofern sie mit allen durch
die Erfahrung zureichend begründeten Tatsachen in Einklang steht;
sie ist widerlegt, wo sie zu einer oder mehreren dieser Tatsachen in
Widerspruch rückt. Allemal also, wo sie eine als gültig gesicherte
Tatsache nicht zu erklären weiß, macht sich das Bedürfnis nach
einem neuen, besseren Erklärungsversuch fühlbar. So mußten z. B.
die geozentrische Theorie des Aristoteles und Ptolemäus der
heliozentrischen des Kopernikus, die Newtonsche Emissions- und
Huyghenssche Undulationstheorie des Lichtes der
elektromagnetischen Lichttheorie von Maxwell und Hertz, die
Phlogistontheorie von Stahl und Becher der Lavoisierschen
Verbrennungstheorie, die Gallsche Schädellehre sowie die
Flourenssche Indifferenztheorie des Großhirns der Lokalisations-
oder Zentrentheorie der neueren Physiologen weichen. Andere
Theorien liegen — als mögliche, einander ausschließende
Erklärungsversuche — lange Zeit hindurch miteinander im Kampfe,
bis eine von ihnen — meist die einfachere — als die
wahrscheinlichste die anderen verdrängt. Hierhin gehören z. B. die
verschiedenen Hypothesen, die das biologische Gesetz von der
Variation der Arten erklären (die Darwinsche Selektions-, die
Wagnersche Migrations-, die Vriessche Mutationstheorie); ferner die
nativistische (Hering) und empiristische (Helmholtz) Theorie vom
Ursprung der Raumwahrnehmung; die vitalistischen und
mechanistischen Hypothesen zur Erklärung der Lebensvorgänge;
die parallelistische und Wechselwirkungstheorie des Verhältnisses
von Leib und Seele; die erkenntnistheoretischen Theorien des
Idealismus und Realismus, Rationalismus und Empirismus u. a. m.
Der W e r t einer wissenschaftlichen Theorie ist im allgemeinen
abhängig von ihrer F r u c h t b a r k e i t . Auch später als falsch erkannte
Deutungsversuche haben der Wissenschaft unschätzbare Dienste
erwiesen, indem sie — eine vorübergehende Beruhigung des
Geistes in den brennendsten Fragen gewährend — einen
rückhaltlosen Fortschritt der Forschung ermöglichten. Von diesem
Standpunkt aus ist selbst fernliegenden, uns heute vielleicht fast
abenteuerlich erscheinenden Hypothesen der ihnen zukommende
wissenschaftliche Wert nicht abzusprechen. Man nennt solche
Erklärungsversuche, die als unbewiesen Jahrzehnte, ja vielleicht
Jahrhunderte hindurch die vorübergehende Grundlage der
Weiterforschung bilden, A r b e i t s hypothesen. Arbeitshypothesen in
diesem Sinne waren in der älteren Wissenschaft die physiologische
Theorie der Lebensgeister, die auf Aristoteles zurückgehend die
Physiologie des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts beherrschte; die Fluida-
Theorie der magnetischen und elektrischen Erscheinungen sowie
der Nervenerregung, die Mesmersche Theorie des tierischen
Magnetismus u. a.; Arbeitstheorien in diesem Sinne sind in der
Gegenwart die Atom- und Molekular-, die Ionen- und
Elektronentheorie der modernen Physik und Chemie sowie die
Parallelismustheorie des Verhältnisses von Körper und Geist in der
neueren Psychologie. — „Die Laien sind darüber betroffen“ — sagt
H. P o i n c a r é gelegentlich (Wiss. u. Hyp., dtsch., 3. Aufl. 1914, S.
161) —, „wie viele wissenschaftliche Theorien vergänglich sind.
Nach einigen Jahren des Gedeihens sehen sie dieselben
nacheinander aufgegeben; sie sehen voraus, daß die Theorien, die
heutzutage Mode sind, in kurzer Zeit vergessen werden, und sie
schließen daraus, daß diese Theorien absolut eitel sind. — Aber ihr
Skeptizismus ist oberflächlich; denn sie geben sich keine
Rechenschaft von dem Ziele und der Rolle, welche
wissenschaftliche Theorien spielen sollen ...“ — Diese Rolle besteht
eben darin, gegebene Erscheinungen nach dem jeweiligen Stande
der Forschung auf die einfachste und befriedigendste Weise zu
erklären und dadurch dem Fortgang der wissenschaftlichen
Untersuchungen Tür und Tor zu öffnen.
6. Die Klassifikation und das Begriffssystem der
Wissenschaften.

Vermöge der logischen Beziehungen, in die die


Untersuchungsobjekte eines Forschungszweiges in ihren
begrifflichen Grundlagen zueinander treten, schließen sich diese zu
einem wissenschaftlichen Begriffssystem zusammen, in dem man
von der obersten Gattung jener Objekte nach unten hin bis zu deren
niedersten Arten bzw. Exemplaren herabsteigen kann. Das
Verfahren, durch das ein solches einheitliches System gewonnen
wird, nennt man K l a s s i f i k a t i o n , die elementaren Akte, durch die es
zustande kommt, E i n t e i l u n g oder D i v i s i o n .
Einen Begriff einteilen heißt: die Arten, die ihm als
Gattungsbegriff untergeordnet sind, vollständig und ausführlich
aufzählen. Wo man von dem allgemeinsten Begriff des einer
Wissenschaft eigenen Untersuchungsobjektes ausgehend (z. B. Tier,
Pflanze, seelische Erscheinung) zunächst deren nächstoberste
Arten angibt und diese abermals in Arten und ihre Unterarten sowie
unterste Arten einteilt, entsteht aus dem Zusammenschluß dieser
Einteilungen die Klassifikation und mit dieser das Begriffssystem
jener Wissenschaft. So z. B. teilt die Zoologie ihr
Untersuchungsgebiet, die Tiere, nach deren begrifflicher Fixierung in
zwei Reiche: Protozoen (Urtiere) und Metazoen (mehrzellige Tiere);
die letzteren wieder in Kreise, die Kreise in Klassen, diese in
Ordnungen, diese wieder in Familien, diese in Geschlechter,
Gattungen, Arten und Unterarten. Man kann Zoologie, Botanik und
Mineralogie um ihres wesentlich klassifizierenden Charakters willen
geradezu als k l a s s i f i k a t o r i s c h e Wissenschaften bezeichnen, im
Gegensatz zur Physik, Chemie und Physiologie, die in geringerem
Maße als jene aus dem Einzelnen zu Arten und Gattungen, in
stärkerem Grade zu allgemeinen Regeln und Gesetzen, nach denen
sich das Einzelne vollzieht, fortschreiten.
Eine Einteilung ist nach den Elementen der Logik eine
e r s c h ö p f e n d e d i v i s i v e U r t e i l s v e r b i n d u n g (S ← [teils P1, teils P2,
teils P3]), die infolge der Vollständigkeit ihrer Glieder (membra
divisionis) r e i n u m k e h r b a r sein muß (z. B. „Die Wirbeltiere sind teils
Fische, teils Lurche, teils Kriechtiere, teils Vögel, teils Säugetiere“,
also: „Fische, Lurche, Kriechtiere, Vögel und Säugetiere sind die
Wirbeltiere“). Weitere Beispiele sind: „Die pathologischen
Verbiegungen der Wirbelsäule sind teils kyphotische, teils
lordotische, teils skoliotische; die Inhalte des Bewußtseins sind teils
gegenständliche, teils zuständliche.“ Die Einteilungsglieder
umfassen — soll die Einteilung formal gültig sein — den g a n z e n
U m f a n g des eingeteilten Begriffes; sie sind ferner einander
n e b e n geordnet sowie nach e i n e m und demselben logischen Prinzip
(principium divisionis) aufgestellt.
Sind die Einteilungsglieder nicht einander nebengeordnet,
sondern neben den wesentlichen Arten auch unwesentliche oder
abgeleitete oder gar neben eigentlichen Arten auch diesen
untergeordnete Arten oder Exemplare mit aufgeführt, dann ist die
Einteilung zu w e i t , mithin formal ungültig und darum falsch. Und
weiter: sind die Einteilungsglieder nicht nach einem und demselben
Gesichtspunkt gewählt, sondern darin verschiedene Gesichtspunkte
durcheinander gebracht (so z. B. wenn man die Gattung „Mensch“ in
einer und derselben Einteilung teils nach ihrer Haarfarbe, teils nach
ihrer Gesichtsfarbe scheidet), dann ist gleichfalls die Einteilung als
Ganzes formal ungültig, mithin falsch. Nach einem und demselben
Gesichtspunkt einteilen heißt: die Scheidung einer Gattung in ihre
Arten nach einer und derselben Art der Merkmale vornehmen, z. B.
beim Menschen entweder nach körperlichen Merkmalen, wie
Schädelbildung, Hautfarbe, Größe (also anthropologischen), oder
nach sozialen, wie Nationalität, Abstammung, Beruf, Vermögenslage
(also soziologischen), oder nach geistigen, wie Intelligenz,
Charakter, religiöser Glaube (psychologischen Eigenheiten). L i n n é
schuf sein Pflanzensystem nach der Verschiedenheit in der
Ausbildung der männlichen und weiblichen Fortpflanzungsorgane
der Pflanzen (Sexualsystem), Bernard de J u s s i e u (sowie sein Neffe
Antoine) nach der Verschiedenheit im Bau der Blüte (das „natürliche
System“). C u v i e r klassifizierte die Tiere nach der Verschiedenheit
ihres Knochenbaus; B l a i n v i l l e nach der ihrer Körperbedeckung.
Nicht nur die systematischen, auch die g e n e t i s c h e n Disziplinen
bedienen sich des Verfahrens der Einteilung, mithin der
Klassifikation. Der Historiker zerlegt seinen Gegenstand, die
Weltgeschichte, in Zeitalter (Altertum, Mittelalter und Neuzeit), diese
wieder in Perioden und Zeitabschnitte; der Biologe die
Entwicklungsgeschichte der Organismen, der Psychologe die
Entwicklung des Seelischen in einzelne Stufen, die sich als Glieder
aus dem Gesamtzusammenhange herausheben.
Je nach dem Verhältnis der Glieder einer Einteilung zueinander
sind diese entweder w o h l - b e g r e n z e n d e oder Ty p e n einteilungen.
Wohlbegrenzende Einteilungen sind solche, deren Glieder — meist
durch Unterschiede qualitativer Art — scharf voneinander getrennt
sind (Beispiele dafür finden sich besonders in der Mathematik,
Botanik, Zoologie, Mineralogie, wohl auch Chemie);
Typeneinteilungen sind solche, deren Glieder miteinander in
f l i e ß e n d e m Zusammenhange stehen, so daß ihre Grenzen durch —
nicht qualitativ, sondern g r a d u e l l voneinander verschiedene —
Zwischenstufen und Übergangsformen teils kontinuierlicher, teils
diskontinuierlicher Art ausgefüllt werden. (Beispiele dafür sind
Leibniz’ Scheidung der endlichen Monaden in nackte, Seelen und
Geister sowie der diesen entsprechenden Perzeptionen; die
biogenetischen Annahmen über die Entwicklungsstufen des
organischen Lebens; die geläufig-gewordene Scheidung der
Menschen nach ihren Rasseeigentümlichkeiten, als da sind: arisch-
germanisch, slawisch, semitisch, mongolisch).
Wie die Definitionen wissenschaftlicher Begriffe und mit ihnen die
Tatsachenwissenschaften selbst nichts Feststehendes, sondern ein
sich ständig Wandelndes bilden, so sind auch die Einteilungen einer
Wissenschaft immer nur relativ- (d. h. für den Stand der Forschung
ihrer Zeit und auch das nicht einmal stets allgemein) gültig. Ein
naheliegendes Beispiel dafür bilden die Klassifikationsversuche des
Begriffes „Wissenschaft“ selbst, die seit dem Altertum (Platon,
Aristoteles, Stoa), von Bacon zu d’Alembert und Comte sowie weiter
bis zu neueren Versuchen von Spencer, Wundt, Erdmann u. a.
immer veränderte Formen und Gestalten angenommen haben. Ein
weiteres berühmtes Beispiel für den Wandel wissenschaftlicher
Klassifikationen bildet die Geschichte der Einteilung des Seelischen,
die von Platons Lehre von den Seelenteilen (Verstand, Gemüt,
Begierde) sowie von Aristoteles’ Scheidung der repräsentativen
Stufen der seelischen Entwicklung (Ernährung; Empfindung;
Denken) über Descartes und Locke (Denken und Wollen) zur
Wolffschen Lehre von den beiden Seelenvermögen (Erkennen und
Begehren) und von da weiter über Sulzers, Mendelssohns und
Tetens’ Dreiteilung (Denken, Fühlen und Wollen) bis zu den
mannigfachen Versuchen der Gegenwart führt, die Vielheit der
seelischen Erscheinungen entweder in zwei, drei oder vier
Hauptarten zu zerlegen oder sie gar auf ein Urelement (z. B. das
Wollen nach der Lehre der Voluntaristen) zurückzuführen.

[16] Auf die speziellen D i f f e r e n z e n zwischen den


methodischen Voraussetzungen naturwissenschaftlicher und
psychologischer Forschung kann bei dieser summarischen
Übersicht über die Haupttatsachen nicht eingegangen werden.
Man vgl zur Methodenlehre der Psychologie Arbeiten von
Ebbinghaus, Münsterberg, Stumpf; sowie: Sigwart, Logik Bd. II.
[17] „Die Begriffsbestimmung erfolgt durch (Angabe der)
nächsthöheren Gattung und der spezifischen Verschiedenheit.“
[18] „Der bloße Beobachter belauscht die Natur; der
Experimentator befragt sie und zwingt sie, sich zu enthüllen.“
[19] Auf die mannigfachen methodologischen Probleme des
mathematischen Denkens kann hier naturgemäß nicht
eingegangen werden; vgl. dazu die Literaturnachweise am
Schluß.
[20] Dem analog ist das Verfahren, durch das wir das Gesamtbild
einer Persönlichkeit oder eines Einzeldinges aus seinen
speziellen Seiten gewinnen (Gesamtbegriff aus Spezialbegriffen
durch e r g ä n z e n d e Induktion).
II. Die Lehre vom wissenschaftlichen
Beweisverfahren.

1. Begriff und Arten des Beweises.

Ein wissenschaftliches System ist ein Inbegriff von zureichend


begründeten Behauptungen und Problemfragen über einen Teil des
Wirklichen, die untereinander in engem logischen Zusammenhange
stehen.
Wo wir im Fortgange der wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung auf
Erkenntnisse stoßen, deren Gültigkeit als zweifelhaft erscheint, da
pflegen wir diese zunächst in Form von F r a g e n zu formulieren, die
damit — als w i s s e n s c h a f t l i c h -gerichtete — zu P r o b l e m e n werden.
Auch Problemfragen bedürfen wie Urteile einer zureichenden
Begründung. Eine Frage ist logisch zureichend begründet, wenn sie
richtig gestellt ist, d. h. wenn ihre Voraussetzungen dem jeweiligen
Stande der Forschung entsprechen und sie sich folgerichtig aus der
bisherigen Entwicklung der Wissenschaft ergibt. Eine Fragestellung
ist demnach als falsch zu bezeichnen, wenn sie sich auf
Voraussetzungen gründet, die durch die Geschichte der Forschung
widerlegt und damit überwunden sind. Es hat keinen Sinn mehr,
gegenwärtig etwa im Sinne der scholastischen Philosophie zu
fragen, ob die Universalia ante oder post res seien[21]; keinen Sinn
mehr, zu fragen, ob die Welt geschaffen oder von Ewigkeit
vorhanden, der Geist ein einfaches oder zusammengesetztes
Wesen, ob die Gottesvorstellung der Seele angeboren oder von ihr
erworben sei. Diese Fragen sind für unsere Zeit a n a c h r o n i s t i s c h ,
d. h. in ihren Grundlagen einer überholten Zeitperiode angehörend.
Wer sie heute noch ernstlich erörtern wollte, indem er sich über alles
hinwegsetzte, was die Jahrhunderte zu ihrer Kritik beigebracht
haben, der unternähme von vornherein ein fruchtloses und darum
überflüssiges Tun. Daraus erhellt der Wert historischer Studien auf
wissenschaftlichem Gebiete und mit dem Werte zugleich deren
Notwendigkeit.
Es ist eine oft betonte Forderung, daß man in allen
wissenschaftlichen Bestrebungen nicht nur wissen müsse, was man
zu urteilen, sondern auch, was man zu f r a g e n habe. Von der
Aufstellung begründeter Problemfragen hängt in der Tat der
Fortschritt der Forschung ab. Wie jedes neue Problem neue
Erkenntnisse, so gebärt jede neue Erkenntnis neue Probleme. Die
Geschichte hat gelehrt, daß mit der Fülle des Wissens auch der
Abgrund des Nichtwissens ins immer Unermeßlichere wächst. Indem
wir dem uns innewohnenden, unwiderstehlich vorwärtsstrebenden
K a u s a l b e d ü r f n i s willig oder nichtwillig folgen, kommen wir überall
bis zu letzten Fragen der Wissenschaft, denen gegenüber der
Forscher entweder resigniert sein „ignoro, ignorabo“ spricht[22], oder
deren Lösung mehr dem Glauben als dem Wissen anheimfällt.
Hierhin gehören Fragen wie die nach dem ersten Ursprung des
organischen Lebens, nach der Entstehung des Bewußtseins
innerhalb der Entwicklung organischer Wesen, nach der Erklärung
des Todes oder des Überganges vom Organischen zum
Anorganischen, ja auch schließlich die Fragen nach dem Verhältnis
des Geistigen zur körperlichen oder räumlich-ausgedehnten Welt,
nach der Natur der Gedächtnisgrundlagen, der Natur des
Vererbungsvorganges u. a. m.
Wissenschaftliche Urteile bedürfen allemal dann eines Beweises,
wenn ihre Gültigkeit nicht unmittelbar gewiß ist. Über die Frage
freilich, ob und wann das der Fall ist, herrscht im einzelnen — wie
auch unter den Logikern im Prinzipiellen — Streit. Insbesondere in
der Auffassung der Grundlagen der Mathematik ist es neuerdings zu
heftigen Kontroversen gekommen, und zwar dadurch, daß die einen
— so z. B. John Stuart Mill, in Deutschland Herm. v. Helmholtz —
lehren, die Axiome der Geometrie und Arithmetik seien
E r f a h r u n g s wahrheiten (und zwar als solche durch
verallgemeinernde Induktion gewonnen), die anderen, die Axiome
der Geometrie und Arithmetik seien zwar an der Hand sinnlicher
Wahrnehmungen entwickelt, in ihrer Gültigkeit aber — davon völlig
unabhängig — unmittelbar-, darum notwendig- und allgemein-gewiß.
Ohne auf das verwickelte Problem der logischen Bedeutung der
mathematischen Axiome näher einzugehen, sei doch dazu bemerkt,
daß die Millsche Theorie als unhaltbar gelten muß, weil sie die Frage
nach dem p s y c h o l o g i s c h e n U r s p r u n g mit der nach dem W e s e n
der mathematischen Axiome verwechselt. Die Frage nach der
E n t s t e h u n g eines Urteils ist eine quaestio facti (Ta t s a c h e n frage);
die Frage nach der Art seiner Gültigkeit eine quaestio juris
(R e c h t s frage). Wohl sind Axiome wie: „Zwischen zwei Punkten ist
die Gerade der kürzeste Weg“ psychologisch-genetisch genommen
an der Hand sinnlicher Anschauungen entwickelt; sie sind darum
logisch aber nicht Erfahrungserkenntnisse, sondern in ihrer
Gültigkeit völlig unabhängig von dieser notwendig- und allgemein-
gewiß — entsprechend der vortrefflichen Einsicht K a n t s, daß zwar
alle Erkenntnis mit Eindrücken der Sinne a n f a n g e (exordium), nicht
aber auch alle aus den Sinnen e n t s t a m m e (origo). Die
mathematischen Axiome sind mithin als Verstandeswahrheiten im
Sinne Leibniz’, als synthetische Urteile a priori im Sinne Kants, in
ihrer Gültigkeit unmittelbar-gewisse und darum unbeweisbare
Wahrheiten, eines Beweises weder fähig noch bedürftig.
Ein wissenschaftlicher Beweis ist logisch dasjenige Verfahren,
wodurch ein wissenschaftliches Urteil in seiner Gültigkeit zureichend
begründet wird. Die zureichende Begründung erfolgt entweder durch
den Hinweis auf die Tatsachen der Wahrnehmung (h i n w e i s e n d e
Begründung) oder durch Ableitung des zu beweisenden Urteils als
Konklusio aus seinen Gründen als Prämissen (a b l e i t e n d e
Begründung). So z. B. geschieht die zureichende Begründung
mathematischer Definitionen wie etwa der Begriffe Dreieck, Kreis,
Parallelogramm, Pyramide usw. durch den Hinweis auf die Daten der
Wahrnehmung bzw. auf die dieser immanenten psycho-
physiologischen Gesetze der Raumanschauung; die zureichende
Begründung mathematischer Lehrsätze sowie der meisten
Tatsachenurteile durch Ableitung (Reduktion) aus anderen
unmittelbar-gewissen oder bereits zureichend-begründeten Urteilen,
sei es unmittelbar oder mittelbar, auf deduktivem, induktivem oder
dem Wege der Ähnlichkeitsschlüsse. Urteile wie: „Die Farbe dieser
Blätter ist gelb; die Oberfläche dieser Frucht ist rauh“ sind durch
Hinweis zureichend begründet, wenn einem jeden die Möglichkeit,
sich von ihrer Wahrheit zu überzeugen, unmittelbar gegeben ist; sie
bedürfen aber einer induktiv-ableitenden Begründung, wenn die
Möglichkeit einer Nachprüfung durch Wahrnehmung nicht mehr
gegeben, der Beweis vielmehr auf die zeitlich weiter
zurückliegenden, übereinstimmend-überlieferten Wahrnehmungen
anderer Individuen gestützt ist (S1 gibt an, daß Q ← R, S2 gibt an,
daß Q ×;R, S3 gibt an, daß Q ← R usw.; a l s o wird Q ← R wahr sein;
ein sogenannter „I n d i z i e n beweis“). Der Indizienbeweis spielt —
abgesehen von seiner praktischen Anwendung in der
Rechtswissenschaft — besonders im historischen Denken eine
wesentliche Rolle, wo auf Grund der übereinstimmenden Angaben
mehrerer Quellen — unter Abstraktion von den davon abweichenden
— von zwei oder mehreren möglichen Begebenheiten die eine als
den Tatsachen entsprechend mit mehr oder minder großer
Wahrscheinlichkeit angenommen wird.
Als Arten des auf Ableitung beruhenden wissenschaftlichen
Beweisverfahrens unterscheidet die traditionelle Logik den direkten
und indirekten, den progressiven und regressiven Beweis. D i r e k t
erfolgt die Ableitung, wenn die Wahrheit des zu Beweisenden
(demonstrandum; Thesis) sich in ununterbrochener logischer Folge
aus der Wahrheit seiner Gründe (rationes demonstrandi) ergibt
(Behauptung: wahr S ← P; Bew.: wahr S ← M, wahr M ← P, also
wahr S ← P); i n d i r e k t (oder apagogisch) erfolgt die Ableitung, wenn
die Wahrheit des zu Beweisenden sich aus der zureichend
begründeten Falschheit seines kontradiktorischen Gegenteils ergibt
(deductio ad absurdum; Beh.: wahr S ← P; Bew.: Angenommen
S ← P nicht wahr, dann wäre Q ← R wahr; nun ist Q ← R, wie sich
beweisen läßt, falsch; also ist es auch falsch, daß S ← P nicht wahr
sei; mithin S ← P wahr). — P r o g r e s s i v heißt eine Ableitung, die, wie
im direkten Beweis, von der Wahrheit der Gründe auf die Wahrheit
der Folge, r e g r e s s i v diejenige, die — wie im indirekten Beweis
sowie einer viel gebrauchten Form wissenschaftlicher Widerlegung
— von der Falschheit der Folge auf die Falschheit der Gründe geht
(z. B. Widerlegung in regressiver Form: Beh.: S ← P falsch; Bew.:
wenn S ← P wahr, dann Q ← R wahr; nun läßt sich beweisen, daß
Q ← R nicht wahr, also ist es falsch, daß S ← P wahr; mithin: S ← P
falsch). Die Widerlegung ist demnach die zureichende Begründung
der F a l s c h heit eines Urteils, wie der Beweis die zureichende
Begründung der Wahrheit; sie erfolgt p r o gressiv durch die
zureichende Begründung der Wahrheit des dem zu widerlegenden
kontradiktorisch-entgegengesetzten Urteils.

2. Die Auffindung der Beweisgründe.

Ein anderes ist es, wissenschaftliche Wahrheiten f i n d e n , ein


anderes, sie b e w e i s e n . M a x w e l l stellte die elektromagnetische
Lichttheorie auf; H e r t z bewies sie, und zwar auf induktivem Wege
durch eigens von ihm erdachte Experimente. Wohl können
gelegentlich der Weg, auf dem man zu einer Erkenntnis gelangt, und
derjenige, auf dem man sie zureichend begründet, der Sache nach
miteinander übereinstimmen; in der Regel aber (und das gilt
besonders für die großen, weittragenden Entdeckungen der
Tatsachenwissenschaften) ist der Gedanke da, ehe auch nur ein Teil
seiner Gründe annähernd übersehen werden kann (ähnlich R i e h l ,
Robert Mayers Entdeckung und Beweis des Energieprinzips, Philos.
Abh., Sigwart gew., 1910, S. 162).
In einem vollständigen System der Wissenschaft hängen alle
Urteile dergestalt mit- und untereinander zusammen, daß jede neue
Einsicht, die sich mit den bereits bestehenden in Übereinstimmung
befindet, darin logisch ihre Stütze findet, jede aber, die dem
vorhandenen Bestand der Erkenntnis widerspricht, von vornherein
den Verdacht der Falschheit erweckt. Die Einheit der Wissenschaft
verlangt, daß alle Erkenntnisse — gleich wie — in einem geordneten
Zusammenhang stehen, in dem man von dem Allgemeinsten bis zu
dem Speziellsten und umgekehrt hinauf und hinab steigen kann,
ohne innerhalb der systematischen Ordnung des Ganzen auf
Widersprüche zu stoßen. Ergibt der Fortgang der Forschung an
irgendeinem Punkte Erkenntnisse, die entweder an sich selbst oder
in ihren Folgen mit den früher gewonnenen nicht in Einklang stehen,
so schließen wir daraus, daß entweder diese — die neuen — oder
jene alten falsch sind, mithin daß der ganze Weg der Untersuchung
einer sorgfältigen Nachprüfung bedarf. Solche Generalrevision der
Wissenschaft von ihren letzten Fundamenten aus findet sich, wie die
Geschichte der Wissenschaften lehrt, in den meisten Disziplinen
(auch hier bis zu einem gewissen Grade mit Ausnahme der
m a t h e m a t i s c h e n Forschung) von Zeit zu Zeit immer wieder, und
das, wie es scheint, nicht zum Nachteil, sondern zum Segen der
Gesamtentwicklung des Wissens. Eine solche Generalrevision von
ihren fundamentalen Grundlagen aus macht z. B. gegenwärtig die
P h y s i k durch, seit neuere Ergebnisse auf dem Gebiete der
Elektrizitätslehre die Aufgabe der alten Hypothese des Äthers
nahegelegt haben; eine solche Generalrevision hat gegen Ende des
18. Jahrhunderts die P h i l o s o p h i e durchgemacht, als Kant bewies,
daß die Prinzipien der reinen Vernunft nur im i m m a n e n t e n
Gebrauch für Erfahrungsobjekte, nicht aber im transzendenten
unabhängig von der Erfahrung für die Erkenntnis des Seienden an
und für sich Gültigkeit hätten, und damit die Metaphysik von einer
kritiklosen Verstandeserkenntnis des objektiven Seins zu einer
objektiven Kritik des Verstandes und seiner Anwendung auf die
empirische Wirklichkeit umgestaltete[23].
Die Auffindung der wissenschaftlichen Beweisgründe, die eine
gleichwie gewonnene Lehrmeinung als gültig erweisen sollen, richtet
sich nach dem speziellen Charakter jener Erkenntnis, sowie
demjenigen ihres wissenschaftlichen Gebietes überhaupt. Bei
mathematischen Einsichten gewährt zumeist schon der Weg ihrer
Entdeckung wertvolle Anhaltspunkte für die Aufstellung ihrer
zureichenden Begründung. Hier hat jede Bemühung um einen
Beweis die Prämissen zu suchen, aus denen sich der zu
begründende Lehrsatz notwendig als Konklusio ergibt, und zwar
dergestalt, daß die zu beweisende Lehrmeinung mit dem bereits
bewiesenen und darum als gewiß erkannten bisherigen Bestande
der Forschung so zusammenhängt, daß sie sich als notwendige
Konsequenz aus jenem und zugleich darin unlösbar verankert
erweist (deduktiver Beweis). Deduktion als Forschungsmethode und
Deduktion als Beweismittel unterscheiden sich mithin nur insofern,
als die erstere von den Prämissen aus die K o n k l u s i o , die zweite von
der Konklusio aus die P r ä m i s s e n sucht.
Analoges gilt für die Beweisführung in den Wissenschaften von
Tatsachen. Sei es, daß wir ein einzelnes Faktum der Geschichte,
eine allgemeine Regel des Naturgeschehens oder den
Erklärungsversuch einer empirisch gesicherten Erscheinung des
Wirklichen als wahr zu beweisen suchen, immer haben wir diese als
die zu beweisenden Lehren in der Form von Schlußurteilen aus
gewissen ihnen als Stütze dienenden Einzelerkenntnissen (als
Prämissen) durch eine verallgemeinernde oder ergänzende
Induktion (oder auch durch einen Schluß aus hinreichender
Ähnlichkeit [Analogieschluß]) mit dem höchstmöglichen Grad der
Wahrscheinlichkeitsgeltung herzuleiten. Daß Heinrich IV. im Jahre
1077 in der Tat seinen Bittgang nach Canossa getan hat, beweisen
wir induktiv aus den im wesentlichen übereinstimmenden Angaben
der wichtigsten Quellenschriften jener Zeit. Daß Körper
verschiedenen Gewichts im luftleeren Raum mit gleicher
Geschwindigkeit fallen, beweisen wir gleichfalls induktiv aus den
übereinstimmenden Ergebnissen zahlloser Versuche, die wir
angestellt haben und zur Ve r i f i k a t i o n (Gültigkeitsbestätigung) jenes
Gesetzes jederzeit wiederholen können. Daß endlich die
atomistische Theorie der Materie zur Erklärung der
Bewegungserscheinungen der Körperwelt gültig sei, beweisen wir
wiederum induktiv daraus, daß sie mit allen den einzelnen Faktoren,
die hierhin gehören, in Einklang steht und für sie alle einen
befriedigenden Maßstab zur Erklärung darbietet (Induktionsbeweis).
Das schwächste wissenschaftliche Beweismittel, das wir
besitzen, ist da gegeben, wo wir die Gültigkeit eines Urteils lediglich
auf die Ähnlichkeit seines Subjekts zu einem seinen Merkmalen
nach ausreichend bekannten Objekte der Forschung aufbauen
(Analogiebeweis). Beispiele dafür sind bereits bei der Besprechung
der Analogieschlüsse gegeben worden. Hier hat die Auffindung der
Beweisgründe den Weg zu gehen, daß sie Objekte sucht, die dem
Subjekt des zu beweisenden Urteils wesentlich ähnlich und durch
dasselbe Prädikat gekennzeichnet sind, das von jenem als gültig
behauptet wird (Behptg.: wahr S ← P; Bew.: S ← M ähnlich und
M ← P). Daß diese Beweisführung gegenüber den anderen Formen
den geringsten Grad der Sicherheit ergibt, lehrt schon die
Geschichte der Wissenschaften unzweideutig. Wie hätte sonst seit
Rorarius, Descartes und Malebranche bis zur Gegenwart fort ein
jahrhundertelanger Streit darüber entbrennen können, ob die Tiere
beseelt seien wie wir Menschen oder aber als seelenlose
Automaten, gewissermaßen als Reflexmaschinen, aus Gottes Hand
ihr Dasein empfangen hätten.
Die Auffindung der Beweisgründe geht also, wenn wir kurz das
Gesagte zusammenfassen wollen, dreierlei Wege: sie sucht das
Allgemeine, wo sie daraus das Besondere zu begründen vermag
(Deduktion); sie sucht das Besondere, wo sie daraus das Allgemeine
ableiten kann (Induktion); und sie sucht das einander Ähnliche, wo
sie daraus schließen darf, daß dem einen als Prädikat zukommen
wird, was in dem anderen mit zureichender Begründung prädikativ
enthalten ist (Analogiebeweis).

3. Fehler und Unzulänglichkeiten des Beweises.

Falsche oder unzulängliche Beweise beruhen immer auf falschen


oder unzulänglichen Ableitungen. Man nennt sie daher
F a l s c h s c h l ü s s e (fallaciae); und diese wiederum, sofern sie
absichtlich erfolgen: Sophismen (Trugschlüsse); sofern
unabsichtlich: P a r a l o g i s m e n (Fehlschlüsse, Vernunftwidrigkeiten).
Ein Beweis ist u n z u l ä n g l i c h , wenn er nicht die Wahrheit des zu
beweisenden Urteils begründet, sondern vielmehr: entweder zu v i e l
oder zu w e n i g (Beweisverrückung; Heterozetesis) oder auch: ein
von dem zu beweisenden völlig verschiedenes Urteil (mutatio
elenchi: μετάβασις εἰς ἄλλο γένος). Ein Beweis ist f a l s c h , wenn
entweder einer der Beweisgründe falsch (m a t e r i a l e r Falschschluß;
πρῶτον ψεῦδος), oder aber wenn die Ableitung der Konklusio aus
den Prämissen formal ungültig ist (f o r m a l e r Falschschluß).
Ein unzulänglicher Beweis ist genau genommen gar kein Beweis.
Der Versuch, ein Urteil als bewiesen auszugeben, während aus den
dafür aufgeführten Beweisgründen in Wahrheit ein ganz anderes
folgt, wird logisch eine E r s c h l e i c h u n g (subreptio) oder A b i r r u n g
des Beweises (aberratio elenchi) genannt. Eine alte Schulregel der
Logiker besagt: „Qui nimium probat, nihil probat; qui parum probat,
nihil probat“ (wer zu viel oder zu wenig beweist, beweist gar nichts).
„Zu v i e l beweisen“ heißt dabei: etwas als einer Gattung zugehörig
nachweisen, was nur für eine Art oder für ein Individuum gültig
bewiesen werden soll (denn das Individuum könnte immerhin eine
Ausnahme von jener Gattungsregel bilden); „zu w e n i g beweisen“
heißt: etwas als einer Art zugehörig nachweisen, was für deren
Gattung gültig zu beweisen wäre (denn jenes Merkmal könnte ja
eine der artbildenden spezifischen Differenzen sein, die der Gattung
nicht zukommen).
Daß, wenn eine der Prämissen falsch (bzw. ungewiß), bei formal
gültiger Ableitung auch die Konklusio falsch (bzw. ungewiß) ist,
bedarf keiner näheren Erläuterung. Ebensowenig daß bei wahren
Prämissen kein gültiger Beweis zustande kommt, wo ein formaler
Fehler im Schlußverfahren vorliegt. Der geläufigste formale
Falschschluß beruht auf dem sog. c i r c u l u s v i t i o s u s (Zirkelbeweis;
petitio principii), der da gegeben ist, wo das zu beweisende Urteil (an
sich selbst oder in einer seiner Folgen) irgendwie mit in die
Beweisgründe aufgenommen ist, die insgesamt gerade dazu dienen
sollen, ebendieses zu erhärten. Ein lehrreiches Beispiel dafür bietet
sich in den grundlegenden Deduktionen der Cartesianischen
Philosophie: An der Hand seiner Generalregel, daß alles klar und
deutlich Erkannte wahr sei, beweist Descartes, daß Gott existiere;
und auf die Frage, warum denn alles klar und deutlich Erkannte wahr
sein müsse, antwortet er wiederum (man beachte den Zirkel!), weil
Gott kein Betrüger sein könne! —
Der häufigste formale Fehler des syllogistischen
Schlußverfahrens kommt zustande durch die sog. q u a t e r n i o
t e r m i n o r u m (Vierzahl der Begriffe), die dann gegeben ist, wenn der
Mittelbegriff in der oberen Prämisse in anderer Bedeutung
genommen wird wie in der unteren (fallacia medii termini). An die
Stelle der Identität des B e g r i f f e s , die ja von der sprachlichen
Formulierung des Gedankens einigermaßen unabhängig ist, tritt hier
also die Identität des W o r t e s , verbunden mit einer M e h r d e u t i g k e i t
seines Bedeutungsinhaltes (Äquivokation). Beispiele für diese
Beweisverirrung, die gelegentlich die sinnloseste Form annehmen
kann (mittels deren in der Tat alles zu „beweisen“ möglich ist), finden
sich insbesondere in den Trug- und Fangschlüssen der griechischen
Eristik und Sophistik in reicher Anzahl. Ein Musterbild dieser (nach
P r a n t l von den Megarikern geprägt) bildet:
Behauptung: Die Homerische Dichtung ist eine geometrische Figur.
Beweis: Alle Kreise sind geometrische Figuren.
Die Homerische Dichtung ist ein Sagenkreis.
also ist die Homerische Dichtung eine geometrische Figur.

Spezielle Formfehler des i n d u k t i v e n und A n a l o g i e beweises


bilden v o r e i l i g e Ve r a l l g e m e i n e r u n g (wenn der Gattung ein
Prädikat beigelegt wird, das bis dahin nur für einen sehr kleinen Teil
seiner Arten als gültig erwiesen ist[24]) sowie vorschnelle
Schlußfolgerung auf Grund u n z u r e i c h e n d e r Ä h n l i c h k e i t . Beispiele
induktiver (I) und analogiemäßiger Fehlschlüsse (II) sind:
I.
Lysias war ein großer Redner.
Demosthenes war ein großer Redner.
Äschines war ein großer Redner.
. . . . . . .
Alle Griechen werden große Redner gewesen sein.

II.
Kirschen schmecken süß und angenehm.
Tollkirschen sind den Kirschen ähnlich.
Tollkirschen werden süß und angenehm schmecken.

Was sich psychologisch als eine Übertreibung auf Grund der


Affekte der Hoffnung oder Furcht, das stellt sich logisch als ein
übereilter Induktionsschluß —; was sich psychologisch als eine
Verwechslung auf Grund ähnlicher Merkmale, das stellt sich logisch
als ein verfehlter Analogieschluß dar.

4. Fiktionen und Utopien.


Vor einem mannigfach verwickelten und nicht leicht
aufzulösenden Problemkreis steht die neuere Logik gegenüber
methodischen Hilfsmitteln der Art, wie sie in den Fiktionen und
Utopien des wissenschaftlichen Denkens gegeben sind.
Eine wissenschaftliche F i k t i o n ist die in bestimmter
wissenschaftlicher Absicht vollzogene Annahme, daß einem
gegebenen Urteil Gültigkeit zukomme, verbunden mit dem
Bewußtsein seiner t a t s ä c h l i c h e n U n gültigkeit. In dieser
Begriffsbestimmung ist auf das Merkmal der A b s i c h t l i c h k e i t
besonderes Gewicht gelegt. Soweit eine Einteilung auf diesem noch
wenig untersuchten Gebiete logischer Forschung bereits möglich ist,
glaube ich, nach dem Gesichtspunkte ihres Zweckes d r e i e r l e i
Fiktionen unterscheiden zu müssen, und zwar: p r ü f e n d e ,
e r l ä u t e r n d e und b e w e i s e n d e Fiktionen. Von diesen kommt nur den
letzteren im wissenschaftlichen Denken eine größere Bedeutung zu,
während die beiden ersten demgegenüber als weniger wichtig
zurücktreten.
Als Beispiele p r ü f e n d e r Fiktionen können diejenigen angesehen
werden, die den Nicht-Euklidischen Geometrien Lobatschewskijs
und Riemanns zugrunde liegen. Es ist kennzeichnend für die
logische Funktion der Fiktionen, daß L o b a t s c h e w s k i j (ähnlich wohl
schon früher G a u ß ) die Annahme der Ungültigkeit des Euklidischen
Parallelenaxioms n i c h t vollzogen hat, um damit eine neue
geometrische Wissenschaft zu entdecken, sondern vielmehr in der
Absicht, das Parallelenaxiom Euklids durch einen indirekten Beweis
zureichend zu b e g r ü n d e n (beweisende Fiktion). Erst dadurch, daß
sich der gesuchte Widerspruch, aus dem die Gültigkeit des in Rede
stehenden Grundsatzes gefolgt wäre, n i c h t ergab, entwickelte sich
dann auf der Grundlage der aufgestellten Fiktion die
Lobatschewskijsche Geometrie. Verwandtes gilt mutatis mutandis für
die Nicht-Euklidische Geometrie Riemanns; nimmt nämlich
Lobatschewskij an, daß — abweichend von der Lehre Euklids — zu
einer Geraden in einer Ebene durch einen Punkt nicht eine, sondern
m e h r e r e Parallelen — so Riemann, daß durch einen Punkt zu einer
Geraden in einer Ebene g a r k e i n e Parallelen gezogen werden
können. Unter der Voraussetzung des Lobatschewskijschen Satzes
ergibt sich dann eine formal-logisch konsequente Geometrie, in der
die Winkelsumme im Dreieck k l e i n e r , unter der Voraussetzung des
Riemannschen eine solche, in der die Winkelsumme im Dreieck
g r ö ß e r ist als zwei Rechte. Beide Geometrien wurzeln nun
ersichtlich in Annahmen, die dem Euklidischen Parallelenaxiom als
einem logisch entwickelten Grundgesetz unserer Raumanschauung
w i d e r s p r e c h e n . Indem diese hier zur P r ü f u n g ihrer Konsequenzen
als gültig v o r a u s g e s e t z t werden, zugleich mit dem unzweideutigen
Bewußtsein ihrer f a k t i s c h e n U n gültigkeit, kann man sagen, daß die
Nicht-Euklidischen Geometrien der genannten Mathematiker auf
p r ü f e n d e n Fiktionen beruhen.
Die e r l ä u t e r n d e n Fiktionen bedürfen nur kurzer Besprechung.
Sie dienen, wie der Name besagt, als bloße technische Hilfsmittel
der Darstellung dazu, aufgestellte wissenschaftliche Lehrmeinungen
(seien es Einzelurteile, Gesetze oder Theorien) durch denkmögliche
Vorstellungen von Objekten, die aber in ihrer Realität als
nichtwirklich bewußt sind, zu erläutern. Hierhin gehören die
Leibnizsche Fiktion eines überlegenen Geistes, der — fähig, in dem
gegenwärtigen Seelenzustande einer endlichen Monade zu lesen —
darin Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft des gesamten
Universums läse; hierhin die Cartesianische Fiktion eines Dämons,
der etwa den menschlichen Intellekt gerade in dem täuschen könnte,
was ihm — als klar und deutlich erkannt — zweifelsfrei wahr
erscheint, ein Selbsteinwurf, der dazu dient, zu zeigen, wie erhaben
über alle Bedenken die Wahrheit sei, die durch das reine Licht des
Geistes (lumen naturale) ihre Bürgschaft empfange.
Beweisende Fiktionen weist die Geschichte des
wissenschaftlichen Denkens zahlreich auf. Sie dienen — ungeachtet
ihrer ziemlich geringfügigen Argumentationskraft — meist dazu,
aufgestellte Theorien, also E r k l ä r u n g s v e r s u c h e , durch den
Nachweis ihres widerspruchslosen Zusammenstimmens mit den
empirisch gesicherten Tatsachen zureichend zu begründen; im
umgekehrten Falle, sie zu widerlegen (widerlegende Fiktionen).
Beispiele der ersteren sind die R o u s s e a u sche Fiktion eines reinen
(d. h. von aller Kultur unberührten) Naturmenschen zum Beweise der
Theorie von der ursprünglichen Güte des menschlichen Charakters;
die dem entgegengesetzte Fiktion eines in einsamer Wildnis zum
Tier gewordenen Menschen bei C o m e n i u s zum Beweise der
Notwendigkeit der Erziehung; die C o n d i l l a c - B o n n e t sche Fiktion
eines in eine Marmorhülle gekleideten Menschen zum Beweise der
sensualistischen Theorie vom Ursprung aller seelischen
Erscheinungen; die Fiktion eines einsinnigen Menschen (nur
Gesichtssinn!) bei B e r k e l e y , L o t z e und H e l m h o l t z (zu anderem
Zwecke auch schon bei Th. Hobbes) zum Beweise der
empiristischen Theorie der Tiefenwahrnehmung; die Fiktion einer
chaotischen Fixsternregion bei John Stuart M i l l zum Beweise seiner
empiristischen Theorie der Kausalität; endlich die J. H. v.
T h ü n e n sche Fiktion eines isolierten Staates zum Beweis der von
ihm (auf Grund praktisch gewonnener Erfahrungen) begründeten
„Intensitätstheorie“ des landwirtschaftlichen Betriebes (Terminus
nach Richard Krzymowski, Kl. Abh., 1900, S. 10).[25] — Beispiele
w i d e r l e g e n d e r Fiktionen bilden die bekannte, aus der Scholastik
stammende Fabel vom B u r i d a n schen Esel zur Widerlegung der
deterministischen Theorie des Willens; sowie die L a m e t t r i e sche
Fiktion eines in völligster Einsamkeit aufgewachsenen Menschen (so
schon bei Arnobius, zirka 300 n. Chr. Geb.) zum Beweis der
Ungültigkeit der Lehre von den angeborenen Ideen.
Den Fiktionen der zuletzt besprochenen Art logisch verwandt,
aber von noch geringerer Beweiskraft als diese, sind die
staatswissenschaftlichen, pädagogischen und religiös-ethischen
U t o p i e n . Diese haben zumeist den Zweck, gewisse Theorien des
politischen, sozialen oder religiösen Lebens durch die Fiktion eines
auf ebendiese aufgebauten Gemeinwesens zureichend zu
b e g r ü n d e n . Aus diesem Gesichtspunkte heraus sind S t a a t s r o m a n e
wie Platons Politeia, Thomas Morus’ „Über den besten Staat oder
die neue Insel Utopia“, Campanellas Sonnenstaat und ähnliche
Werke von Morelly, Fourier, Cabet u. a. entstanden; aus diesem
Gesichtspunkt heraus haben auch E r z i e h u n g s r o m a n e wie
Xenophons Kyropädie, Fénélons Telemaque, Rousseaus Emile
sowie religiös-ethische Träumereien nach der Art von Johann
Valentin Andreaes Christianopolis, ebenso die utopischen
Zukunftsschilderungen Auguste Comtes, Saint-Simons u. a. ihren
Ursprung genommen. — Stehen die Fiktionen bereits zu einem nicht
geringen Teil hart auf der G r e n z e der Wissenschaft, so haben wir
mit den Utopien diese schon ü b e r s c h r i t t e n und das breite
Zwischenland betreten, das sich von der Wissenschaft zur Kunst hin
dehnt.
Das logische Problem der Fiktion und Utopie ist in den letzten Jahren
besonders zur Erörterung gelangt durch das Erscheinen von Hans Va i h i n g e r s
umfangreichem Jugendwerk: „Die Philosophie des Als-Ob“ (2. Aufl., Berlin 1913),
das eine in vieler Hinsicht sehr anregende, jedoch nach keiner Richtung hin
abschließende Untersuchung über die „theoretischen, praktischen und religiösen
Fiktionen der Menschheit“ enthält. Der Grundfehler des Vaihingerschen Werkes
liegt in der mangelhaften begrifflichen Scheidung zwischen den Fiktionen im
eigentlichen Sinne und gewissen damit v e r w a n d t e n methodischen Faktoren
des wissenschaftlichen Denkens. Weder wissenschaftliche A b s t r a k t i o n e n (wie
der Begriff des leeren Raumes, des Bewußtseins überhaupt) noch
h y p o t h e t i s c h e E r k l ä r u n g s v e r s u c h e (wie die Annahme von Atomen,
Molekülen, Elektronen, Ionen, Kräften, des Äthers, der Gedächtnisspuren usw.)
sind den Fiktionen zuzurechen; denn bei den ersteren fehlt entweder die
Annahme, daß dem auf sie gerichteten Existentialurteile Gültigkeit zukomme,
gänzlich (so beim „Bewußtsein überhaupt“); oder aber, wo diese n i c h t fehlt (wie
beim Begriff des leeren Raumes), ist doch zum mindesten das Bewußtsein der
t a t s ä c h l i c h e n U n gültigkeit jenes Existentialurteils keinesfalls vorhanden. Bei
den letzteren fällt ferner ebendieses Bewußtsein tatsächlicher Ungültigkeit
durchgängig aus, wie wir denn Kräfte, Atome und Moleküle, Gedächtnisresiduen
und ähnliches zur Erklärung der physikalisch-chemischen und psychologischen
Erscheinungen nicht nur zum Schein annehmen, sondern vielmehr als w i r k l i c h
v o r h a n d e n postulieren.

[21] Der Universalienstreit des Mittelalters drehte sich, roh


gesagt, um die Frage, ob die Allgemeinbegriffe (Universalia) als
selbständige Wesenheiten (Platons und Plotins Ideen) v o r den
Dingen (ante res) seien oder aber dadurch, daß sie in den
erkennenden Geistern gebildet würden, erst n a c h den Dingen
(post res) kämen.
[22] „Ich weiß nicht, ich werde nicht wissen“; nach dem bekannten
Vortrag Dubois-Reymonds.
[23] Vgl. dazu die schon früher erwähnte Darstellung von Oswald
K ü l p e (ANuG Bd. 146).
[24] Analoges gilt für die e r g ä n z e n d e Induktion.

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