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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
Chapter 08
Cognition and Language
1.
_____ psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking,
language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, and judging.
A.
Clinical
B.
Developmental
C.
Cognitive
D.
Evolutionary
8-1
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
2.
A.
They refer only to visual representations.
B.
They have only a few of the properties of the actual stimuli they represent.
C.
They are representations in the mind of an object or event.
D.
They cannot be rotated.
8-2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
3.
Which of the following statements best expresses the nature of mental images?
A.
They are binary in format.
B.
They are always auditory in format.
C.
They may be produced by any sensory modality.
D.
They are linguistic.
8-3
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
4.
Dr. Randazza shows participants a stylized map of a fictitious city. The map includes landmarks, such as a post office, a
library, a shopping mall, a bus depot, and an airport. Some of the landmarks are close together, such as the library and the
post office. Others are far apart, such as the airport and the shopping mall. Dr. Randazza removes the map. Participants are
asked to imagine walking from one landmark to another, either a nearby one or a more distant one. Participants press a key
when they have reached the destination in their minds. Based on mental imagery, what do you think Dr. Randazza should
find? What would such a result say about mental imagery?
A.
Participants should take the same amount of time to travel mentally between distant as between close landmarks. This result
would suggest that mental imagery reflects the actual actions the participants perform with respect to real objects.
B.
Participants should take the same amount of time to travel mentally between distant as between close landmarks. This result
would suggest that mental imagery does not reflect the actual actions the participants perform with respect to real objects.
C.
Participants should take longer to travel mentally between distant than between close landmarks. This result would suggest
that mental imagery reflects the actual actions the participants perform with respect to real objects.
D.
Participants should take longer to travel mentally between distant than between close landmarks. This result would suggest
that mental imagery does not reflect the actual actions the participants perform with respect to real objects.
8-4
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
5.
Clint is mentally rehearsing his golf swing in his mind's eye. Based on mental imagery, which of the following statements is
most accurate?
A.
Clint's mental rehearsal should improve his golf swing. Performing the task involves the same network of brain cells as the
network used in mentally rehearsing it.
B.
Clint's mental rehearsal should do little to improve his golf swing. The brain areas active during Clint's mental rehearsal
should be the same as those active when Clint actually swings the golf club.
C.
Clint's mental rehearsal should improve his golf swing. The brain areas active during Clint's mental rehearsal should be
different than those active when Clint actually swings the golf club.
D.
Clint's mental rehearsal should do little to improve his golf swing. The brain areas active during Clint's mental rehearsal
should be different than those active when Clint actually swings the golf club.
8-5
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
6.
Mental representations of objects are called _____; mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people are called _____.
A.
images; concepts
B.
images; images as well
C.
concepts; concepts as well
D.
concepts; images
8-6
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
7.
Which of the following is most nearly synonymous with the term concept, as it is used by cognitive psychologists?
A.
Idea
B.
Relationship
C.
Category
D.
Image
8-7
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
8.
Mental groupings of objects, events, or people that share common features are called:
A.
concepts.
B.
ideas.
C.
heuristics.
D.
algorithms.
8-8
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
9.
A prototype is:
A.
the most typical or highly representative example of a concept.
B.
the first example of a concept that one encounters.
C.
the least frequent example of a concept.
D.
the most unusual or distinctive example of a concept.
8-9
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
10.
Which of the following is most likely the prototype of the concept "fruit"?
A.
Carrot
B.
Apple
C.
Tomato
D.
Blueberry
8-10
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
11.
Those raised in the United States are most likely to use _____ relationships to categorize.
A.
semantic
B.
functional
C.
categorical
D.
thematic
8-11
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
12.
_____ is the process by which information is used to draw conclusions and make decisions.
A.
Reasoning
B.
Negotiating
C.
Predicting
D.
Conceptualizing
8-12
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
13.
Which of the following individuals is NOT engaged in reasoning, as psychologists define the term?
A.
Clay, who is deciding which make and model of used car is least likely to present a maintenance headache, based on his
friends' testimonials
B.
Darla, who is concluding that a particular model of used car is a poor investment over the longer term, based on a report in a
consumer magazine
C.
Emilio, who is dreaming about a novel way to earn the cash for a new used car
D.
Mark, who is deciding which college to go to, based on the reviews each of them has received
8-13
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
14.
You check the time on your phone. Your friend should be out of class by now. You call her. She should answer if she is out
of class. In this example, your thought processes are best seen as exemplifying:
A.
problem solving.
B.
conceptualization.
C.
reasoning.
D.
creativity.
8-14
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
15.
A.
algorithms.
B.
heuristics.
C.
mental sets.
D.
deductive reasoning.
8-15
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
16.
Formal reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from the specific to the general is known as _____ reasoning.
A.
divergent
B.
syllogistic
C.
analogical
D.
inductive
8-16
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
17.
A detective tries to get a general picture of a murder from the specific evidence associated with the murder. This is an
example of _____ reasoning.
A.
convergent
B.
divergent
C.
inductive
D.
analogical
8-17
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
18.
Which type of reasoning do psychologists use when they study a sample of participants and then use the information they
observe to form a conclusion about the broader population from which the sample is drawn?
A.
Divergent
B.
Syllogistic
C.
Analogical
D.
Inductive
8-18
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
19.
One can use a(n) _____ even if he or she doesn’t understand why it works.
A.
heuristic.
B.
algorithm.
C.
premise.
D.
syllogism.
8-19
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
20.
A rule that guarantees the solution to a problem when it is correctly applied is termed as a(n):
A.
heuristic.
B.
algorithm.
C.
premise.
D.
syllogism.
8-20
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
21.
A.
In cases where heuristics are not available, we may use algorithms.
B.
Even if it is applied appropriately, an algorithm cannot guarantee a solution to a problem.
C.
Algorithms may sometimes lead to errors.
D.
We can use an algorithm even if we cannot understand why it works.
8-21
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
22.
A.
In cases where algorithms are not available, we may use heuristics.
B.
If applied appropriately, a heuristic guarantees a solution to a problem.
C.
Heuristics never lead to errors.
D.
Heuristics decrease the likelihood of success in finding a solution.
8-22
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
23.
Which of the following terms best captures the meaning of the term heuristic, as cognitive psychologists use it?
A.
Principle
B.
Formula
C.
Strategy
D.
Program
8-23
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
24.
When you play tic-tac-toe using certain mental shortcuts, you are using cognitive strategies psychologists call:
A.
algorithms.
B.
mental sets.
C.
heuristics.
D.
syllogistic reasoning.
8-24
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
25.
Matt picks up a pamphlet at a counseling center titled How to Succeed at College Course Work. Which type of problem-
solving strategies is most likely offered in this pamphlet?
A.
Algorithms
B.
Insights
C.
Heuristics
D.
Syllogisms
8-25
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
26.
A.
A chemical equation for the synthesis of sulfuric acid
B.
A recipe for making cookies on the back of a box of cornflakes
C.
An article by a Nobel Prize winner titled "How to Succeed in Science"
D.
A computer program for keeping track of inventory at a department store
8-26
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
27.
A.
A heuristic will present a clearly defined solution to a problem.
B.
A heuristic is often efficient.
C.
A heuristic is guaranteed to result in a correct response.
D.
A heuristic results in only one possible solution to a problem.
8-27
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
28.
A.
Heuristics always lead to correct solutions of a problem.
B.
Heuristics are a slower way to solve problems than are other strategies.
C.
Heuristics represent commonly used approaches to the solution of a problem.
D.
Heuristics are used by computers but not by humans as problem-solving tools.
8-28
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
29.
Lori and Monica are looking at the cans of coffee on display at a local supermarket. They are trying to decide which of two
different-sized cans will be the better buy. Lori attempts to divide the price of each can by the number of ounces of coffee
each can contains. Monica suggests that "the larger size is usually a better buy." Lori is using a(n) ____, whereas Monica is
using a(n) _____.
A.
heuristic; algorithm
B.
algorithm; heuristic
C.
prototype; algorithm
D.
heuristic; prototype
8-29
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
30.
A.
Theorems
B.
Heuristics
C.
Algorithms
D.
Statements
8-30
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
31.
A.
making frequency estimates based on the ease with which things come to mind.
B.
overcoming mental set.
C.
mistaking visual images and other forms of mental representations for reality.
D.
assuming that something is typical of its class.
8-31
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
32.
Suppose you meet a woman who killed her stepdaughter, and then later when you meet another woman who is having trouble
with her stepdaughter, you are most likely to think that this woman too will kill her stepdaughter. You come to this
conclusion as a result of:
A.
functional fixedness.
B.
the representativeness heuristic.
C.
the availability heuristic.
D.
confirmation bias.
8-32
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
33.
Carl is the only person from New Zealand that Craig has ever met. Carl strikes Craig as being quite friendly and funny. When
Carl asks Craig what he would expect to find if he went to New Zealand, Craig says that he would expect the people to be
quite friendly and funny. What might Craig have used to make this judgment?
A.
The familiarity heuristic
B.
Confirmation bias
C.
Functional fixedness
D.
The availability heuristic
8-33
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
34.
The _____ heuristic involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled from
memory.
A.
availability
B.
representativeness
C.
confirmation
D.
frequency
8-34
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
35.
According to the _____ heuristic, we assume that events we remember easily are likely to have occurred more frequently in
the past—and are more likely to occur in the future—than events that are harder to remember.
A.
availability
B.
representativeness
C.
confirmation
D.
frequency
8-35
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
36.
Following the September 11, 2001, Twin Towers attacks, many Americans opted to drive rather than fly. The media coverage
of the hijackings caused Americans to overestimate the danger of flying. As it was an event they remember easily, they
assumed it could occur frequently. This example illustrates:
A.
the availability heuristic.
B.
the representativeness heuristic.
C.
confirmation bias.
D.
stereotypic bias.
8-36
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
37.
When people are asked which is more common, death by homicide or death by stroke, they often choose homicide because
they hear more about murders than they do about strokes. In this instance, people are led astray in their judgments by:
A.
the representativeness heuristic.
B.
stereotypic bias.
C.
confirmation bias.
D.
the availability heuristic.
8-37
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
38.
Last week, Mike heard about five separate airplane crashes on the news. Even though, in general, motorcycle accidents
account for more accidents than plane crashes do, Mike decides to ride his motorcycle from Washington to Atlanta instead of
flying. Which bias is reflected in Mike's decision?
A.
The availability heuristic
B.
Confirmation bias
C.
Syllogistic error
D.
The representativeness heuristic
8-38
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
39.
Joanne does not go out at night because she hears from her local news station about the large number of muggings and
robberies that occur in her city. However, crime in Joanne's city has actually gone down in the past few years. Joanne is
falling victim to:
A.
the representativeness heuristic.
B.
functional fixedness.
C.
the availability heuristic.
D.
confirmation bias.
8-39
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
40. "You always clam up when I ask you what's wrong," Iris tells her boyfriend. Iris is
probably making this frequency judgment because she can remember a few times that her
boyfriend would not tell her what was bothering him. Iris is using the _____ heuristic.
A.
representativeness
B.
availability
C.
functional
D.
frequency
8-40
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
41.
In a(n) _____ heuristic, known items are seen as superior to those that are unknown.
A.
representativeness
B.
availability
C.
functional
D.
familiarity
8-41
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
42.
When you go to the supermarket, you see the brand of cookies you usually buy, and settle for it. Usually it is a good rule of
thumb because it saves a lot of time. You do not ponder over every type of cookie available in the store. This is an example
of a(n) _____.
A.
representativeness heuristic
B.
syllogistic reasoning
C.
algorithm
D.
familiarity heuristic
8-42
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
43.
_____ intelligence is the field that examines how to use technology to imitate the outcome of human thinking, problem
solving, and creative activities.
A.
Artificial
B.
Bodily-kinesthetic
C.
Spatial
D.
Existential
8-43
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
44.
Which of the following sequences best reflects the order of the three broad phases of the problem-solving process, from first
to last?
A.
Preparation → judgment → production
B.
Judgment → production → preparation
C.
Preparation → production → judgment
D.
Judgment → preparation → production
8-44
Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
45.
In _____ problems, the nature of the problem and the information needed to solve it are clear. In _____ problems, either or
both the nature of the problem and the information required to solve it are unclear.
A.
well-defined; ill-defined
B.
algorithmic; heuristic
C.
arrangement; inducing structure
D.
transformation; arrangement
8-45
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
46.
A.
Navigating to a museum in a nearby city
B.
Composing a good concerto
C.
Finding out where several well-known authors were born
D.
Playing Scrabble
8-46
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
47.
"Convert to a mixed numeral: 18/5," states one problem on a fifth-grader's arithmetic text. This is a(n) _____ problem. It is
best solved through the application of _____.
A.
well-defined; algorithms
B.
well-defined; heuristics
C.
ill-defined; algorithms
D.
ill-defined; heuristics
8-47
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
48. Dr. Ireland's class is attempting to find derivatives, whereas Dr. Jamison's class is
developing campaign strategies for a local politician. Which of the following statements is
most likely TRUE?
A.
B.
Dr. Jamison's class is solving a well-defined problem.
C.
Dr. Ireland's class is using syllogistic reasoning.
D.
Dr. Jamison's class is using familiarity heuristic.
8-48
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
49.
_____ problems require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion.
A.
Arrangement
B.
Inducing structure
C.
Transformation
D.
Prescriptive
8-49
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
50.
In problems of _____, a person must identify the existing relationships among the elements presented and then construct a
new relationship among them.
A.
arrangement
B.
inducing structure
C.
transformation
D.
prescription
8-50
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
51.
_____ problems consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for changing the initial state into the goal state.
A.
Arrangement
B.
Inducing structure
C.
Transformation
D.
Prescriptive
8-51
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
52.
Which of the following problem types is correctly matched with its description?
A.
Arrangement—moving from an initial to a goal state according to a specific method
B.
Inducing structure—identifying relationships among problem elements and constructing new relationships
C.
Transformation—rearranging or recombining elements to satisfy a particular criterion
D.
Transformation—identifying relationships among problem elements and constructing new relationships
8-52
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
53.
Janelle is solving anagrams; Kamika is puzzling over verbal analogies; Lamar is playing chess with a friend. Which
alternative below correctly matches each individual with the type of problem he or she is solving?
A.
Janelle—arrangement; Kamika—transformation; Lamar—inducing structure
B.
Janelle—transformation; Kamika—inducing structure; Lamar—arrangement
C.
Janelle—arrangement; Kamika—inducing structure; Lamar—transformation
D.
Janelle—transformation; Kamika—arrangement; Lamar—inducing structure
8-53
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
54.
Thomas Edison invented the light bulb only because he experimented with thousands of different kinds of materials for a
filament before he found one that worked (carbon). This shows that at the most basic level, we can solve problems through
_____.
A.
the availability heuristic
B.
means-ends analysis
C.
insight
D.
trial and error
8-54
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
55.
_____ involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists.
A.
Forming subgoals
B.
Means-ends analysis
C.
Insight
D.
Trial and error
8-55
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
56.
In the context of problem solving, the most frequently used problem-solving heuristic is:
A.
forming subgoals.
B.
means-ends analysis.
C.
insight.
D.
trial and error.
8-56
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
57.
Millie is stumped by a problem on her pre-calculus text. She furtively glances at the answer provided in the back of the text
to get an idea of how the solution should look before she returns to the problem. Millie's strategy most closely resembles the
problem-solving heuristic of:
A.
forming subgoals.
B.
trial and error.
C.
working backward.
D.
insight.
8-57
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McGraw-Hill Education.
Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
58.
A political science professor attempts to facilitate her students' completion of a term paper assignment by requiring to first
submit a topic statement, then a list of references, then a draft of the introduction, then, finally, the completed paper. The
professor is encouraging her students to use the problem-solving strategy of:
A.
forming subgoals.
B.
working backward.
C.
means-ends analysis.
D.
trial and error.
8-58
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
59.
A.
Means-ends analysis—dividing a problem into intermediate steps
B.
Forming subgoals—focusing on a problem's goal rather than its starting point
C.
Working backward—reducing the apparent difference between the current state of the problem and the goal
D.
Insight—experiencing a sudden awareness of the relationships among a problem's components
8-59
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
60.
Kent and Kirsten are both trying to reduce their consumer debt. Kent isolates several more concrete problems he can solve to
achieve his goal, such as paying the highest-interest debts first and freezing credit card spending. Kirsten simply pays her
largest debt first because this would seem to be the fastest way to move her debt as close to zero as possible. Kent's plan
reflects the problem-solving strategy of _____, while Kirsten's method illustrates the strategy of _____.
A.
forming subgoals; trial and error
B.
means-end analysis; trial and error
C.
working backward; means-end analysis
D.
forming subgoals; means-end analysis
8-60
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
61.
The study of insight is associated with the German psychologist _____; he studied problem solving among _____.
A.
Kohler; chimpanzees
B.
Kohler; humans
C.
Wundt; cats
D.
Wundt; humans
8-61
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
62.
_____ is defined as a sudden awareness of the relationship among problem elements; it is thought to lead rapidly to the
problem's solution.
A.
Convergent thinking
B.
Divergent thinking
C.
Insight
D.
Creativity
8-62
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
63.
A.
Brevity
B.
Complexity
C.
Uniqueness
D.
Suddenness
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
64.
A.
may rest in part on the foundation of trial and error.
B.
may be based on the availability heuristic.
C.
has been affirmed by empirical research.
D.
requires the application of confirmation bias.
8-64
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
65.
For which of the following types of problems is the evaluation of solutions least likely to prove difficult?
A.
Well-defined problems
B.
Ill-defined problems
C.
Divergent thinking problems
D.
Associative thinking problems
8-65
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
66.
Which of the following impediments to effective problem solving is incorrectly matched with an illustrative problem?
A.
Confirmation bias—problem of security in the Middle East
B.
Functional fixedness—water jar problem
C.
Mental set—water jar problem
D.
Functional fixedness—candle problem
8-66
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
67.
A.
Mental set
B.
Representativeness heuristic
C.
Availability heuristic
D.
Syllogistic frame
8-67
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
68.
Zelma is asked to think of all the words beginning with the letters "squ," such as squeak. She is then given a fill-in-the-blank
task where one of the items is "s _ _ o n g." Zelma keeps trying to make "squong" a word, and she has trouble thinking of the
common word "strong." Zelma's ability to solve this problem has been hampered by:
A.
syllogistic reasoning.
B.
mental set.
C.
the confirmation bias.
D.
the representativeness heuristic.
8-68
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
69.
Which of the following statements best expresses the relationship between mental and functional fixedness?
A.
Functional fixedness is an example of a broader phenomenon known as mental set.
B.
Mental set is actually a specific instance of functional fixedness.
C.
Mental set and functional fixedness are the same thing.
D.
Functional fixedness and mental set are distinct problem-solving impediments.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
70.
Alyssa uses a shoe as a hammer and a butter knife as a screwdriver while making several minor household repairs. Which of
the following statements best characterizes Alyssa's problem solving?
A.
She is constrained by a powerful mental set.
B.
She has been released from functional fixedness.
C.
She is taking advantage of the representative heuristic.
D.
She is forming subgoals.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
71.
A jeweler is unable to fix a particular mounting in a ring because she can imagine only the conventional uses of her tools.
Which of the following does this best demonstrate?
A.
Syllogistic reasoning
B.
Functional fixedness
C.
Algorithmic thinking
D.
Means-end analysis
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
72. Henry's dog Sparky has been rolling in the mud. Henry must bathe Sparky before the dog
gets mud all over the carpet. However, Henry is unable to find the plug for the tub. Sitting on
the counter right beside the tub is a fifty-cent piece. In his frustration, Henry fails to see that
the coin could be used as an emergency plug for the tub. What happened to Henry?
A.
B.
He fell prey to confirmation bias.
C.
He suffered from mental set.
D.
He employed representational thought.
8-72
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
73.
_____ is the tendency to seek out and give greater weight to information that supports one's initial hypothesis and to ignore
contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions.
A.
Functional fixedness
B.
A mental set
C.
Confirmation bias
D.
Representativeness heuristic
8-73
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
74.
Which of the following impediments to effective problem solving is correctly matched with its definition?
A.
Functional fixedness—the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist
B.
Mental set—the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its customary use
C.
Confirmation bias—the tendency to favor existing hypotheses and to ignore evidence favoring alternatives
D.
Representative heuristic—involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how easily the event can be recalled
from memory
8-74
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
75.
Nigel often cites newspaper editorials favoring the presidential candidate he supports. He appears to ignore editorials’
criticism of the candidate. Nigel appears to be prone to:
A.
functional fixedness.
B.
mental set.
C.
the confirmation bias.
D.
the representativeness heuristic.
8-75
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
76.
Sandy, a true believer in astrology, reads in her horoscope that today is her lucky day. She gets so excited that she spills
coffee all over herself, necessitating a change of clothes. As a result, she is late for work and for a very important meeting,
which in turn gets her into serious trouble with her boss. In the evening, her brother is taken to the emergency room. On her
way to visit him, Sandy finds a dime in the hospital parking lot. What will Sandy do, based on the research on confirmation
bias?
A.
Sandy will renounce astrology as completely wrong because of all the horrible things that happened on her "lucky day."
B.
Sandy will begin to question her belief in astrology because of all the horrible things that happened on her "lucky day."
C.
Sandy will seize on the dime she found as evidence of astrology's accuracy.
D.
Confirmation bias has little or no relevance to how Sandy will think about astrology in the future.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
77.
The ability to generate original ideas or develop novel solutions to problems is known as:
A.
convergent thinking.
B.
insight.
C.
creativity.
D.
syllogistic reasoning.
8-77
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
78.
Which of the following statements accurately expresses one failing of cognitive psychologists' study of problem solving?
A.
Cognitive psychologists have failed to identify the strategies people use in solving problems.
B.
Cognitive psychologists have failed to explain why some people generate better solutions than others do.
C.
Cognitive psychologists have failed to specify how people represent problems in their minds.
D.
Cognitive psychologists have failed to identify the barriers to effective problem solving that people face.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
79.
Someone relying on convergent thinking would answer _____ to the query "What can you do with a toothbrush?"
A.
"You brush your teeth with it"
B.
"You use it for painting"
C.
"You use it for cleaning tools"
D.
"You use it to make toys"
8-79
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
80.
Someone relying on divergent thinking would answer _____ to the query "What can you do with a pencil?"
A.
"You write with it"
B.
"You use it for sketching"
C.
"You use it when you can't find a pen"
D.
"You use it for making toys"
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
81.
A.
prefer more complex stimuli.
B.
are more dependent.
C.
are more interested in concrete problems.
D.
have a narrower range of interests.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
82.
A.
One factor that is closely related to creativity is intelligence.
B.
Traditional tests are a good way to gauge an individual's creativity.
C.
Highly creative individuals show signs of convergent thinking.
D.
Cognitive complexity is an important aspect of creativity.
8-82
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
83.
A.
Cognitive complexity
B.
Abstract problems
C.
Range of interests
D.
Intelligence
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
84.
Traditional intelligence tests tend to assess _____ thinking; tests of creativity tap into _____.
A.
divergent; convergent thinking
B.
divergent; divergent thinking as well
C.
convergent; divergent thinking
D.
convergent; convergent thinking as well
8-84
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
85.
Critical or creative thinking may be enhanced by each of the following strategies EXCEPT:
A.
using analogies.
B.
considering opposites.
C.
avoiding heuristics.
D.
experimenting with solutions.
8-85
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86.
A.
combination of words
B.
speech sounds
C.
order of words
D.
meaning of words
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
87.
Linguists have identified more than _____ different phonemes among all the world's languages.
A.
26
B.
800
C.
52
D.
an infinite number
8-87
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
88.
A.
26
B.
more than 800
C.
52
D.
an infinite number
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
89.
Dr. Salim is a linguist studying the rules that guide the order of words and phrases in several of the world's languages. Dr.
Salim is a(n):
A.
syntactician.
B.
semanticist.
C.
phonologist.
D.
translator.
8-89
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
90.
In written language, letters most closely represent _____, whereas sentences may be said to reflect _____.
A.
syntax; semantics
B.
syntax; phonemes
C.
phonemes; syntax
D.
phonemes; semantics
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
91.
Which of the following sequences correctly orders the components of a language, from the smallest or most specific to the
broadest?
A.
Phoneme → syntax → semantics
B.
Syntax → semantics → phoneme
C.
Phoneme → semantics → syntax
D.
Syntax → phoneme → semantics
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
92.
Which of the following language acquisition stages or phenomena is correctly matched with an illustrative example?
A.
Babbling—"Goo goo, ga ga."
B.
Telegraphic speech—"I ran from the library to the bus stop."
C.
Overgeneralization—"Daddy has come home."
D.
Overgeneralization—"Drawing house"
8-92
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
93.
A.
It is the period of transition between one-word and two-word utterances.
B.
It is the time in one's childhood in which one is particularly sensitive to language cues and most easily acquires language.
C.
It is the period isolated children spend by themselves before someone teaches them a language.
D.
It is the period between six and ten years of age in which certain complex aspects of syntax are learned.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
94.
A girl named Genie was exposed to virtually no language from the age of 20 months till the age of 13. In what way does
Genie's case offer support for the notion of a critical period in language acquisition?
A.
With intensive instruction, Genie acquired a sizeable vocabulary after the age of 13; moreover, she eventually mastered the
rules of syntax.
B.
Even with intensive instruction, Genie acquired only a very small vocabulary after the age of 13; furthermore, she never
mastered the complexities of a language.
C.
Once she was no longer isolated, Genie acquired a sizeable vocabulary and eventually mastered the rules of syntax, even
without intensive formal instruction.
D.
Genie's case is irrelevant to the notion of a critical period.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
95.
Tina is 6 months old, Vincenzo is 2 years and 7 months old, and Wayne is 3 years and 6 months old. Which alternative below
correctly pairs each child with the appropriate language acquisition stage or phenomenon?
A.
Tina—overgeneralization; Vincenzo—babbling; Wayne—telegraphic speech
B.
Tina—babbling; Vincenzo—telegraphic speech; Wayne—overgeneralization
C.
Tina—telegraphic speech; Vincenzo—babbling; Wayne—overgeneralization
D.
Tina—babbling; Vincenzo—overgeneralization; Wayne—telegraphic speech
8-95
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
96.
You are creating a language development timeline for a class presentation. Along the top of a display board, you write the
following ages in sequence: 6 months → 1 year → 2 years → 3 years. How should you label these ages, from youngest to
oldest?
A.
Babbling → first words → telegraphic speech → overgeneralization
B.
Babbling → overgeneralization → first words → telegraphic speech
C.
Babbling → first words → overgeneralization → telegraphic speech
D.
Overgeneralization → babbling → first words → telegraphic speech
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
97.
Dorian is 2 years old. Constance is 2 years and 5 months old. Dorian's vocabulary probably contains _____ words, while
Constance's vocabulary contains _____ words.
A.
about 100; several hundred
B.
about 50; about 100
C.
about 50; several hundred
D.
several hundred; about 1000
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
98.
"All gone milk," says 2-year-old Wesley, placing the empty glass on the table. Wesley's remark exemplifies the language
acquisition phenomenon termed:
A.
babbling.
B.
telegraphic speech.
C.
holographic speech.
D.
agrammatism.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
99.
Ricky tells his grandmother, "Momma holded the rabbit." In the context of language, Ricky's statement exemplifies:
A.
idiomatic speech.
B.
telegraphic speech.
C.
babbling.
D.
overgeneralization.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
100.
Connie is telling her mother a story about a scary dog she encountered in the neighbor's yard. "Then I runned away," Connie
concludes. Which language acquisition phenomenon is Connie demonstrating? How old is Connie likely to be?
A.
Connie is babbling. She is probably about 2 years old.
B.
Connie is overgeneralizing. She is probably 3 to 4 years old.
C.
Connie is babbling. She is probably about 4 years old.
D.
Connie is overgeneralizing. She is probably 5 to 6 years old.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
101.
The theory that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning is known as the _____
approach.
A.
learning-theory
B.
nativist
C.
interactionist
D.
prescriptive
8-101
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
102.
The theory that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language development is known as the _____ approach.
A.
learning-theory
B.
nativist
C.
interactionist
D.
prescriptive
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
103.
A.
B. F. Skinner.
B.
Benjamin Whorf.
C.
Noam Chomsky.
D.
Wolfgang Kohler.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
104.
The view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and
environmental circumstances that help to teach language is known as the _____ approach.
A.
learning-theory
B.
nativist
C.
interactionist
D.
prescriptive
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
105.
A.
reject both the learning theory and nativist approaches.
B.
agree that the brain is hardwired to acquire language.
C.
downplay the role of the environment in language acquisition.
D.
remain unconvinced by the idea of a language-acquisition device.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
106.
The notion that language shapes and determines the way people in a particular culture perceive and understand the world is
known as the _____ hypothesis.
A.
output
B.
interaction
C.
linguistic-relativity
D.
monitor
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
107.
A.
output
B.
interaction
C.
linguistic-relativity
D.
monitor
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
108.
Which figure best approximates the number of Americans for whom English is a second language?
A.
13 million
B.
25 million
C.
55 million
D.
100 million
8-108
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
109.
In seven states, including Texas and Colorado, more than _____ of the students are not native English speakers.
A.
5%
B.
10%
C.
15%
D.
25%
8-109
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
110.
Students are educated in their native language and in English simultaneously in _____, whereas they are educated only in
English in _____.
A.
immersion programs; bilingual education
B.
bilingual education; immersion programs
C.
an alternation approach; immersion programs
D.
immersion programs; alternation programs
Worksheet Questions
111. Estelle is playing with images and concepts in her mind. Her cognitive psychology professor would say that she is
thinking.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
112.
113.
A researcher finds that her participants think most readily of a carrot when prompted with the category "vegetable." On this
basis, the researcher might argue that a carrot is the prototypical vegetable.
114.
A high school physics teacher reassures his class that no matter how confusing that week's word problems appear, they can
be solved quite handily through the use of the formula F = MA. The teacher has offered his students a(n) algorithm.
115. Arrangement problems require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements in a way that will
satisfy a certain criterion.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
Bloom's: Remember
Difficulty: Medium
Learning Objective: Explain the importance of understanding and diagnosing problems as the first step in effective problem solving.
Learning Outcome: 23-2
Topic: Preparation
116.
A calculus problem has one correct answer and contains all the information necessary for its solution; thus, it is a(n) well-
defined problem.
117.
Because they involve rules for moving from an initial to a goal state, many board games may be seen as examples of
transformation problems.
118. Renee has an idea of how her living room ought to look. She is moving the furniture, paintings, and accessories to get
closer to that picture in her head. Renee is using the problem-solving technique of means-ends analysis.
119. "Eureka! I've got it!" That sudden awareness of the path toward a problem's solution is
termed insight.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
120.
121.
People seek and remember evidence in support of their existing hypotheses; they ignore or discount contradictory evidence.
In other words, people are prone to confirmation bias.
122.
"How many uses can you think of for a brick?" asks the examiner. You are taking a test of divergent thinking.
123.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
124.
The rules indicating how words and phrases may be combined to form legitimate sentences are referred to as syntax.
125.
If children are not exposed to language during a(n) critical period early in life, they may never acquire it.
126. "Sophie kitty," Tara says, when her aunt asks her whether the stuffed animal belongs to her or to her sister. Tara's reply
exemplifies telegraphic speech.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
127.
In the context of language acquisition, Skinner is to learning theory, what Chomsky is to nativism.
128.
Chomsky suggested that the human brain has an inherited neural system that lets us understand the structure language
provides. This is known as universal grammar.
129. According to the linguistic-relativity hypothesis, language provides us with categories that we use to
construct our view of people and events in the world around us.
130. In immersion programs, students are immediately plunged into English instruction in all subjects.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
Essay Questions
131.
Describe in as much detail as you can the mental representation of objects and categories. Provide illustrative examples
where appropriate.
Objects. Objects are represented by mental images. Mental images are not only visual; they can be produced by any of our
sensory systems. A familiar example might be the experience of "hearing" a song in one's head. Images retain many of the
properties of the objects they represent; in addition, we can often perform the same operations on images that we can on the
real objects they represent. For example, it takes longer to scan an image of a large object than it does to scan an image of a
small object, just as it takes longer to scan an actual large object than a small one. We can also rotate an object's image in our
mind, just as we can rotate objects in the physical world. Mental images have been used to enhance the practice and
performance of athletes and musicians.
Categories. Categories of objects, events, and people that are similar in some way are represented by concepts. Concepts
enable us to respond appropriately to stimuli in the environment and to identify novel objects. Some concepts, such as
geometrical shapes and kinship terms, may be represented by a unique set of properties or features (e.g., triangle—three
sides, interior angles sum to 180 degrees). Most concepts are represented by a best or most typical example, or prototype. An
apple, for example, may be the prototypical fruit. Other objects are categorized as fruits to the extent that they resemble an
apple.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
132.
Algorithm vs. heuristic. An algorithm is a rule that is guaranteed to produce a solution to a problem if it is applied correctly.
An example might be a formula in physics: If F = MA is appropriately applied to a particular word problem, the solution will
result. A heuristic is a cognitive strategy that may result in the solution to a problem, but it is not guaranteed to do so.
Heuristics require less time, expertise, and cognitive effort to apply than do algorithms. In addition, for certain problems, no
algorithm may exist. An example of a heuristic is to assume that one can afford the mortgage to a house if the house costs 2.5
times one's salary or less; applying this rule is easier than calculating and projecting mortgages for houses of different prices.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
133.
Can computers think? Provide as thoughtful an answer as you can, considering the ability of current computers to solve
complex problems and to demonstrate creativity.
Computers can solve complex problems. For example, computer programs can evaluate potential chess moves and ignore
unimportant possibilities. Computers can also create new compositions in the style of such masters as Bach, complete with
the full scope and emotional appeal of actual Bach works.
It is a matter of opinion, though, as to whether mimicking someone else's creativity is the same as being completely original
on one's own.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
134.
Well-defined vs. ill-defined problems. In well-defined problems, the nature of the problem is clear, as is the information
needed to solve it. An example might be an algebra word problem. In ill-defined problems, either or both the nature of the
problem or the information needed to solve it is unclear. Determining how to get along with a prickly supervisor may be one
example.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
135.
Identify and describe three different problem-solving strategies described in your text. Suggest how each strategy might be
fruitfully applied in one or more college courses.
The answer should mention the strategies described below. Examples may vary.
Means-ends analysis: Means-ends analysis involves repeatedly comparing the current state of the problem to the goal state
and attempting to reduce the difference between the two. In an art course, for example, one might have an idea of the piece
one would like to create; one might try to reduce the difference between the current piece and the desired one by shading
here, adding a brush stroke there, smoothing this portion of the clay a little, and so on.
Forming subgoals: This strategy involves dividing a problem into a series of intermediate steps, then solving those. A
computer program assignment might offer an example: one might code one section of the program, then another, and so on.
A term paper might be divided into separate introduction, body, conclusion, and reference assignments.
Working backward: The strategy involves focusing on the goal rather than the current state of the problem, then determining
the action that would most immediately produce the goal. A common example is looking up the answer to a mathematics
problem, and then figuring out the preceding steps.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
136.
How do psychologists define creativity? Identify some of the cognitive processes and personality characteristics that appear
to be associated with creativity. How might you describe the relationship between creativity and intelligence? To what extent
does this relationship reflect the traditional assessment of intelligence?
Creativity—the ability to generate novel, yet appropriate solutions to problems. Creativity is associated with divergent
thinking—considering multiple, original answers to questions or solutions to problems. It is associated with a preference for
cognitive complexity—a preference for elaborate or intricate stimuli or thought patterns. Creative individuals often have
wide-ranging interests and an interest in abstract or philosophical problems. They tend to be independent and autonomous.
Creativity is only weakly associated with intelligence, probably because traditional intelligence tests are strongly centered on
convergent, rather than divergent, thinking problems.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
137.
Describe several techniques that may improve critical or creative thinking. How might these techniques help problem solvers
overcome some of the impediments to effective problem solving?
The answer should identify three of the following techniques. Definitions should be provided where necessary.
Adopt a critical perspective—evaluate assumptions and arguments carefully, rather than passively accepting them.
Use analogies—look for parallel examples outside the problem, such as in the animal world.
These strategies may help one break out of the confines of mental set and functional fixedness, that is, persisting in old
patterns of problem solving and considering only the most conventional uses of objects.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
138.
Your friend asks you, "So, what did you do last night?" Write two or three sentences in response to your friend; use your
sentences to illustrate the three components of language described in your text.
"I met two friends for pizza. We then went to the library for two hours to work on a homework assignment. After that, I
watched TV for a while."
Phonemes: speech sounds. The vowel sound in "I" and the beginning consonant in "met" are examples.
Syntax: rules to order words so that the appropriate meaning is communicated. For example, in the last sentence, "TV
watched I" would not convey the idea that it was I who watched the television set. Similarly, "Met pizza friends I two" would
barely get across the idea of what happened, if at all.
Semantics: the external meaning of language. Taken together, the three sentences in the example allow the listener to
construct a mental picture or model of how the evening went; they take the listener into a meaningful world.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
139.
Describe babbling, telegraphic speech, and overgeneralization. Provide an example of each. At which ages might you expect
children to demonstrate each of these language development phenomena?
The answer should include definitions and examples similar to the following:
Babbling: Speech-like but meaningless sounds, such as "goo goo, ga, ga." Children babble from about 3 months to
approximately 1 year of age.
Telegraphic speech: Brief sentence-like constructions which omit noncritical words. Example: "Mommy home." Telegraphic
speech is common around age 2.
Overgeneralization: Applying grammatical rules even when doing so results in an error. Example: "It costed one dollar."
Overgeneralization is common among children 3-4 years of age.
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
140.
Contrast learning-theory and nativist approaches to language development. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of each
approach.
Learning theory: By this account, language is acquired through reinforcement—parents shape their children's successive
approximations to adult language. The more parents speak to their children, the more proficient the children become in their
native language. However, in reality, adults reinforce incorrect language use by their children just as often as they reinforce
correct use, calling into question the central role of shaping in the theory.
Nativist theory: Associated with Noam Chomsky, the nativist approach to language development suggests that humans have
an innate capacity to acquire language that unfolds as a result of biological maturation. All the world's languages share a
common underlying structure called a universal grammar. The brain has a neural system called the language-acquisition
device that allows us to acquire this universal grammar, as well as develop strategies for learning our particular language.
Neuroscientists have identified brain areas closely involved in language; in addition, genes have been identified that
contribute to language acquisition. Critics of the nativist approach suggest that the ability of nonhuman animals—e.g.,
chimpanzees—to acquire language argues against such uniquely human constructs as a universal grammar and a language-
acquisition device.
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Residuen, die je nach den Hypothesen über das Verhältnis von Leib
und Seele als physiologische, psychische oder psycho-
physiologische gedeutet werden. Beliebig herausgegriffene Beispiele
wissenschaftlicher Theorien sind ferner: die Atomtheorie der Materie
(Demokrit; Dalton); die Newtonsche Gravitationstheorie (Annahme
einer Schwerkraft zur Erklärung der Anziehung der Weltkörper); die
Relativitätstheorie Einsteins; die Quantentheorie Plancks; die
James-Langesche Gefühlstheorie; die W. A. Wolffsche Theorie über
die Entstehung der Homerischen Epen.
Eine Theorie kann als bewiesen gelten, sofern sie mit allen durch
die Erfahrung zureichend begründeten Tatsachen in Einklang steht;
sie ist widerlegt, wo sie zu einer oder mehreren dieser Tatsachen in
Widerspruch rückt. Allemal also, wo sie eine als gültig gesicherte
Tatsache nicht zu erklären weiß, macht sich das Bedürfnis nach
einem neuen, besseren Erklärungsversuch fühlbar. So mußten z. B.
die geozentrische Theorie des Aristoteles und Ptolemäus der
heliozentrischen des Kopernikus, die Newtonsche Emissions- und
Huyghenssche Undulationstheorie des Lichtes der
elektromagnetischen Lichttheorie von Maxwell und Hertz, die
Phlogistontheorie von Stahl und Becher der Lavoisierschen
Verbrennungstheorie, die Gallsche Schädellehre sowie die
Flourenssche Indifferenztheorie des Großhirns der Lokalisations-
oder Zentrentheorie der neueren Physiologen weichen. Andere
Theorien liegen — als mögliche, einander ausschließende
Erklärungsversuche — lange Zeit hindurch miteinander im Kampfe,
bis eine von ihnen — meist die einfachere — als die
wahrscheinlichste die anderen verdrängt. Hierhin gehören z. B. die
verschiedenen Hypothesen, die das biologische Gesetz von der
Variation der Arten erklären (die Darwinsche Selektions-, die
Wagnersche Migrations-, die Vriessche Mutationstheorie); ferner die
nativistische (Hering) und empiristische (Helmholtz) Theorie vom
Ursprung der Raumwahrnehmung; die vitalistischen und
mechanistischen Hypothesen zur Erklärung der Lebensvorgänge;
die parallelistische und Wechselwirkungstheorie des Verhältnisses
von Leib und Seele; die erkenntnistheoretischen Theorien des
Idealismus und Realismus, Rationalismus und Empirismus u. a. m.
Der W e r t einer wissenschaftlichen Theorie ist im allgemeinen
abhängig von ihrer F r u c h t b a r k e i t . Auch später als falsch erkannte
Deutungsversuche haben der Wissenschaft unschätzbare Dienste
erwiesen, indem sie — eine vorübergehende Beruhigung des
Geistes in den brennendsten Fragen gewährend — einen
rückhaltlosen Fortschritt der Forschung ermöglichten. Von diesem
Standpunkt aus ist selbst fernliegenden, uns heute vielleicht fast
abenteuerlich erscheinenden Hypothesen der ihnen zukommende
wissenschaftliche Wert nicht abzusprechen. Man nennt solche
Erklärungsversuche, die als unbewiesen Jahrzehnte, ja vielleicht
Jahrhunderte hindurch die vorübergehende Grundlage der
Weiterforschung bilden, A r b e i t s hypothesen. Arbeitshypothesen in
diesem Sinne waren in der älteren Wissenschaft die physiologische
Theorie der Lebensgeister, die auf Aristoteles zurückgehend die
Physiologie des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts beherrschte; die Fluida-
Theorie der magnetischen und elektrischen Erscheinungen sowie
der Nervenerregung, die Mesmersche Theorie des tierischen
Magnetismus u. a.; Arbeitstheorien in diesem Sinne sind in der
Gegenwart die Atom- und Molekular-, die Ionen- und
Elektronentheorie der modernen Physik und Chemie sowie die
Parallelismustheorie des Verhältnisses von Körper und Geist in der
neueren Psychologie. — „Die Laien sind darüber betroffen“ — sagt
H. P o i n c a r é gelegentlich (Wiss. u. Hyp., dtsch., 3. Aufl. 1914, S.
161) —, „wie viele wissenschaftliche Theorien vergänglich sind.
Nach einigen Jahren des Gedeihens sehen sie dieselben
nacheinander aufgegeben; sie sehen voraus, daß die Theorien, die
heutzutage Mode sind, in kurzer Zeit vergessen werden, und sie
schließen daraus, daß diese Theorien absolut eitel sind. — Aber ihr
Skeptizismus ist oberflächlich; denn sie geben sich keine
Rechenschaft von dem Ziele und der Rolle, welche
wissenschaftliche Theorien spielen sollen ...“ — Diese Rolle besteht
eben darin, gegebene Erscheinungen nach dem jeweiligen Stande
der Forschung auf die einfachste und befriedigendste Weise zu
erklären und dadurch dem Fortgang der wissenschaftlichen
Untersuchungen Tür und Tor zu öffnen.
6. Die Klassifikation und das Begriffssystem der
Wissenschaften.
II.
Kirschen schmecken süß und angenehm.
Tollkirschen sind den Kirschen ähnlich.
Tollkirschen werden süß und angenehm schmecken.