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Contents
Preface xvii
About the Authors xxiii
1 The Development Through Life Perspective 3
CASE STUDY Ruth Hamilton 4 CASE STUDY Rose 12

Assumptions of the Text 5 The Life Span 13
Life Expectancy 13
A Psychosocial Approach: The Interaction Group Differences in Life Expectancy 14
of the Biological, Psychological, and Societal Factors That Contribute to Longevity 15
Systems 6 Education 15
The Biological System 6 Social Integration 15
The Psychological System 7 Diet 16
Meaning Making 7 Exercise 16
The Societal System 8
The Psychosocial Impact of Poverty 9 Chapter Summary 16
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Poverty 10
Overview of the Psychosocial Approach 11
2 Major Theories for Understanding Human Development 19
CASE STUDY Jack Manasky and His Daughter Cognitive Developmental Theories 32
Marilyn 20 Basic Concepts in Piaget’s Theory 32
Stages of Development 32
What Is a Theory? 20 Implications of Piaget’s Theory for Human Development 33
Requirements of a Theory 21 Vygotsky’s Concepts of Cognitive Development 34
Requirements for Theories of Development 22 Lower and Higher Mental Processes 34
Culture as a Mediator of Cognitive Structuring 34
The Theory of Evolution 23 Movement from Intermental to Intramental 35
Ethology 23 Inner Speech 35
Evolutionary Psychology 24 The Zone of Proximal Development 35
Implications for Human Development 25 Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory for Human
Links to the Psychosocial Approach 25 Development 35
Links to the Psychosocial Approach 36
Psychoanalytic Theory 26
Five Components of Psychoanalytic Theory 26 Theories of Learning 37
Motivation and Behavior 26 Social Learning Theory 37
Domains of Consciousness 26 Implications of Social Learning Theory
Three Structures of Personality 27 for Human Development 38
Stages of Development 28 Cognitive Behaviorism 38
Defense Mechanisms 28 APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Cognitive
Object Relations Theory 29 Behavioral Therapy 39
Ego Psychology 30 Implications of Cognitive Behaviorism
Implications for Human Development 30 for Human Development 39
Links to the Psychosocial Approach 31 Links to the Psychosocial Approach 40
Cultural Theory 40 APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Role Strain and
Cultural Continuity and Discontinuity 41 Parenthood 45
Individualism and Collectivism 41 Links to the Psychosocial Approach 46
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: Systems Theory 47
Implications of Individualism and Collectivism Characteristics of Open Systems 47
for Parenting Practices: 42 Ecological Systems Theory 47
Implications for Human Development 43 Implications for Human Development 49
Links to the Psychosocial Approach 43 A Systems View of Families 49
Social Role Theory 44 Links to the Psychosocial Approach 50
Implications for Human Development 44 Chapter Summary 51
3 Psychosocial Theory 55
The Rationale for Emphasizing Psychosocial The Central Process for Resolving the Psychosocial
Theory 56 Crisis 67
Radius of Significant Relationships 68
CASE STUDY Erik H. Erikson 57
Contexts of Development 69
Basic Concepts of Psychosocial Theory 57 Coping 70
Stages of Development 60 Prime Adaptive Ego Qualities 72
Developmental Tasks 62 Core Pathologies 72
Psychosocial Crisis 64 Evaluation of Psychosocial Theory 73
Psychosocial Crises of the Life Stages 65
Strengths 73
Unforeseen Crises 65
Weaknesses 74
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Using A Recap of Psychosocial Theory 76
Autobiographical Memories to Explore Psychosocial Stages
of Life 66 Chapter Summary 77
4 The Period of Pregnancy and Prenatal Development 81
CASE STUDY Experiencing Pregnancy 82 Normal Fetal Development 92

Fertilization 92
Genetics and Development 82 Twins 93
Chromosomes and Genes as Sources Infertility and Alternative Means of Reproduction 93
of Genetic Information 82 Ethical Considerations of ART 94
The Principles of Heredity 83
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Reproductive
Alleles 84
Technologies 95
Genotype and Phenotype 84
Adoption 96
Epigenetics 84
Development in the First Trimester 97
Sex-Linked Characteristics 86
The Germinal Period 97
Genetic Sources of Individual Differences 86
The Embryonic Period 97
Mutations 86
The Fetal Period 99
Genetic Determinants of the Rate
Development in the Second Trimester 100
and Sequence of Development 87
Development in the Third Trimester 101
Genetic Determinants of Individual Traits 87
Advantages of a Full-Term Fetus 101
Genetic Determinants of Abnormal Development 88
Genetic Technology and Psychosocial Evolution 89 The Birth Process 102
Ethical Considerations 89 Stages of Labor 102
Gene X Environment Interactions and Behavior 90 Cesarean Delivery 102
Genetics and Intelligence 90 Infant Mortality 102
The Norm of Reaction 91
vi CONTENTS
The Mother, the Fetus, and the Psychosocial The Cultural Context of Pregnancy and
Environment 103 Childbirth 115
The Impact of the Fetus on the Pregnant Woman 103 Reactions to Pregnancy 115
Changes in Roles and Social Status 103 Solicitude Versus Shame 115
Being Pregnant Changes a Woman’s
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: Couvade 116
Emotional State 104
Adequacy Versus Vulnerability 116
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: The Reactions to Childbirth 117
Doula or Birth Companion 105
Fathers’ Involvement During Pregnancy 105 Applied Topic: Abortion 120
Fathers’ Involvement in Labor and Delivery 107 What Is Abortion? 120
CASE STUDY A Father’s Recollections About His The Legal and Political Context
Daughter’s Birth 107 of Abortion in the United States 120
The Impact of the Pregnant Woman Statistics About Legal Abortions
on the Fetus 108 and the Women Who Have Them 122
The Impact of Poverty 108 The Psychosocial Impact of Abortion 122
Mother’s Age 108 CASE STUDY Karen and Don 123
Maternal Drug Use 109 Men’s Reactions to Abortion 124
Environmental Toxins 112
Mother’s Diet 112 Chapter Summary 125
Stress and Fetal Development 113
Summary 114
5 Infancy (First 24 Months) 129

CASE STUDY
A Close Look at a Mother–Infant Understanding the Nature of Objects and Creating
Interaction 130 Categories 146
The Prefrontal Cortex and Infant Intelligence 148
Newborns 131 Communication 148
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Very Small Language Perception 149
Babies 132 Babbling 149
Communication with Gestures 149
Developmental Tasks 133 Early Grammar Recognition 150
First Words 151
The Development of Sensory/Perceptual and Motor
Attachment 151
Functions 133
The Development of Attachment 152
Brain Development in Infancy 133
Stranger Anxiety 153
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: The Impact Separation Anxiety 153
of Early Life Stress on Subsequent Brain Development 135 Formation of Attachments with Mother, Father,
Sensory/Perceptual Development 136 and Others 154
The Interconnected Nature of Sensory/Perceptual Patterns of Attachment 154
Capacities 139 Parental Sensitivity and the Quality of Attachment 155
Motor Development 140
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Is There a
Motor Milestones 141
Sensitive Period for Attachment? 156
The Contributions of Nature and Nurture
The Relevance of Attachment to Subsequent
in Motor Development 142
Development 158
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: The Dynamic APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: The
Development of Stepping 143 Neuroscience of Attachment 159
Sensorimotor Intelligence: Processing, Organizing, and Using Critique of the Attachment Paradigm 160
Information 144 Emotional Development 161
Information-Processing Abilities 144 Emotional Differentiation 161
Causal Schemes 145
CONTENTS vii
Emotions as a Key to Understanding Meaning 163 The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core
The Ability to Regulate Emotions 163 Pathology 171
CASE STUDY The Cotton Family 165 Hope 171
Emotions as a Channel for Adult-Infant Withdrawal 172
Communication 166
Applied Topic: The Role of Parents 172
The Psychosocial Crisis: Trust Versus Safety and Nutrition 173
Mistrust 168 Safety 173
Trust 168 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: Sensitive Care in
Mistrust 168 Two Cultures 174
Nutrition 175
The Central Process for Resolving the Crisis: Fostering Socioemotional and Cognitive Development 175
Mutuality with the Caregiver 169 Fathers’ and Mothers’ Parental Behaviors 176
Coordination, Mismatch, and Repair of Interactions 170 Parents as Advocates 178
Establishing a Functional Rhythm in the Family 171 The Importance of Social Support 178
Parents with Psychological Problems 171 Chapter Summary 179
6 Toddlerhood (Ages 2 to 4 Years) 183
CASE STUDY
Harrison Struggles in the Transition to The Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy Versus
Preschool 184 Shame and Doubt 211
Developmental Tasks 184 Autonomy 212
Shame and Doubt 213
Elaboration of Locomotion 185
Locomotion and Cognition 185 The Central Process: Imitation 213
Dynamic Systems Theory and Locomotion 185
Landmarks of Motor Development 185 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: Toilet
Locomotion and Play 186 Training 214
Motor Impairments 187 The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core
Language Development 187 Pathology 215
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: How the Brain Will 216
Processes Language 188 Compulsion 216
Communicative Competence 189
Language Milestones in Toddlerhood 189 The Impact of Poverty on Psychosocial
The Language Environment 193 Development in Toddlerhood 217
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: Poverty and Brain Development 217
Bilingualism 195 Poverty and Health 217
Fantasy Play 199 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: Autism Spectrum
The Nature of Pretend Play 199 Disorder 218
The Capacity for Pretense 199 Poverty Impacts the Parenting Environment 219
How Fantasy Play Changes During Toddlerhood 200 Poverty and Academic Outcomes 219
Theoretical Views about the Contributions of Fantasy Play Poverty Worldwide 219
to Development 201
The Role of Play Companions 202 Applied Topic: Child Care 220
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Imaginary The Impact of Child Care on Intelligence, Cognition, and
Companions 203 Academic Achievement 221
Self-Control 204 The Impact of Child Care on Social Competence 222
Control of Impulses 204 Child Care and Physical Activity 223
Benefits Associated with Head Start 224
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: The Expression
Directions for the Future of Child Care in the United
and Control of Angry Feelings 205
States 224
Increasing Sensitivity to the Distress of Others 206
Self-Directed Goal Attainment 210 Chapter Summary 225
viii CONTENTS
7 Early School Age (4 to 6 Years) 229
CASE STUDY
Gloria Remembers Being Peer Play 255
5 Years Old 230 Group Games 255
Media Play 255
Developmental Tasks 230 Income Inequality and Media Access 256
Gender Identification 231 Friendship Groups 257
CASE STUDY Gender Identification in Early
Childhood 231 The Psychosocial Crisis: Initiative Versus
A Framework for Thinking About Gender Guilt 259
Identification 232 Initiative 259
Understanding Gender 233 Guilt 260
Gender-Role Standards and Sex Stereotypes 234
The Central Process: Identification 262
Identification with Parents 235
Gender Preference 235 The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Children Pathology 263
Raised by LGBT Parents 236 Purpose 263
Early Moral Development 238 Inhibition 264
Internalization 239
Five Theoretical Perspectives on Moral Development 239 Applied Topic School Readiness 264
CASE STUDY Early Learning About Obedience 243 What Do We Mean by Readiness? 265
Empathy, Caring, and Perspective Taking 244 Measuring Kindergarten Readiness 265
Parental Discipline 245 Risk Factors for School Readiness 266
The Impact of Media, Including Television and Video Who Is Responsible for Meeting the Goal for School
Games, on Moral Development 246 Readiness? 267
Review of Influences on Moral Development 248 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY:
Self-Theory 250 Supporting School Readiness for Young Children
The Neuroscience of the Self 250 with Disabilities 268
The Me and the I 251
Developmental Changes in the Self-Theory 251
Chapter Summary 268
Culture and the Self-Theory 252
Self-Esteem 253
8 Middle Childhood (6 to 12 Years) 271
CASE STUDY Recollections of Childhood Friends 272 APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: What Is
Intelligence? 289
Developmental Tasks 273 Early Deprivation and Skill Development 290
Friendship 273 Reading 291
Family Influences on Social Competence 273
Three Contributions of Friendship HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: Cross-national
to Social Development 275 Comparisons of Mathematics Ability 292
Loneliness 277 Self-Evaluation 294
Rejection 279 Feelings of Pride 295
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Bullying 280 Self-Efficacy 295
Concrete Operations 281 CASE STUDY Becca 296
Conservation 282 Social Expectations 297
Classification Skills 284 Illusions of Incompetence and Competence 298
Computational Skills 285 Team Play 300
Metacognition 286 Health and Fitness 300
Skill Learning 287 Interdependence 301
Features of Skilled Learning 288 Division of Labor 301
Principles of Skill Development 288 Competition 301
CONTENTS ix
Cooperation 302 Competence 310
In-Group and Out-Group Attitudes 302 Inertia 310
Team Play as a Context for Development 303
Applied Topic: Violence in the Lives
The Psychosocial Crisis: Industry Versus of Children 311
Inferiority 304
Consequences of Exposure to Violence 311
Industry 304 Children as Victims of Violence 311
Inferiority 305 Exposure to Violence and Aggressive Behaviors 312
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: Disabilities of Exposure to Violence Disrupts Cognitive and
Childhood and School Success 306 Emotional Development 312
Preventing Violence 312
The Central Process: Education 308
Chapter Summary 313
The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core
Pathology 310
9 Early Adolescence (12 to 18 Years) 317
CASE STUDY
Evelyn Cabrera: Balancing Autonomy and Criticisms of the Concept of Formal Operational
Closeness in Early Adolescence 318 Thought 342
Emotional Development 343
Developmental Tasks 319 The Neuroscience of Emotion and Cognition 344
Physical Maturation 319 The Diversity of Emotions in Adolescence 345
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Sleep Loss in Internalizing and Externalizing Problems 346
Adolescence 320 APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Adolescent
CASE STUDY Simone Biles: Three Time Suicide 350
World All-Around Gymnastics Membership in the Peer Group 352
Champion 321 Cliques and Crowds 353
Signposts of Puberty for Girls 321 Group Boundaries and Norms 354
Reactions to Breast Development and Menarche 322 Parents and Peers 355
Concerns About Obesity 322
Signposts of Puberty for Boys 323 The Psychosocial Crisis: Group Identity Versus
Boys’ Reactions to the Physical Alienation 356
Changes of Puberty 323 Group Identity 356
Cultural Contexts of Puberty 324 Cognitive Processes That Support the Formation of Group
The Secular Growth Trend 325 Identity 357
Individual Differences in the Timing Four Types of Experiences That Build a Group
and Rate of Change 325 Identity 358
Romantic and Sexual Relationships 327 Ethnic Group Identity 359
The Transition into Sexualized Relationships 327 Alienation 360
Factors Affecting the Initiation The Contribution of Alienation to Group Identity
of Sexual Intercourse 329 and Individual Identity 361
The Effects of Religious Beliefs
on Sexual Behavior 330 The Central Process: Peer Pressure 362
Sexual Orientation 330 Affiliating with a Peer Group 363
Transgender Youth 333 Conflicts Between Belonging
Problems and Conflicts Associated with and Personal Autonomy 363
Sexuality 333 The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality
Parenthood in Early Adolescence 336
and the Core Pathology 363
Formal Operations 338
Brain Development in Adolescence 338 Fidelity to Others 363
Piaget’s Theory of Formal Operational Thought 339 APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Youth
Six Characteristics of Formal Operational Thought 340 Gangs 364
Factors That Promote Formal Operational Thought 340 Dissociation 365
x CONTENTS
Applied Topic: Adolescent Alcohol Cognitive Factors 367
and Drug Use 366 Motivation and Emotion 367
Physical Effects of Alcohol 367 The Social Contexts of Alcohol Use 368
Factors Associated with Alcohol Use 367 Chapter Summary 368
10 Later Adolescence (18 to 24 Years) 373
CASE STUDY
Growing Up Through Divorce: A College The Psychosocial Crisis: Individual Identity
Student’s Insights 374 Versus Identity Confusion 399
Developmental Tasks 375 Individual Identity 399
The Private and Public Faces of Identity 399
Autonomy from Parents 375
The Content and Evaluation
Autonomy and Leaving Home 377
Components of Identity 400
Autonomy and the College Experience 377
Revision of Attachment to Parents 378 CASE STUDY Houston A. Baker, Jr. 400
Autonomy and Self-Sufficiency 379 Identity Status 401
Identity Confusion 402
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Attachment
Developmental Progression 403
and Identity Formation 380
Identity Formation for Men and Women 403
Gender Identity 381
The Role of Culture 382 The Central Process: Role Experimentation 404
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: Third Psychosocial Moratorium 404
Genders 383 Individual Differences in Role Experimentation 405
Reevaluating Gender Constancy 384 CASE STUDY Turning Points in the Identity Process 406
Reevaluating Earlier Gender-Role Standards and Learning Role Experimentation and Ethnic Identity 406
New Ones 384 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: Ethnic Identity
Revising Childhood Identifications 385 and Adjustment 408
Adding a Sexual Dimension to Gender Identity 385
Integrating One’s Gender Identity 387 The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core
Internalized Morality 388 Pathology 408
New Cognitive Capacities 388 Fidelity to Values and Ideologies 409
Stages of Moral Reasoning 389 Repudiation 409
Experiences That Promote Moral Reasoning 389
A Maturing Moral Identity 390 Applied Topic: Dropping Out of College 409
Career Choice 392 Financial Factors 410
Work Experiences in Early Adolescence 392 Academic Preparation 410
Factors Influencing Career Choice 392 Personal Factors 410
Career Decision Making 395 Characteristics of the College Environment 412
Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy 397 The Consequences of Dropping Out of College 412
The Impact of the Labor Market on Career Decision
Chapter Summary 413
Making 398
11 Early Adulthood (24 to 34 Years) 417
CASE STUDY
Changing Work to Recapture Love and Fulfillment Theories 422
Happiness 418 Competence 422
Self-Acceptance 422
Expanding Theoretical Views of Adult Self-Actualization 422
Development 418
Social Roles 419
Life Course 420
CONTENTS xi
Developmental Tasks 424 The Psychosocial Crisis: Intimacy Versus
Exploring Intimate Relationships 425 Isolation 455
Readiness to Form Intimate Relationships 425 Intimacy 455
Readiness to Marry 426 CASE STUDY In Sickness and in Health 455
Phases in the Selection of a Partner 426 Intimacy in the Work Setting 456
CASE STUDY Hannah and Matt: An Online Dating Isolation 456
Couple’s Story 428 Social Anxiety 456
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Attachment Loneliness 457
Styles and Relationship Formation 430 Depression 457
Cohabitation 432 Fragile Identity 458
Close Relationships Between Partners of the Same Sexual Disorders 458
Sex 433 Situational Factors 458
Adjustment During the Early Years of Marriage 435 Drifting Apart 459
Childbearing 438 The Central Process: Mutuality Among Peers 459
Fertility Rate 439
Decisions About Childbearing 439 The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: The Reproductive Pathology 460
Career of the Gusii 440 Love 460
Adjustment During Pregnancy and Childbearing 442 Exclusivity 461
The Dual Roles of Intimate Partner and Parent 442
Nonmarital Childbearing 443 Applied Topic: Divorce 461
Adoption 443 Factors Contributing to Divorce 461
The Decision Not to Have Children 444 Age at Marriage 462
Work 445 Socioeconomic Level 462
The World of Work 445 Socioemotional Development of the Partners 463
Poverty and Career Opportunities 449 Family History of Divorce 463
Career Phases and Individual Development 449 Coping with Divorce 464
Lifestyle 449 Attachment to a Former Spouse 464
Pace of Life 451 Coping Strategies 465
Social Network 451
Chapter Summary 465
Striving for Work/Life Balance 452
Health, Fitness, and Nutrition 453
12 Middle Adulthood (34 to 60 Years) 469
CASE STUDY
Reinventing Family in Middle HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY:
Adulthood 470 Menopause 484
Expanding Caring Relationships 485
Developmental Tasks 471 Parenting 485
Managing a Career 471 Fathering 485
Achieving New Levels of Competence Developmental Stages of Families 486
in the World of Work 471 Caring for One’s Aging Parents 489
Midlife Career Changes 474 CASE STUDY A Daughter Cares for Her Ailing
The Impact of Joblessness 475 Mother 491
Balancing Work and Family Life 477 Managing the Household 492
Nurturing an Intimate Relationship 480 Managing Resources and Meeting Needs 493
Characteristics of the Partners 480 Building Networks and Coalitions 493
Partners’ Interpersonal Interactions 481
Partners’ Commitment to Nurturing APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE:
the Future of the Relationship 482 Homelessness 494
Remarriage and Blended families 495
CASE STUDY The Struggle for Commitment to Growth in
One-Parent Families 496
a Vital Marriage 482
People Who Live Alone 497
Preserving Passion in a Long-Term Relationship 483
xii CONTENTS
The Psychosocial Crisis: Generativity Versus Applied Topic: Discrimination in the
Stagnation 498 Workplace 505
Generativity 498 Types of Discrimination 505
Measuring Generativity 499 Sex Discrimination 505
CASE STUDY My Leadership Journey: Health and Race Discrimination 506
Generative Action 500 Age Discrimination 506
Stagnation 501 Disability Discrimination 506
Narcissism 501 Overview of Discrimination 506
Depression 501 Disparities in Income and the Occupational Structure 507
How Discrimination Perpetuates Itself 507
The Central Process: Person–Environment Psychosocial Analysis: Discrimination and Coping 508
Interaction and Creativity 502 Chapter Summary 509
Person–Environment Interaction 502
Creativity 503
Pathology 504
Care 504
Rejectivity 505
13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) 513
CASE STUDY Reflections on Retirement 514 APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Patterns
of Adaptation During Widowhood 535
Developmental Tasks 515
Developing a Point of View About Death 537
Accepting One’s Life 515 Changing Perspectives About Death 537
The SOC Model 516
CASE STUDY Morrie Schwartz Reflects on His Views
Life Goals and Life Satisfaction 516
About Death 538
CASE STUDY Goal Adjustment in Later Death Anxiety 539
Adulthood 518
Social Integration and Well-Being 518 The Psychosocial Crisis: Integrity Versus
Personality and Well-Being 518 Despair 539
Illness, Disability and Health 519 Integrity 540
Erikson on Accepting One’s Life 520 Despair 540
The U-Shaped Curve of Well-Being 520 Depression 541
Promoting Intellectual Vigor 521 The Central Process: Introspection 541
Problems in Defining and Studying Intelligence in Later
Adulthood 522 The Prime Adaptive Ego Quality and the Core
Neuroplasticity and Aging 522 Pathology 542
Memory 523 Wisdom 542
Solving Loosely Defined Problems 524 Disdain 543
Patterns of Change in Different Mental Abilities 524
Applied Topic: Retirement 544
The Interaction of Heredity and Environment on Mental
Functioning 526 Income Loss 544
Adjustment to Retirement 544
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Can Computer Benefits of Retirement 545
“Brain Games” Prevent or Reverse Cognitive Decline
Difficulties with Retirement 546
Associated with Aging? 527
Redirecting Energy to New Roles and Activities 528 CASE STUDY Anna Quindlen Writes About Retiring as
“Stepping Aside” for the Next Generation
Grandparenthood 528
of Writers 546
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: Intergenerational Retirement for Couples 547
Relationships in Various Ethnic Groups 530 The Future of Retirement 547
Widowhood 533
Leisure Activities 535 Chapter Summary 548
CONTENTS xiii
14 Elderhood (75 Until Death) 551
CASE STUDY Fred Hale, Supercentenarian 552 The Psychosocial Crisis: Immortality Versus
Extinction 574
The Longevity Revolution 552
Immortality 574
Secrets to Longevity 553
The Blue Zone 554 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: The Responsibility
The Gender Gap Among the Very Old 554 of Native Hawaiians for Their Ancestors’ Remains 575
A New Psychosocial Stage: Elderhood 554 Extinction 576
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Erikson on
Developmental Tasks 555 Coping with Aging 577
Coping with the Physical Changes of Aging 555
Fitness 556 The Central Process: Social Support 577
Sleep and Rest 557 The Benefits of Social Support 577
Behavioral Slowing 558 The Dynamics of Social Support 578
Sensory Changes 559 The Social Support Network 578
Coping with Sensory Changes 561
Health, Illness, Disability, and Functional
Independence 561 Pathology 580
Confidence 580
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE:
Diffidence 580
Dementia 563
Developing a Psychohistorical Perspective 564 Applied Topic: Meeting the Needs of the Frail
Traveling Uncharted Territory: Life Structures in Elderly 580
Elderhood 566 Defining Frailty 581
Living Arrangements 567 Supporting Optimal Functioning 582
APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: The Impact The Role of the Community 582
of Gentrification on the Elderly 570 The Role of Creative Action 584
CASE STUDY Mr. Z 571
Chapter Summary 584
Gender-Role Definitions 572
Romance and Sexuality 573
15 Understanding Death, Dying, and Bereavement 587

CASE STUDY Too Late to Die Young 588 Bereavement and Grief 600
Mortality and Psychosocial Development 588 Bereavement 600
Bereavement and Coping with Stress 600
Definitions of Death 589 Grief 601
Advance Directives 590 Grief Work 601
Bereavement and Grief Among Older Widows and
The Process of Dying 591 Widowers 601
Confronting One’s Death 591 Five Patterns of Bereavement Among Widows
The Good Death 592 and Widowers 602
Hospice Care 592 Complicated Grief 603
Euthanasia 594 Factors That Affect the Distress of Survivors 603
Ethical Issues at the End of Life 595 Unacknowledged and Stigmatized Loss 603
Death-Related Rituals 596 APPLYING THEORY AND RESEARCH TO LIFE: Ambiguous
Care of the Body 596 Loss 604
Care of the Spirit 597 Comforting the Bereaved 605
Care of the Surviving Family, Friends, Psychosocial Growth Through
and Community 597 Bereavement 606
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSITY: The Amish Way
of Death 599 Chapter Summary 607
xiv CONTENTS
Appendix The Research Process 609
The Scientific Process 610 Strengths and Limitations of the Case Study Method 615
The Positivist Approach to Research 610 Interviews 616
Scientific Observation 610 Strengths and Limitations of the Interview Method 616
The Qualitative Inquiry Approach to Research 611 Surveys and Tests 616
Strengths and Limitations of Surveys and Tests 617
Research Design 611 Experimentation 617
Sampling 612 Strengths and Limitations of the Experimental
Random Samples 612 Method 618
Stratified Samples 612
Matched Groups 612 Designs for Studying Development 618
Volunteer Samples 612 Retrospective Studies 618
The Qualitative Approach to Sampling 613 Cross-Sectional Studies 619
Strengths and Weaknesses of Approaches to Sampling 613 Longitudinal Studies 619
Research Methods 613 Cohort Sequential Studies 620
Observation 614 Evaluating Existing Research 620
Strengths and Limitations of the Observational
Method 615 Ethics 621
Case Study 615
Glossary 624
References 645
Name Index 738
Subject Index 759
CONTENTS xv
Preface
T
he first edition of Development Through Life was published human development to be more active advocates for policies that
in 1975. Since that time, an expanding scientific study of promote optimal development through the life span.
human development and increases in longevity have con- One of the troubling realities of the current historical
verged to create a remarkable revision of our understanding of period is extreme income inequality in the United States and
the life course. Insights about human development have emerged associated disparities in health, educational attainment, and
in a vibrant research environment with new interdisciplinary occupational opportunities. Despite the knowledge about
approaches to research, greater inclusion of diverse samples in effective interventions and best practices, greed among the
the United States and internationally, new statistical techniques to very top segment of the population is preventing the level of
manage multiple observations and multiple variables, and a grow- investment in programs that would improve many of the con-
ing acceptance of qualitative studies. ditions mentioned above. From a psychosocial perspective, we
Today, the years of infancy and childhood comprise a smaller see evidence of stagnation among the very wealthy that has
percentage of the life span than was the case in 1975. Research- serious implications for future societal well-being.
ers look in much greater detail at the prenatal stage as a dynamic
period when learning begins, the environment impacts the devel-
opmental trajectory, and conditions of pregnancy influence fetal The Stage Approach
growth. Genetic studies now recognize the role of the environ- The text provides a thorough chronological introduction to the
ment in silencing or enhancing gene expression in ways that can study of human development from conception through elder-
be transmitted from one generation to the next. Research on hood. We examine physical, intellectual, social, and emotional
infant development, particularly in the first days and weeks of growth in each of 11 stages, emphasizing that development results
life, has flourished, resulting in greater appreciation for the cogni- from the interdependence of these areas at every stage. This strat-
tive and sensory capacities of the newborn. The expanding field egy gives attention to important developmental themes that recur
of evolutionary psychology has shed new light on the adaptive in different stages of life. For each life stage, the process of devel-
capacities of infants and the features of the parent-infant relation- opment is linked to internal conflicts, changing self-awareness,
ships that contribute to survival and long-term growth. There is a and a dynamic social environment. As a result, students gain a
growing consensus about what constitutes effective or “good” par- sense of a multidimensional person, striving toward new levels of
enting and the cascading negative impact of harsh or neglectful competence and mastery, embedded in multiple contexts.
parenting. In our stage approach, we cover two stages of adolescence,
The application of developmental systems theory has provided early adolescence with the psychosocial crisis of group identity
many new insights into the way change occurs. We view devel- versus alienation, and later adolescence, with the psychosocial
opment as a product of the interaction of many levels at once, crisis of individual identity versus identity confusion. We are wit-
each potentially altering the others. For example, neuroimaging nessing an ever more gradual transition out of adolescence into
studies illustrate how various areas of the brain interact and influ- adulthood so that the period we call later adolescence is lasting
ence each other. As a person engages in cognitive tasks, such as well into the decade of the 20s. Research on educational and occu-
problem solving or risk assessment, areas of the brain involved pational attainment, relationships with family, and the formation
in emotion regulation, attention, motor activity, and sensory pro- of intimate bonds all point to the idea that the life commitments
cessing are all recruited. that used to be formed in the decade of the 20s are being fore-
In the current edition of Development Through Life, we have stalled for many young people into their late 20s and 30s. Studies
included discussions about conditions of life in other industrial- of brain development lend support to this view of a more gradual
ized countries. We are troubled to note many ways in which life transition from adolescence to adulthood as capacities for execu-
in the United States, as exciting and promising as it is, does not tive function become increasingly coordinated with other brain
compare favorably. As you read, you will find that infant mortal- regions governing emotional reactions and responses to stress.
ity, student performance in math and science, teen pregnancies, Life expectancy in the United States has changed over the past
school dropouts, children and adolescents who are victims of 40 years so that today those who are already age 65 can expect
violent crime, children in poverty, children who experience mul- to live an average of another 19 years. As a result, we cover two
tiple parental transitions, debt-burden in later adolescence and stages of later life: later adulthood and elderhood. Those in the
early adulthood, homelessness, and the health and longevity of period of elderhood (ages 75 and beyond) are the fastest-growing
the elderly are all less favorable in the United States than in many segment of the U.S. population. As the baby boomers age, they
other countries. These comparisons lead us to urge scholars in will contribute to an even greater proportion of the population
xvii
in elderhood. These elders will experience a period of life that is crises. We hope that the ideas presented in this text will provide
more active, more informed about healthy lifestyle practices, and these same benefits to you.
less constrained by traditional gender and family role scripts than In addition to enhancing self-understanding, the life-span
ever before. At the same time, a burst in commercialism is tar- perspective provides a broader worldview. The ego strengths and
geting older adults and making them potentially vulnerable to developmental competences of those in early, middle and later
exploitation and poor quality care. adulthood provide the resources that are needed to care for and
nurture the young. The way that elders find meaning in their lon-
Advantages of the Psychosocial gevity and approach the end of life inspire those in younger stages
to live their life with hopefulness. And now, in the context of rap-
Framework idly changing electronic media, younger children and adolescents
Psychosocial theory provides an organizing conceptual frame- are increasingly able to guide their elders in embracing new tech-
work, highlighting the continuous interaction and integration nologies. The life-span perspective helps steer interactions with
of individual competencies with the demands and resources of others so they can be optimally sensitive, supportive, and facilita-
culture. Development is viewed as a product of genetic, matura- tive for growth at each life stage.
tional, societal, and self-directed factors. The psychosocial frame-
work helps students think about how people make meaning of Effects of Cultural and Historical Contexts
their experiences and how efforts at meaning making change over
The developing person exists in a changing cultural and histori-
the life span. Applying the psychosocial framework to an analysis
cal context. Studying development over the course of life requires
of human development has the following advantages:
awareness of the ways societies change over time. The population
●● Helps to identify and emphasize themes and directions of of the U.S. has increased from 216 million in 1975 to 324 million
growth across the life span. in 2016. The diversity of this population has changed as well. For
●● Helps readers assess the influence of experiences during earlier example, in 1970 4% of the population was Hispanic; today 16%
life stages on later development. are Hispanic. Life expectancy in the U.S. in 1970 was 69 for men,
●● Clarifies how one’s past, present, and expectations of the future 77 for women; in 2010 this had increased to 76 for men and 81
are systematically connected to the lives of people who are older for women. People are waiting longer to marry, family size has
and younger, highlighting intergenerational transmission and the decreased, and more adults are voluntarily childless, resulting in
reciprocal influences of the generations. an aging population. In this context, people like to say “60 is the
●● Offers a hopeful outlook on the total life course, including posi- new 40.” For the field of human development this means that we
tive psychological capacities such as hope, purpose, love, and have to revise our ideas about chronological age and expectations
caring. for behavior.
●● Offers insight into human vulnerabilities at each life stage, In 1975 there were no cell phones, no desk top computers in
embracing these negative poles as potentially adaptive while the home, and, of course, no email, texting, Facebook, or Twitter.
recognizing the possibility that they can result in an outlook of Cell phones are now tiny hand-held computers that dramati-
extreme cautiousness, self-doubt, or social withdrawal. cally alter the way we connect with one another, entertain our-
●● Clarifies how a personal worldview develops within the context selves, and gather information. With every kind of streaming
of cultural influences and historical events. resource, people can create their own electronic environment and
●● Locates development within a framework of significant relation- take it with them, making the notion of “environment” highly
ships, emphasizing the simultaneous and complementary pro- personalized.
cesses of autonomy and connection. And amid this swirling technological change, where robots are
taking on many of the tasks that used to be done by human hands,
The Life-Span Perspective the world of work is in flux, and social values are also changing.
Dual earner couples are the norm, the boundary between home
When we wrote the first edition of Development Through Life, and work is extremely permeable, there is a great diversity of
we had just completed graduate study, had two young children, family structures, more acceptance of lifestyle choices, and fewer
and were in the midst of early adulthood. Now, at the publica- constraints about gender roles and sexuality. The task of tracing
tion of the 13th edition, we have just celebrated the birth of our patterns and pathways of development over the lifespan is becom-
fifth grandchild; our three adult children are all married, living in ing increasingly challenging.
cities across the country and thriving in their careers; and we are
experiencing the challenges of later adulthood. Effects of Poverty, Discrimination,
The psychosocial life-span perspective has been a valuable ori-
enting framework for our scholarly work as well as our personal and Other Forms of Societal Oppression
lives. It has provided insights into the birth and parenting of our The National Center for Children in Poverty at Columbia Univer-
children and grandchildren; the deaths of our parents; the suc- sity estimates that a family of four actually needs twice the income
cesses, disappointments, and transitions of our work lives; and the of the poverty level, which was $24,250 a year in 2015, to cover
conflicts and delights of our relationship as husband and wife. The basic expenses. Using this statistic, the Center estimates that 45%
themes of this book have allowed us to anticipate and cope with of children live in low-income families. The impact of poverty cas-
the challenges of adult life and to remain resilient in the face of cades through life from increased risks during the prenatal period
xviii PREFACE
through disruptions in physical, cognitive, and emotional devel- and childbirth are conceptualized, providing a model for con-
opment in infancy, childhood, adolescence, and into adult life. sidering the psychosocial process as it will unfold in subsequent
As income inequality increases and scientific evidence about chapters. The applied topic of this chapter is abortion; an issue
the impact of poverty on health, educational attainment, employ- that clearly illustrates the relevance of the field of human develop-
ment, housing, and longevity accumulates, a number of non- ment for salient personal, social and cultural perspectives.
governmental groups are taking independent actions to form
coalitions, raise awareness, and create local programs to deliver Growth and Development from Infancy to
services and support the well-being of low-resource families.
Numerous examples of the ways that poverty, discrimination, Elderhood: Chapters 5 to 14
and various forms of societal oppression affect individual devel- Chapters 5 through 14 trace basic patterns of normal growth and
opment are interwoven throughout the text. At the same time, development in infancy, toddlerhood, early school age, middle
research on resilience illustrates the remarkable capacities for childhood, early adolescence, later adolescence, early adulthood,
growth and adaptation at every period of life. middle adulthood, later adulthood, and elderhood. In these chap-
ters we consider how individuals organize and interpret their
experience, noting changes in their behavior, attitudes, world-
Organization view, and the coping strategies they use in the face of changing
environmental demands.
Guided by psychosocial theory, we return again and again to the Each chapter begins with an examination of four or five of the
ideas that human development is a social enterprise, that meaning critical developmental tasks of the stage. These tasks reflect global
making emerges in social and cultural contexts, and that indi- aspects of development, including physical maturation, sensory
viduals play a role in shaping the direction of their development. and motor competence, cognitive maturation, emotional develop-
We use case material, boxes on diversity, international data, and ment, social relationships, and self-understanding. We consider the
cultural examples to emphasize these themes. The following sum-
psychosocial crisis of each stage in some detail. We also show how
marizes the basic organization of the text. successfully resolving a crisis helps individuals develop a prime
adaptive ego quality and how unsuccessful resolution leads to a
Introducing the Field: Chapters 1 to 3 core pathology. Although most people grow developmentally—
Chapter 1 describes the orientation and assumptions of the text, albeit with pain and struggle—others do not. People who acquire
introduces the psychosocial life-span perspective, and introduces prime adaptive ego qualities are more likely to lead active, flex-
data about longevity and life expectancy, setting the stage for the ible, agentic lives, and be resilient in the face of stressors. People
idea that the lifespan unfolds in a changing historical context. who acquire core pathologies are more likely to lead withdrawn,
Chapter 2 introduces the role of theory in human development guarded lives; they are more vulnerable to stressors resulting in
and the questions that a theory of human development is expected greater risk of mental and physical health problems.
to address. The chapter outlines significant ideas about change
and growth from seven theoretical perspectives. The presenta- Applied Topics
tion of each theory emphasizes its basic features, implications for
the study of human development, and links to the psychosocial
at the End of Each Chapter
framework. Chapter 3 introduces basic concepts of psychosocial We conclude each chapter by applying research and theory to a
theory, including an analysis of its strengths and weaknesses. topic of societal importance. These applied topics provide an
opportunity for students to link the research and theory about
The Latest on Pregnancy and Prenatal normative developmental processes to the analysis of pressing
social concerns. Table 3.1 contains an overview of the basic tasks,
Development: Chapter 4 crises, and applied topics for each stage of life.
In Chapter 4, fetal development is presented, highlighting the
bidirectional influences of the fetus and the pregnant woman Understanding Death, Dying,
within her social and cultural environments. Continuing dis-
coveries in the field of behavioral genetics have been included and Bereavement: Chapter 15
in this revision. The chapter traces changes in physical and sen- Chapter 15 addresses end-of-life issues within a psychosocial
sory development across the three trimesters. The chapter covers framework. As with the developmental stage chapters, the topic
issues of infertility, alternative reproductive techniques, and ethi- illustrates the interaction of the biological, psychological, and
cal considerations surrounding their implementation. We have societal systems as they contribute to the experiences of dying,
emphasized research on the health and well-being of pregnant grieving, and bereavement. The chapter includes definitions
women and their partners, as well as risks to fetal development of death, the process of dying, death-related rituals, grief, and
associated with a pregnant woman’s exposure to a wide range bereavement, including a focus on the role of culture in shaping
of substances, especially nicotine, alcohol, caffeine, other drugs, ideas about death and expressions of grief. The chapter ends with
and environmental toxins. Poverty is discussed as a context that a discussion of the opportunities for psychosocial growth that
increases risks for suboptimal development. This chapter includes are a result of bereavement and the considerations of one’s own
a detailed description of cultural differences in the way pregnancy mortality.
PREFACE xix
Research Appendix Mental health stressors and possible psychological
reactions to childbirth for new immigrants highlight-
The Research Appendix highlights basic principles of the scien-
ing the interaction of culture with mental and physical
tific process, including the positivist and qualitative approaches
health.
to inquiry. The Appendix reviews basic topics in research design
including sampling, research methods, and designs for studying A box on the neuroscience of attachment.
development. A section on evaluating research highlights the The dynamic interaction of neurological structures and
need to approach the results of research as a critical and informed systems in the coordination of decision-making, risk
consumer, recognizing some of the limitations and biases that assessment, and responses to stress.
may be imbedded in the research process. Finally, we review ethi- Robbie Case’s theory of Central Conceptual Structures,
cal guidelines for conducting research with human participants. which integrates cognitive neuroscience and information
processing with a constructivist approach to cognitive
development.
New to This Edition The impact of poverty on health, including the long-term
consequences of early childhood poverty on adult health.
The 13th edition has retained the basic structure and positive
developmental emphasis of previous editions. We continue to The impact of harsh and neglectful parenting on brain
strive to make the text clear, readable, and thought provoking, development.
while capturing the complexities and novel concepts that make The nature of autism spectrum disorder and its treatment
the study of human development so fascinating. In this edition, in toddlerhood.
each chapter begins with case material that helps bring important The nature and prevalence of electronic media use in
themes from the chapter into focus. References to these introduc- infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood and adolescence.
tory cases are spread throughout the chapter, providing opportu- New insights about sexuality and gender in childhood,
nities to apply concepts to real-world examples. In addition, new adolescence, and adulthood.
first-person quotations have been incorporated to highlight the Research on transgender issues in childhood, adolescence,
process of meaning-making that takes place as individuals face and adulthood.
the developmental challenges of their stage of life.
Update on the impact of media on moral development in
The chapters have been rewritten with an effort to streamline
early school age.
and reorganize the material to ensure a clearer and more focused
discussion. The text has been completely updated. New research Data on the percent of young children who engage in vari-
findings, recent census data, updated results of ongoing studies ous types of daily media activities.
that collect data on new cohorts, and results of ongoing longitu- The nature and impact of cyber bullying.
dinal studies have been integrated into the narrative. The results Disability and gender atypicality as factors that make chil-
of studies using large data sets are summarized as well as some dren targets of bullying.
discussion about the difficulties associated with these studies. The use of computer-assisted match-making and dating
The 13th edition is published in a vibrant, new 4-color format. sites in adolescence and early adulthood.
The Picasso paintings, which have been so intimately woven into Issues faced by new immigrants, especially concerns with
earlier editions, are now in full color. We hope these wondrous family stability, academic success, and physical and mental
works help students see the connection between the creative health.
enterprise in art, with its experimentation, whimsy, innovation,
Added cross-cultural research that highlights social rela-
and insight, and the imaginative, playful and innovative forces at
tionships, parenting practices, academic achievement, the
work in creating a life. The 4-color format also improves read-
role of the elderly, and approaches to death, dying, and
ability, bringing increased attention to features such as section
bereavement.
headings, tables, figures, photographs, and boxes.
On the advice of reviewers, three contemporary research The impact of disability on career choice and employment.
themes have been expanded in this edition: 1. developmental The importance of exercise and its contribution to mental
neuroscience; 2. health, fitness, and disability; and 3. the impact and physical health, life satisfaction, and cognitive capaci-
of the electronic media environment. Research findings, boxes, ties across the lifespan.
tables, and case material have been introduced to extend coverage An evaluation of computer games on cognitive functioning
of these themes across the lifespan. Some examples of these addi- in later adulthood.
tions are listed below: The relationship of health, fitness, and disability to life
Updates on risks associated with prescription drugs during acceptance and well-being in later adulthood.
pregnancy. Neuroplasticity, cognitive functioning, and aging.
New information on food safety and nutrition during The importance of nutrition, exercise, and fitness as aspects
pregnancy. of lifestyle.
New approaches and data on outcomes of assisted repro- The role of neighborhood resources and design on exercise
ductive technologies. and fitness in later life.
xx PREFACE
Features That Support Learning 8. End of Chapter Summary: The chapter summaries are
organized around the learning objectives. These summary
Several features are included in the 13th edition that we expect
paragraphs are intended to remind the reader of the big
will contribute to the learning process.
ideas but do not replace a careful reading of the text.
1. Organizational Chart: There is a chart, Table 3.1, which 9. Key Terms: Key terms are boldfaced in the text, typically
provides a two-page overview of the organization of defined within the text, and also defined in the glossary.
the text.
10. Glossary: A comprehensive glossary with brief definitions
2. Chapter Outlines: A detailed outline of the chapters is can be found at the end of the text.
provided at the beginning of the book. An outline is also
11. References: A detailed list of references is provided
presented at the start of each chapter.
including references to books, chapters, articles, and
3. Chapter Learning Objectives: Each chapter begins with websites.
Learning Objectives. These objectives have been stated using
12. Index: There is both an author index and a subject index.
the six thinking processes: remember, understand, apply,
analyze, evaluate, and create.
These objectives are restated at the opening of each
related section to help highlight the primary goal for that
Acknowledgments
section of the text and are stated again in the chapter The works of Erik Erikson and Robert Havighurst have guided
summary to help students review and integrate concepts and inspired our own intellectual development. Their writ-
from the chapter. ings shaped the basic direction of psychosocial theory and have
guided an enormous amount of research in human development.
4. Opening Case: Each chapter starts with a case that brings to
They directed us to look at the process of growth and change
life one or more issues addressed in the chapter. These cases
across the life span. They recognized the intimate interweaving of
are followed by a set of questions labeled “Case Analysis:
the individual’s life story with a sociohistorical context, empha-
Using What You Know.” The purpose of these cases is
sizing societal pressures that call for new levels of functioning at
threefold: to help students become more personally attached
each life stage. In their writing, they communicated an underlying
to the concepts of the chapter; to provide a shared life
optimism about each person’s resilience, adaptability, and capac-
experience that can serve as a basis for class discussion; and
ity for growth, an outlook that finds new expression in the work
to encourage the application of concepts from the text and
of positive psychology. At the same time, they wrote with a moral
the course.
passion about our responsibility as teachers, therapists, parents,
5. Further Reflection: At the end of each section within scholars, and citizens to create a caring society. We celebrate these
the chapter, one or more suggestions are labeled “Further ideas and continue their expression in the 13th edition of Devel-
Reflection.” These are intended to prompt students to opment Through Life.
stop and think a bit about what they have just read. These We want to acknowledge the hundreds of scholars upon whose
suggestions and questions encourage students to engage work this revision is based. The science of human development
in critical thinking, evaluate the information, and link the is a growing, multidisciplinary field. Over the many editions of
information to related concepts and/or to personal life Development Through Life, we have been gratified to see the
experiences. increasing use of basic concepts from the psychosocial perspec-
6. Boxes: Two types of boxes are included in the chapters: tive to inform the research agenda. Key constructs including
Applying Theory and Research to Life and Human developmental tasks, psychosocial crisis, the radius of significant
Development and Diversity. At the end of each box, a series relationships (social support), trust, autonomy, shame and guilt,
of critical thinking questions encourage students to evaluate industry, competence, group identity, personal identity, intimacy,
and apply information. The boxes are intended to provide isolation, generativity, integrity and wisdom have become corner-
added detail to the text. In the boxes labeled Applying stones of the life-span perspective on development.
Theory and Research to Life, students are encouraged We want to express our thanks to our many students, col-
to see the relevance of human development theory and leagues, and friends who share their experiences and expertise.
research to issues in contemporary life. In the boxes labeled We are so appreciative of the faculty who continue to use this
Human Development and Diversity, topics that are covered book; they are supportive of the psychosocial stage approach and
in the text are expanded to illustrate how differences in let us know about the ways the book contributes to their students’
culture, ethnicity, family structure, economic resources, and learning. Through the years, our mentors, Bill McKeachie and Jim
disability can influence developmental pathways. Kelly, were voices of wisdom, reminding us of the values of good
7. Case material: Throughout the chapters longer cases scholarship and a generous heart. In the early part of our careers,
and short vignettes complement the descriptions of a few friends stand out as people who encouraged us and trusted
developmental issues. These cases highlight the real-life in our ability to forge this collaboration: Catherine Chilman,
experiences of individuals, sometimes illustrating how Margaret and Harold Feldman, Gisela Konopka, Anne McCreary
individuals cope with challenges at various points in life; and Juhasz, and Freda Rebelsky. Our former students Brenda Lohman
sometimes illustrating the diversity of experiences that are and Laura Landry Meyer were excellent collaborators on our life-
possible at a certain period of life. span development case book. With each new edition, we turn to
PREFACE xxi
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Plate 3.
Packs of cards closely resembling the original Tarots are still to be

found in some parts of Switzerland, Germany, and Alsace, where
they are used by the peasantry in the districts which are not much
frequented by travellers; but they are unknown to the rest of the
world except as curiosities. They are, however, the sole
representatives of the cards which the Crusaders or the gypsies
brought into Europe, and which the latter use whenever possible to
divine the future or recall the past. Some writers point to the eastern
origin of these Tarots, because in them “Death” is numbered thirteen,
and the idea of fatality or bad luck attached to that number is
essentially Oriental; and they declare that the fact that the
emblematical Atouts are numbered from low to high, just as certain
Asiatic alphabets are written from left to right, may cover a similar
interpretation.
CHESS.
A LMOST all writers on Cards have admitted the strong

resemblance they bear to Chess; and M. Paul la Croix declares
that in comparatively modern times the game of chess and games of
cards showed strikingly similar features, which demonstrated their
common origin,—the art of painting being resorted to to depict the
one, and that of sculpture to represent the other.
A pretty history of the origin of Chess has been related. It states
that the game was invented for the amusement of an Oriental
potentate, and was played with living figures, who were required to
move at the word of command from one square to another of a huge
tiled court-yard which was surrounded by the balconies of the palace
and its harem, from which all the movements of the pieces on the
pavement below could be watched by the sovereign and his court.
Living games of Chess have been played for amusement or “sweet
charity’s sake” even in modern times; but such cumbersome pieces
must have been difficult to manage, and it was only natural that the
ingenious mind which contrived living chessmen should soon have
superseded them with figures carved in a convenient material such
as wood or ivory, and then placed the mimic armies on a miniature
battle-field which could be easily commanded by two or more
players.
The Eastern origin of Chess is undisputed, but when and by whom
it was introduced into Europe is unknown. According to Herodius, the
Lydians suffered from a long and severe famine in the reign of Atys,
and in order to forget their misery, invented many games, particularly
dice. Previous writers attribute the invention of games of chance to
the Greeks during the siege of Troy, and Cicero mentions games in
the camp; but it does not follow that these games were either chess,
cards, or dice. They may have been knuckle-bones or jack-stones,
as that game was known in very early days, and pictures
representing persons playing with them have been found among
Egyptian antiquities.
It has been asserted positively by the oldest traditions that the
cards of Indian origin are only chessmen transferred to paper on
which the principal pieces of the game are reproduced, the game
being improved by admitting more than two players.
In the game of Chess there are generally only two armies of
pawns, each one being commanded by a King, a Vizir (which in the
lapse of years has become a Queen), a Knight, an Elephant (which
became a fool and after that a Bishop), and a Dromedary (afterward
a Castle); and the game shows a striking similarity to the Indian
games of cards, which have eight companies distinguished by their
colours and emblems, and of which each one has their King, their
Vizir, and their Elephant. The two games differ, of course; but
sufficient resemblances between them remain to show their common
origin, which recalls the terrible game of war, in which each
adversary must assault, manœuvre, make combinations, and exert
eternal vigilance.
We learn from a most reliable source (Abel de Rémusat, Journal
asiatique, September, 1822) that playing-cards came to Europe from
India and China, and that, like the game of Chess, they were known
to the Arabians and the Saracens from the beginning of the twelfth
century. At first these games found little popular favour, most
probably because they were introduced at a period when civil and
ecclesiastical authorities most positively forbade all games of
chance.
From India Chess spread gradually to other countries. The
Persians seem to have known it about the middle of the sixth
century; and Singer, in his “History of Playing-cards,” states that it
reached China at nearly the same period, and in the reign of the
Emperor Wa-si.
There are such striking resemblances between the figures used in
Chess and those on cards as to leave very little doubt where the
inspiration for the latter originated.
Beautiful circular cards made of ivory have been found, on which
the figures are painted as if the artist were unable to carve the forms
that he desired to represent, and therefore was obliged to paint them
on a flat surface. These cards are small disks, which might easily be
placed on the squares of a board and moved from one to the other
like chessmen. The advantage of commanding a concealed army
instead of one spread out on an open field probably soon became
apparent, and the result was that some slight changes in the shape
of the pictured figure and the material used were soon made, which
with various modifications have come down to us as the modern
playing-card.
If a study is made of some of the different packs of Chinese cards,
it will be seen that horses, deer, and other animals are represented
on them, together with symbols which seem to mark the suits. In
other packs, instead of the figure of the animal, Chinese characters
are placed above the symbol marking the suit, which characters
seem to have been put there instead of the picture, and which it is
affirmed state, “This is the horse,” or “This one is the deer,” as the
case may be,—as if on one of our court cards the legend “This is the
Queen” should be written on its face, instead of placing there the
quaintly garbed female form which usually represents that august
person.
We find the principal figures from the chess-board reproduced in
the Tarots, and also in some of the Spanish and German packs.
There is the King, the Knight, or mounted horseman, and the Knave.
The pawns or common soldiers are represented by numbers; but
there is this difference between Cards and the game of Chess as it is
generally played,—in the former there are four armies, or as we
should call them “suits,” and each one is headed by the King instead
of the two sides generally seen in Chess. Now, Mr. Chatto remarks
that there is an Indian game of Chess which is called Chaturanga, or
“The Four Kings,” in which two allied armies play against the same
opponents. He also gives a few rules for this game. “Having marked
eight squares on all sides,” says the Sage, “place the red army to the
east, the green to the south, the yellow to the west, and the black to
the north.” It is worthy of notice that these colours form the ground of
four of the suits of one of the divisions of an eight-suit pack of
Hindostanee cards; and this supports the theory that the painted
ivory disks might have originally been used on the chess-board and
then held in the hand. This strange Indian game of Chess would also
point to the first division of the mimic warriors into four armies, each
one distinguished by its uniform of different colours, which when
placed in the cards became known as “suits.” This word was
probably derived from the French en suite, which signifies “to follow.”
There is another game known in which two chess-boards are
joined. “It is played by two persons on each side, each of whom is
concerned to defend his own game at the same time that he co-
operates with his ally to distress by every means in his power the
two armies opposed to them.” “Four-handed Chess” is described in
Hoyle’s Book of Games, which illustrates a board with one hundred
and sixty squares. The game is played with four sets of chessmen,
coloured, respectively, white, black, red, and green, like those of the
Indian game.
The Queen, both in Chess and Cards, has a European if not an
entirely French origin. She takes the place of the Eastern Vizir, or
General; and it may be particularly remarked that in the game of
Chess she is more of an Amazon or Joan of Arc than the consort of
a reigning monarch. Her height also is excessive for a woman, in
proportion to the other pieces, and her active duties of harassing the
enemy and protecting her slow-moving husband while leading his
army to battle show that although she is called a Queen she is
usurping the position of a general, who could more appropriately fill
this important, active, and warlike place than she can.
In the Card Kingdom the Queen is a much more lifelike and
womanly person, as in it she aids and abets her sovereign lord and
master, and is generally meekly subordinate to him.
While drawing attention to the resemblances between the games
of Chess and of Cards, we must not forget to notice a slight but
perhaps important fact; and that is that all the ancient packs had
checkered backs, as if the little army were loath to leave the old
battle-field, but transferred it to their backs, and exposed that to the
gaze of the opponent instead of standing in battle-array upon it. The
oldest existing packs or Tarots retain these checkered backs; and
some authors have decided that Tarot means “checkered,” and that
the name is derived from this circumstance.
The author of “Playing and Other Cards in the British Museum,”
Mr. W. H. Wiltshire, derides the idea that cards derive their origin
from the chessmen, and points out the fact that “in all such games
there are certain approximations, although hardly enough to
establish an identity of origin. Chess,” he says, “is a game of
calculation and combinations; cards are purely chance.” This seems
hardly a fair objection, as there are many games of cards that call for
calculations and combinations, some of them requiring much thought
and study, although on the other hand there are many that may be
played mechanically and without bestowing much thought upon
them. Mr. Wiltshire also declares “that in Chess the pieces are
exposed and the positions equalized, while the cards are hidden,
and the cleverest person may be beaten by a novice without having
made one trick.” Some particular game of cards may have been in
the author’s mind when he made this statement; but there are a
great many card games about which it would not be true.
ENGRAVING.
T HE order obtained in 1441 by the master card-makers of Venice

from their Senate which prohibited the introduction into that city
of “large quantities of cards printed and painted outside of Venice,”
should be particularly noticed, as printed cards are especially
mentioned as well as painted ones; and this points to the fact that
there was in use some process besides the original one of painting
or stencilling when the cards of that period were being
manufactured.
The fragments of the French packs which show by many marks
but particularly by their costumes that they were executed about the
time of Charles the Seventh, were possibly some of the first efforts of
the wood-engraver. They were probably produced between the years
1420 and 1440,—that is, before the greater part of the xylographies
now known.
The first pictures produced by printing with blocks of wood were
probably used as playing-cards; and this is an invention which is
very much older than that of printing with movable types.
By the middle of the fifteenth century cards had spread all over
Europe, and necessity called for an economical process by which
they might be rapidly as well as cheaply produced.
In 1392 three packs of Tarots were painted for the King of France
by Jacquemin Gringonneur, for which he received fifty-six sols
parisis,—that is to say, about one hundred and seventy francs, or
thirty-four dollars.
A single pack of Tarots, which were charmingly painted about
1415 by Marziano, Secretary to the Duc de Milan, cost fifteen
thousand écus d’or (about five hundred dollars); and in 1454 a pack
of cards intended for a dauphin of France cost only fourteen or
fifteen francs, or three dollars. In the thirty years which had elapsed it
is evident that a cheap process of manufacturing cards had been
discovered.
Cards had also become merchandise, and were sold at the same
time as counters, or épingles; and from the latter is derived the
French expression “tirer son épingle de jeu.”
It has generally been conceded that the Chinese understood the
art of wood-engraving long before it was practised in Europe. Marco
Polo, who visited China about the middle of the thirteenth century,
describes, in his interesting book of travels, a mode of printing or
stamping with coloured ink; and it is probable that printing from a
block was also known to the Chinese at that time.
Authorities do not agree about which are the first specimens of
wood-engraving, but it is more than probable that a rude picture of
Saint Christopher carrying the infant Jesus, which is dated 1425, is
one of the earliest specimens of the art. This curious and interesting
print was discovered pasted in the cover of a manuscript in the
library of the Chartreuse at Buxheim in Suabia. Mr. Singer gives a
description of the infancy of the xylographic art, and says that the
demand for playing-cards increased so rapidly after their introduction
into the European countries that it became imperative to
manufacture them at a moderate price; and thus wood-engraving
became of consequence, and its productions soon became a most
important article of commerce.
It is probable that at first the wood-engravers produced only small
pictures of saints, influenced no doubt by their priestly surroundings,
as nearly all of the early wood-cuts which have been found are of
pious subjects; and they were probably executed by the inhabitants
of the religious houses, who were at the time the educated men of
the day. These early engravings are printed on paper of the shape,
size, and style of the earliest known playing-cards. The saints’
pictures always bore a small streamer or ribbon, on which the name
of the holy person represented was written. On the early specimens
of playing-cards names are always placed beside the heads of the
court cards; and this may have been necessary in order to
distinguish the saint from the king, as it is possible that the engraver
may have used the same figures to represent not only the holy
personages, but also the members of the royal card family, and they
could be distinguished only by the names written beside them.
An old chronicler of the city of Ulm, of about the year 1397, states
that playing-cards have been sent in bundles to Italy, Sicily, and
other southern countries in exchange for groceries and other
merchandise; and it may have been this exportation of cards from
Germany, which probably increased most rapidly, that called for the
edict forbidding the importation of cards into Venice in 1441. It also
points to their having been manufactured in quantities even before
1423, the date of the earliest known wood-cut.
Cards were not only produced by hand-painting, stencilling, or
wood-engraving, but really artistic and beautifully executed cards
were engraved on copper, in 1466, by an artist known as Le Maître
(the Master), but by no other name.
Only a few specimens of these unique cards are now to be found
in some museums, and the series is not complete. According to
calculation, they should consist of seventy cards, containing five
suits instead of four, with fourteen cards in each suit and four figures
or court cards to each one. The face cards are the King, Queen,
Knight, and Knave; and the marks show a bizarre collection of
savages, wild beasts, birds of prey, and flowers. They are grouped
and numbered and arranged in such a way as to be easily
distinguished and sorted into the correct suits.
In 1463 the card-makers of England endeavoured to protect
themselves from the foreign importation of cards, and they must
have been a somewhat influential guild even at that early date to
require and receive this protection from the Government; but no
cards have been discovered that were undoubtedly of English
manufacture of that period.
MATERIALS.
T HE process of manufacturing Playing-cards now deserves

attention. It seems that the first packs of Tarots which have been
preserved were made of two pieces of cardboard, and were
afterward pasted together. The backs had a checkered pattern
designed on them, and were placed so as to overlap the face; and
the diapered edge was carefully pasted down and formed a
protection and a frame to the pictured side.
It may be as well to quote here the graphic account given by Mr.
Chatto in his “Facts and Speculations on Playing-cards.” He says:—
“The following account of the manner of making cards at the
manufactory of Messrs. de la Rue & Co. of London is extracted from
Bradshaw’s Journal, April 16, 1842:—
“‘The first object that engages our attention is the preparation of
the paper intended to be formed into cards. It is found that ordinary
paper when submitted to pressure acquires a certain degree of
polish, but not sufficient for playing-cards of the finest quality. In
order, therefore, that it may admit of the high finish which is
afterwards imparted, the paper is prepared by a white enamel colour
consisting of animal size and other compounds. This substance,
which renders the paper impermeable to the atmosphere, is laid on
with a large brush and left to dry.
“‘The paper being ready for use, we proceed to explain the printing
of the fronts of the cards, which are technically distinguished as pips
and têtes.
“‘To commence with the simpler, the pip (that is, the Hearts,
Diamonds, Spades, and Clubs), sets of blocks are produced, each
containing forty engravings of one card; and as the ordinary method
of letterpress printing is employed, forty impressions of one card are
obtained at the same moment. As the pips bear but one colour, black
or red, they are worked together at the hand-press or steam-printing
machine.
“‘For the têtes, however (or court cards), which with the outline
contain five colours,—dark blue, light blue, black, red, and yellow,—a
somewhat different contrivance is employed. The colours are printed
separately, and are made to fit into each other with great nicety, in
the same manner as in printing silks or paper-hangings. For this
purpose a series of blocks are provided which if united would form
the figure intended to be produced. By printing successively from
these blocks, the different colours fall into their proper places until
the whole process is completed. After the printing is done the sheets
are carried into a drying-room heated to 80° Fahrenheit, and are
allowed to remain there three or four days, in order to fix the
colours.’”
In France the card generally consists of two pieces of paper, but in
England a more substantial article is required. It is generally four
sheets thick,—that is, the foreside and the back, and two inside
layers of an inferior description. The pasting of these sheets together
requires care and clever manipulation. After the sheets are pasted
together, they are thoroughly dried, enamelled, and then cut into
cards which are sorted by being laid out on a table about two
hundred at a time, until all the cards that constitute a pack are
spread out; so that by this operation two hundred packs are
completed almost simultaneously. The best cards are called Moguls;
the others, Harrys and Highlanders.
Paper was almost a necessity in card-making; and England could
not have provided it when cards were first made there, as the art of
paper-making was unknown before the reign of Henry the Seventh,
who lived from 1485 to 1509. Even as late as the days of Queen
Anne, paper was imported from Germany for the purpose.
Many other materials have been used in manufacturing cards
besides paper. As has been mentioned, beautiful packs have been
painted on ivory or mother of pearl. Parchment and leather have
been often used; thin tablets of wood and large leaves have been
pressed into service, as well as stout paper which was neither card
nor pasteboard. The Chinese and Hindoos sometimes used a cotton
paper so stout and smooth as to make it most suitable for the
purpose; and the curious wooden sticks carved with distinguishing
figures used by the Haida Indians show perhaps the most peculiar
materials used in the manufacture of games.
Mr. Chatto mentions a pack of Hindostanee cards in the Museum
of the Royal Asiatic Society which are made of canvas, and are said
to be a thousand years old. He says: “On first handling them they
seem to be made of thin veneers of wood. These cards are circular;
and the figures or marks appear to be executed by hand, not printed
nor stencilled.”
The Malays use cards made of cocoanut or palm-tree leaves,
which are first well dried, and the symbols or distinctive characters
are then traced on the leaf with an iron style.
A story in the “History of the Conquest of Florida,” by Garcilasso
de la Vega, relates that “the soldiers who were engaged in that
expedition, having burnt all their cards after the battle of Manoila
(about 1542), made themselves new ones of parchment, which they
painted admirably as if they had followed the business all their lives;
but as they either could not or would not make so many as were
wanted, players had the cards in turn for a limited time.”
Such fragile and thin materials have sometimes been used in the
production of cards that dealing was difficult and shuffling
impossible. One very beautiful pack has been produced, and is
preserved in the South Kensington Museum in London, which was
embroidered on silk.
Such materials as gold, silver, and tortoise-shell, and even small
tiles have been used in the manufacture of cards; but when made
from these materials they have been difficult to handle, and have
been regarded only as curiosities; and at the present day thick
pasteboard, either highly enamelled or quite without glaze of any
kind, is in general use all over the world.
NAME.
T HE first positive mention of Playing-cards is in a manuscript by

Nicholas de Covellezzo, which is preserved among the Archives
of Viterbo. “In 1379,” says the Chronicler, “playing-cards were
introduced in Viterbo. These came from the country of the Saracens,
and were called Naïb.” The Italians have for centuries called their
cards Naibi, and in Spain they are still named Naypes.
M. la Croix remarks that in Arabic the word Naïb signifies
“captain,” and declares that this name proves the military origin of
Cards, and points to their connection with Chess.
Mr. Taylor, in his work on Playing-cards, quotes from the above-
mentioned manuscript by Nicholas de Covellezzo, which records the
introduction of cards into Italy, and says: “The use of the term Naïb in
Italy for cards is one of the strongest proofs of their introduction into
Europe by the gypsies. To this day they are called in Spain Naypes,
which is clearly a corruption of the Arabic Nabi, ‘a prophet;’ and we
have therefore the significant fact that cards have been and are still
called in Spain by a title which fortune-tellers (gypsies, in fact) might
easily be supposed to claim.”
Mr. Singer quotes from various authorities to show the derivation
of the word Naipes, and says that “it may mean ‘flat’ or ‘even,’” which
would describe a card; and also that the Hebrew word Naibes
denotes “sorcery, fortune-telling, prediction,” etc.
Mr. Chatto derives the same word from one found in Hindostanee,
Na-eeb or Naib, which signifies a viceroy, lieutenant, or deputy, and
says: “As the game of Chess was known in Hindostan by the name
of ‘The Four Kings,’ if cards were suggested by Chess and invented
in the same country, the supposition that they might have been
called Chatier-Nawaub, ‘The Four Viceroys,’ as the cognate game of
Chess was called ‘The Four Kings,’ and that this name subsequently
became changed into Chartati-Naib, is at least as probable as the
derivation of Naipes from N. P., the initials of Nicolas Pepin, their
supposed inventor;” which derivation is gravely given by another
author.
It is only in Italy that the old name of Naipes or Naibi is retained. In
Portugal the word has become corrupted into Naipe; in Spain,
Naypes or Naipes. In France cards are called Cartes à jouer; and a
pack is named a Jeu. In Germany they are termed Briefe and Karten
and Spielkarten. In Holland the name is Kaarten or Speelkaarten; in
Denmark, Kort or Spelkort; and in Russia, Kartu. The term Alea,
which was frequently employed in ancient ordinances and laws,
seems to cover all games of chance, and is not used to signify
playing-cards alone. The derivation of the English word card from the
French carte is too plain to require further comment.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF PACKS OF
CARDS INTO SUITS.
E VER since the fifteenth century evidences of the existence and

popularity of cards have been found in Italy, Spain, Germany,
and France.
The names, colours, emblems, number, and form change with the
countries or caprices of the card-makers; but what are termed Cartes
Tarots or Cartes Françaises are always the original cards which
came from the East, and which are in a greater or less degree
faithful imitations of the still more ancient game of Chess.
It is related that on the 5th of March, 1423, Saint Bernardin, of
Sienna, addressed a crowd which had assembled before a church in
that place, and inveighed with such energy and eloquence against all
games of chance that his hearers rushed to search for their dice,
their chess, and their cards, and lighting a large bonfire, immolated
them on the spot.
One man stood by who watched mournfully the movements of the
frantic crowd, and then bursting into tears cried out to the preacher:
“Father,” quoth he, “I make cards. I have no other work by which I
can make a livelihood; by stopping my profession, you condemn me
to starve.”
“If painting is the only thing you can do for a living,” replied the
preacher, “take this picture [showing him the sacred monogram
surrounded by brilliant rays] and copy it.”
The workman followed this advice, and became wealthy by
reproducing it.
This tale shows how well established the use of cards was in the
fifteenth century; and specimens of the cards of that period are still in
existence, and at once strike the observing student with the fact that
the four great divisions or suits exist (although with different
symbols) in almost all the known packs.
It is probable that in France the Tarots were used for many years
exactly as they were when first introduced into that country, until the
rearrangement of the pack by the French courtiers for the
convenience of their demented sovereign. When this ingenious
condensation of the original pack took place, the symbols of the
Orient were discarded, and the adapter chose two colours to
represent the different suits, and placed les Cœurs (Hearts), les
Carreaux (Diamonds), les Piques (Spades), les Trifles (Clubs), as
the symbols that marked them instead of those on the Tarots, which
were Denari (Money), Spade (Swords), Coppe (Cups), and Bastoni
(Maces). These devices were not distinguished by particular colours;
and it is only when the French cards have been copied and adapted
that we find the distinctive colours red and black marking the
divisions of the suits.
Playing-cards without doubt reached Germany through Italy, but
during their journey toward the north they lost their Eastern character
and their Saracenic name almost at once. They never seem to have
been called Naïb, or by any name resembling that word. The first
mention of cards in Germany calls them Briefe; that is to say, letters.
The first card-makers were named Brief-maler.
The Germans composed symbols to mark the suits for
themselves, and rejected the Eastern ones, and were probably
unconscious that such devices as Hearts, Diamonds, etc., existed on
the cards of the neighbouring country; for intercourse in those days
was not rapid, and each kingdom was as independent of its fellow as
if oceans divided them. M. la Croix says that the Germans “with their
love of symbolism discovered a vegetable as well as a military
signification in the original game of cards.” While making important
changes, they retained a little of their warlike character in their
symbols and figures, and placed among them some designs inspired
by the vegetable world. The devices with them signified the triumphs
and the honours of war, and they discarded the weapons of the East,
the Swords and the Staves, and disdained the sordid money and the
priestly chalice, and adopted sprays of oak and of ivy as if intended
for victors’ wreaths, and chose tiny bells, or grelots, as distinctive
marks, as these were among the most important signs of German
nobility, and borne by them among the other heraldic marks, and
considered most honourable emblems. These symbols gave a more
peaceful aspect to the ancient warlike game.
The names of the German suits are Schellen (Bells), Hertzen
(Hearts), Grün (Green), and Eicheln (Acorns). It is not now known at
what period these symbols which have become a distinguishing
character of the German cards were adopted, but during part of the
fifteenth century other objects were also represented on their cards;
and the different marks quarrelled with the others and strove to be
generally adopted, but without success, as those named above have
been the only ones in use for many generations, although they are
now being gradually superseded by the French designs, which
among English-speaking nations are known as Hearts, Diamonds,
Clubs, and Spades.
Some ancient German packs which have been preserved are not
only very remarkable for the beautiful workmanship lavished on their
production and as handsome specimens of the engraver’s art, but
are also curious because they contain five suits instead of the
ordinary four. These were divided into Hares, Parrots, Pinks, Roses,
and Columbines, with the usual King, Queen, Knight, and Knave in
each suit. These cards were executed in the fifteenth century in the
city of Cologne. Other packs of engraved cards made about the
latter end of the fifteenth century in Germany had their suits marked
by animals, flowers, and birds, and were not coloured, the symbols
marking the suits without other aid. The mark of the Grün, or Leaf, in
the German card resembles in shape the Hearts and Spades of the
French. The shape of all these pips is closely analogous; and the
Heart provided with a short handle and called a Spade or given a
long stem and named a Leaf must originally have had a common
origin, all knowledge of which is lost in the mists of the Middle Ages.
The Pique may have received its name of Spade in its English
home, not, as some authors fancy, because the word was a
corruption of the Spanish Espadas, but because it resembled in
shape the spade or shovel which was in use in England when cards
first made their appearance there. M. la Croix fancies the shape of
the Heart resembles a shield, and points to this as supporting his
claim that the designs on the cards had a military origin. Among the
miners in some parts of England Diamonds are frequently called
Picks, owing to their resemblance to the head of that tool. M. la Croix
also declares that les Cœurs were the symbols placed on the cards
by the French adapter, in order to do honour to his friend Jacques
Cœur, a merchant of the day whose trade with the East might have
been the means of introducing the cards into France, and fancies
that les Trifles denoted “the heraldic plant of Agnes Sorel,”—the
King’s mistress, who had adopted the humble clover-leaf as her
badge as a sort of pun upon her own name; the French word sorel
signifying the plant the leaves of which bear some resemblance to
the Trifle on the cards.
The Grelots on the German cards may have been copied from the
“Hawk-bell,”—a favourite mark of nobility, and one which it was
considered an honour to be able to display among the symbols on
the coat of arms. Bells were also an insignia of rank in India; and
some writers have pointed out that the Germans might have copied
the devices on their cards from Hindoo packs, as well as from the
better known Tarots or Saracen cards. Bells have always been
favourite decorations; and their use dates back to the hangings of
the Temple, where the fringes which adorned the curtains and the
garments of the high-priest were ornamented with bells.
In a beautiful pack of Hindoo cards mentioned by Mr. Singer seven
suits were found, consisting of Suns represented by golden disks,
Moons or silver circles, Crowns, Cushions, Harps, Letters, and
Swords. These cards closely resemble the Tarots, and may have
originated in a common source. In some of the Hindoo packs the
suits are distinguished by a colour as well as by the form of the
symbol.
Although parts of packs which from the devices they bear may
have been imported from Germany or Spain, and which seem to
have been well used, are preserved in the British Museum, having
been found in England, only cards of French origin have been
universally used there, and they have held undisputed sway from the
middle of the fifteenth century, when the distinctive colours of red
and black, and the emblems of Hearts, Diamonds, Spades, and
Clubs were generally adopted, and have remained nearly
unchanged from that time to the present. There was no attempt to
shade the pips or the figures and faces of the court cards at any time
in England, and the outlines were simply coloured and laid on in
solid blocks. The French have changed their figures, and shaded
their faces, and made their pips slightly more symmetrical in shape;
but they are very nearly the same as when originally designed by the
clever-fingered French courtier.
CARDS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.

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(eBook PDF) Development Through

Life: A Psychosocial Approach 13th

(eBook PDF) Development Through Life: A Psychosocial

(eBook PDF) Life Span Development: A Topical Approach

(eBook PDF) Life Span Development A Topical Approach

(eBook PDF) Life Span Development A Topical Approach

(eBook PDF) A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development

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(eBook PDF) Translational Medicine in CNS Drug

A topical approach to life-span development 9th Edition

1 The Development Through Life Perspective 3

CASE STUDY Ruth Hamilton 4 CASE STUDY Rose 12

2 Major Theories for Understanding Human Development 19

4 The Period of Pregnancy and Prenatal Development 81

CASE STUDY Experiencing Pregnancy 82 Normal Fetal Development 92

5 Infancy (First 24 Months) 129

6 Toddlerhood (Ages 2 to 4 Years) 183

8 Middle Childhood (6 to 12 Years) 271

9 Early Adolescence (12 to 18 Years) 317

10 Later Adolescence (18 to 24 Years) 373

11 Early Adulthood (24 to 34 Years) 417

12 Middle Adulthood (34 to 60 Years) 469

13 Later Adulthood (60 to 75 Years) 513

15 Understanding Death, Dying, and Bereavement 587

Name Index 738

Subject Index 759

Packs of cards closely resembling the original Tarots are still to be

A LMOST all writers on Cards have admitted the strong

T HE order obtained in 1441 by the master card-makers of Venice

T HE process of manufacturing Playing-cards now deserves

T HE first positive mention of Playing-cards is in a manuscript by

E VER since the fifteenth century evidences of the existence and

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