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Chapter 6
Communications, Networks,
& Safeguards
The Wired & Wireless World
[Show PowerPoint 6-1 here]

[PowerPoint 6-2 here]
Brief Chapter Outline

Section 6.1 – From the Analog to the Digital Age
This section discusses how digital and analog data differ, and what a modem does.
Section 6.2 – Networks

This section discusses the benefits of networks and the types of networks, their
components, and variations.
Section 6.3 – Wired Communications Media

This section discusses the types of wired communications media.
Section 6.4 – Wireless Communications Media
This section considers the types of wireless communications media, both long distance
and short distance.
Section 6.5 - Cyberthreats, Hackers, & Safeguards

This section describes areas of concern for keeping a computer system safe.
Lecture Outline
Teaching Tip
Encourage students to visit technical information websites as a supplemental aid to class

work.
www.whatis.com
www.pctechguide.com/
are both good IT websites.
6.1 FROM THE ANALOG TO THE DIGITAL AGE
Key Question: How do digital and analog data differ, and what does a
modem do?
________________________________________________________________________
Digital convergence is the gradual merger of computing and communications into a new
information environment, in which the same information is exchanged among many
kinds of equipment, using the language of computers. There has also been a convergence
of several important industries—computers, telecommunications, consumer electronics,
entertainment, mass media—producing new electronic products that perform multiple
functions.
A. The Digital Basis of Computers: Electrical Signals as Discontinuous Bursts
All data that a computer processes must be encoded digitally, as a series of 0s and 1s.
Digital describes any system based on discontinuous data or events. In the case of
computers, it refers to communication signals or information represented in a two-state
(binary) way using electronic or electromagnetic signals. Each 0 and 1 signal represents
a bit.
B. The Analog Basis of Life: Electrical Signals as Continuous Waves
Analog signals are continuously varying in strength and/or quality—fluctuating,

evolving, or continually changing. Sound, light, temperature, and pressure values can be
anywhere on a continuum or a range. Examples of analog devices are a speedometer, a
thermometer, a tire-pressure gauge, and standard radio, telephone, and television signals.
VCRs, tape players, and record players are also analog devices.
Analog devices read the media, such as tapes or records, by scanning the physical data
off the media. The digital 0s and 1s only estimate the actual soundwaves, whereas a
record player records the exact sound. Thus a digital signal is an estimation of analog
data. (See www.sharpened.net/helpcenter/answer.php?62. Note that this article says that
digital data do not degrade; this is not technically true. The media on which digital data is
recorded do deteriorate. Indeed, archivists are having to deal with the problem of media
deterioration and the obsolescence of the machines that are needed to play the media. See
“Fending Off Digital Decay, But by Bit”:
www.nytimes.com/2010/03/16/books/16archive.html.)
Web Exercise
For a detailed overview of analog vs. digital signals, ask the students to try these
websites:
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/question7.htm
http://telecom.hellodirect.com/docs/Tutorials/AnalogVsDigital.1.051501.asp
C. Purpose of the Modem: Converting Digital Signals to Analog Signals
& Back
Because telephone lines have traditionally been analog, you need to have a dial-up
modem if your computer is to send communications signals over a telephone line. The
modem translates the computer’s digital signals into the telephone line’s analog signals.
The receiving computer also needs a modem to translate the analog signals back into
digital signals.
Modem is short for modulate/demodulate. A sending modem modulates digital

signals into analog signals for transmission over phone lines. A receiving modem
demodulates the analog signals back into digital signals.
D. Converting Reality to Digital Form
How can the analog realities of the world—light, sounds, colors, temperatures, etc.—be
expressed in digital form?
1. The Analog Recording Process—Suppose an analog tape recorder is used to record a

singer during a performance. The analog wave from the microphone will produce a
near duplicate of the sounds, including distortions such as buzzings and clicks.
2. The Digital Recording Process—The digital recording process is different. The way in
which music is captured for audio CDs does not provide a duplicate of a musical
performance. Rather, the digital process uses a device (an analog-to-digital converter)
to record representative selections (samples) of the sounds. It then converts the
analog waves into a stream of numbers that the computer uses to express the sounds.

The samples of sounds are taken at regular intervals—nearly 44,100 times a
second—and the copy obtained is virtually exact and free from distortions and noise.
The sampling rate of 44,100 times per second and the high precision fool our ears
into hearing a smooth, continuous sound. (The higher the sampling rate, the better the
sound quality.)
Additional Information
For more information on sound sampling, try:
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/question487.htm
www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=sampling&i=50790,00.asp
6.2 NETWORKS
Key Question: What are the benefits of networks, and what are their types,
components, and variations?
_______________________________________________________________________
Whether wired or wireless or both, a network, or communications network, is a system

of interconnected computers, telephones, and other communications devices that can
communicate with one another and share applications and data. The tying together of so
many communications devices in so many ways is changing the world we live in.
A. The Benefits of Networks
People and organizations use networks for the following reasons, the most important of
which is the sharing of resources.
1. Sharing of Peripheral Devices—Expensive devices such as printers, disk drives, and

scanners can be shared.
2. Sharing of Programs & Data—People in an organization can use the same software
and have access to the same files.
a. Less expense—It is less expensive for a company to buy one word processing
program that serves many employees than to buy a separate word processing
program for each employee.
b. Updating is easier—Updating information on a shared server is much easier than
updating every user’s individual system. If all employees have access to the same
data on a shared storage device, the organization can save money and avoid
serious problems.
c. Shared projects—Network-linked employees can more easily work
together online on shared projects (workgroup computing).
3. Better Communications—Networks make email possible. Everyone on a network

can easily keep others posted about important information.
4. Centralized Communications—Centralized administration reduces the number of

people needed to manage the devices and data on the network, reducing time and cost
to the organization. Individual network users do not need to manage their own data
and devices. One administrator can control the data, devices, and permissions of users
on the network. Backing up data is easier because the data is stored in a central
location.
5. Security of Information—Information on a network can be backed up (duplicated)

on a networked storage device shared by others.
6. Access to Databases—Networks enable users to tap into private company databases

or public databases available online through the Internet.
B. The Basic Disadvantages of Networks
1. Expense: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high depending on the
number of computers to be connected and the number of connecting devices and NICs
2. Security Issues: If a computer is on a network, a computer hacker can get

unauthorized access by using different tools.
3. Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses: If any computer system in a network gets
affected by computer virus, there is a possible threat of other systems getting affected,
too. Viruses get spread on a network easily because of the interconnectivity of
workstations.
4. Dependency on the Main File Server: If the main file server of a computer network
breaks down, the entire system can become useless. In case of big networks, the file
server is often a powerful computer, which often makes a failure expensive—not to
mention causing a service outage for many customers or system users.
More disadvantages of networks:
• If a network file server develops a fault, then users may not be able to run
application programs.
• A fault on the network can cause users to lose data (if the files being worked on
have not been saved).
• If the network stops operating, then it may not be possible to access various
resources.
• Users’ work becomes dependent on network and the skill of the systems manager.
• It is difficult to make the system secure from hackers, novices, and industrial
espionage.
• Decisions on resource planning tend to become centralized—for example, what
word processor is used, what printers are bought, and so on.
• Networks that have grown with little thought put into them can be inefficient in
the long term.
• As traffic increases on a network, the performance degrades unless the network is
designed properly.
• Resources may be located too far away from some users.
• The larger the network becomes, the more difficult it is to manage.
(http://homepages.uel.ac.uk/u0313643/disadvantages_of_networks.htm; see also
www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-computer-
networks.html)
C. Types of Networks: WANs, MAN & Others

Networks may be divided into several main categories, differing primarily in their
geographic range and purpose.
1. Wide Area Network (WAN)—is a communications network that covers a wide

geographical area, such as a country or the world. Most long-distance and regional
telephone companies are WANs. The Internet is a WAN. A WAN may use a
combination of satellites, fiber-optic cable, microwave, and copper-wire connections
and link a variety of computers, from mainframes to terminals.
WANs are used to connect local area networks (LANs, below).
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)—is a communications network covering a

city or a suburb. The purpose of a MAN is often to bypass local telephone companies
when accessing long-distance services. Most cellphone systems are MANs. In terms
of geography, the WAN is an intermediate-level network, between a WAN and a
LAN.
3. Local Area Network (LAN)—connects computers and devices in a limited

geographic area, such as one office, one building, or a group of buildings close
together. LANs are the basis for most office networks.
4. Home Area Network (HAN)—uses wired, cable, or wireless connections to link a

household’s digital devices—not only multiple computers, printers, and storage
devices but also VCRs, DVDs, televisions, fax machines, video game machines, and
home security systems.
5. Personal Area Network (PAN)—doesn’t use wires or cables; it uses short-range

wireless technology to connect an individual’s personal electronics, such as
cellphone, MP3 player, notebook PC, and printer. These networks have been made
possible with the arrival of such inexpensive, short-range wireless technologies as
Bluetooth, ultra wideband, and wireless USB, which have a range 30 feet or so.
6. Home Automation Network—relies on very inexpensive, very short-range, low-

power wireless technology to link switches and sensors around the house. Such
networks, which use wireless standards such as Insteon, ZigBee, and Z-Wave run on
inexpensive AA batteries and can control lights and switches, thermostats and
furnaces, smoke alarms, and outdoor floodlights, among other things.
D. How Networks Are Structured: Client/Server & Peer-to-Peer
The networks types just discussed have to do mainly with coverage area. Two principal
ways in these networks are structured are client/server and peer to peer.
1. Client/Server Networks—consists of clients, which are microcomputers that request

data, and servers, which are computers used to supply data. The server is a powerful
microcomputer that manages shared devices, such as laser printers. It runs server
software for applications such as email and web browsing.
Different servers may be used to manage different tasks.
a. File server—A computer that acts like a disk drive, storing the programs and data
files shared by users on a LAN.
b. Database server—A computer in a LAN that stores data but does not store
programs.
c. Print server—Controls one or more printers and stores the print- image output
from all the microcomputers on the system.
d. Web server—Contains web pages that can be viewed using a browser.
e. Mail server—Manages e-mail.
Almost every action taken by an ordinary Internet user requires one or more
interactions with one or more servers.

2. Peer-to-Peer Networks—In this network structure, all microcomputers on the
network communicate directly with one another without relying on a server. Every
computer can share files and peripherals with all other computers on the network,
given that all are granted access privileges.
Peer-to-peer networks are less expensive than client/server networks and work
effectively for up to 25 computers. Beyond that, they slow down under heavy use.
They are appropriate for small networks, such as home networks, networks used in
the home, which usually have only two to six pieces of equipment. (See also
http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc751396.aspx).
See some diagrams of network examples at:
http://freepctech.com/pc/002/networks007.shtml
www.dewassoc.com/support/networking/serverpeer.htm
www.wifinotes.com/computer-networks/network-types.html
www.aquilatechnology.com/networks.htm
E. Intranets, Extranets, & VPNs
1. Intranets: For Internal Use Only—An intranet is an organization’s internal private

network that uses the infrastructure and standards of the Internet and the web. When a
corporation develops a public website, it is making selected information available to
consumers and other interested parties. When it creates an intranet, it enables
employees to have quicker access to internal information and to share knowledge so
that they can do their jobs better.
Additional Information Intranets

www.webopedia.com/TERM/I/intranet.html
www.intranetjournal.com/articles/200401/ij_01_15_04a.html
2. Extranets: For Certain Outsiders—Extranets expand on intranets and offer security

and controlled access. Extranets are private intranets that connect not only internal
personnel but also selected suppliers and other strategic parties under controlled
circumstances. Extranets have become popular for standard transactions such as
purchasing. Intranets and extranets are based on the same underlying technology as
websites; they are communication tools designed to enable easy information sharing
within workgroups.
3. Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)—Because wide area networks use leased lines,
maintaining them can be expensive, especially as distances between offices increase.
To decrease communications costs, some companies have established their own
virtual private networks (VPNs), private networks that use a public network
(usually the Internet) to connect remote sites. Company intranets, extranets, and
LANS can all be parts of a VPN. In a VPN, the communication data is protected from
hackers. When the VPN connection is established between two parties (between a
VPN client and VPN gateway or between two VPN gateways), a secured virtual
tunnel is created with capability to encrypt the data (so no hacker can see the data
content), preserve data integrity (no data change during transmission), and ensure the
communication happens only between authenticated parties.
Additional Information VPNs
http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc779919(WS.10).aspx
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/vpn.htm
www.alliancedatacom.com/how-vpn-works.asp
F. Components of Networks
Regardless of size, networks all have several components in common.

1. Wired and/or Wireless Connections—Networks use a wired or wireless connection
system. Wired connections may be twisted-pair wiring, coaxial cable, or fiber-optic
cable, and wireless connections may be infrared, microwave (such as Bluetooth),
broadcast radio (such as Wi-Fi), or satellite.
2. Hosts and Nodes—A client/server network has a host computer, a mainframe or

midsize central computer that controls the network. The other devices on the network
are called nodes. A node is any device that is attached to a network—for example, a
microcomputer, terminal, storage device, or printer.
3. Packets—Electronic messages are sent as packets. A packet is a fixed-length block

of data for transmission. A sending computer breaks an electronic message apart into
packets, each of which typically contains 1,000–1,500 bytes. The various packets are
sent through a communications network—often using different (and most expedient)
routes, at different speeds, and sandwiched in between packets from other messages.
Once the packets arrive at their destination, the receiving computer reassembles them
into proper sequence to complete the message.
For details on packets, try:
http://compnetworking.about.com/od/networkprotocols/l/bldef_packet.htm
www.csupomona.edu/~ehelp/vpn/what_is_a_vpn.html
What is a “packet sniffer”?
www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-packet-sniffer.htm
4. Protocols—A protocol, or communications protocol, is a set of conventions

governing the exchange of data between hardware and/or software components in a
communications network. Every device connected to a network has an Internet
protocol (IP) address so that other computers on the network can properly route data
to that address. Sending and receiving devices must follow the same set of protocols.
Protocols are built into the hardware or software you are using. The protocol in
your communications software, for example, will specify how receiver devices will
acknowledge sending devices, a matter called handshaking. Handshaking establishes
the fact that the circuit is available and operational. It also establishes the level of
device compatibility and the speed of transmission. In addition, protocols specify the
type of electrical connections used, the timing of message exchanges, and error-
detection techniques.
5. Network Linking Devices: Switches, Bridges, Gateways, Routers, & Backbones—

Networks are often linked—LANs to MANs and MANs to WANs, for example. The
means for connecting them are switches, bridges, gateways, and routers.
a. Switches—A switch is a device that connects computers to a network. It connects

smaller segments of a single network into a connected whole
b. Bridges—A bridge is an interface used to connect the same types of networks or
two segments of the same LAN.
c. Gateways—A gateway is an interface permitting communication between
dissimilar networks—for instance, between a LAN and a WAN or between two
LANs based on different network operating systems or different layouts.
e. Routers—A router joins multiple wires and/or wireless networks. High-speed
routers can serve as part of the Internet backbone, or transmission path, handling
the major data traffic.
f. Backbones—The backbone consists of the main highway—including gateways,
routers, and other communications equipment—that connects all computer
networks in an organization. People frequently talk about the Internet backbone,
the central structure that connects all other elements of the Internet.
6. Network Interface Cards—A network interface card (NIC) enables the computer to
send and receive messages over a cable network. New computers often come with
network cards already installed.
7. Network Operating System (NOS)—The network operating system is the system

software that manages the activity of a network. The NOS supports access by multiple
users and provides for recognition of users based on passwords and terminal
identifications. Depending on whether the LAN is client/server or peer-to-peer, the
operating system may be stored on the file server, on each microcomputer on the
network, or on a combination of both.
G. Network Topologies: Bus, Ring, & Star
The logical layout, or shape, of a network is called a topology. The three basic network
topologies, or configurations, are bus, ring, and star.
Tip
Remind students that a topology is not a technology. Topology here refers to the
schematic description of the arrangement of a network. Technology is the application of
science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives. It is the scientific method and
material used to achieve a commercial or industrial objective, the application of
knowledge to meet the wants of people.
1. Bus Network—In this network, all nodes are connected to a single wire or cable, the
bus, which has two endpoints, or terminators, which stop the network signal. Each
communications device on the network transmits electronic messages to other
devices. Each communications device on the network transmits electronic messages
to other devices. If some of these messages collide, the sending device waits and tries
to transmit again.
a. Advantage—One advantage of a bus network is that it may be organized as a
client/server or peer-to-peer network; also, it is relatively inexpensive and easy to
use.
b. Disadvantages—A disadvantage is that extra circuitry and software are needed to
avoid collisions between data. Also, if a connection in the bus is broken—as when
someone moves a desk and knocks the connection out—the entire network may
stop working.

2. Ring Network—A ring network is one in which all microcomputers and other
communications devices are connected in a continuous loop. There are no endpoints.
Electronic messages are passed around the ring until they reach the right destination.
There is no central server. An example of a ring network is IBM’s Token Ring
Network.
a. Advantage—An advantage of a ring network is that messages flow in only one
direction. Thus, there is no danger of collisions.
b. Disadvantage—If a connection is broken, the entire network stops working.
3. Star Network—A star network is one in which all microcomputers and other
communications devices are directly connected to a central switch. Electronic
messages are routed through the central switch to their destinations. The central
switch monitors the flow of traffic. A PBX system—a private telephone system, such
as that found on a college campus, that connects telephone extensions to each other—
is an example of a star network. Traditional star networks are designed to be easily
expandable because hubs can be connected to additional hubs of other networks.
a. Advantage—The switch prevents collisions between messages. Moreover, if a
connection is broken between any communications device and the switch, the rest
of the devices on the network will continue operating.
b. Disadvantage—If the switch goes down, the entire network will stop.
For more advantages and disadvantages of the bus, ring, and, star networks, go to:
http://kane18.wordpress.com/2007/01/11/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-a-bus-ring-
star-network/
http://fcit.usf.edu/network/chap5/chap5.htm
www.buzzle.com/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-different-network-
topologies.html
www.basicsofcomputer.com/networking_network_topologies.htm
4. Mesh Network—In a mesh network topology, messages sent to the destination can
take any possible shortest, easiest route to reach its destination. There must be at least
two paths to any individual computer to create a mesh network. (Wireless networks
are often implemented as a mesh.)
The Internet employs the mesh topology, and the message, with the help of routers,
finds its route for its destination
More on Meshes
www.moskaluk.com/Mesh/wireless_mesh_topology.htm
www.freewimaxinfo.com/computer-network-topologies.html
H. Ethernet
Ethernet is a wired LAN technology (protocol) that can be used with almost any kind of
computer and that describes how data can be sent in packets in close physical proximity
between computers and other networked devices. When two nodes try to send data at the
same time and so might collide, Ethernet instructs the nodes to resend the data one at a
time. It is frequently used in a star topology.
Most new microcomputers come equipped with an Ethernet card and an Ethernet port.
An Ethernet port looks much like a regular phone jack, but it is slightly wider. This port
can be used to connect a computer to another computer, a local network, or an external
DSL or cable modem.
6.3 WIRED COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA
Key Question: What are types of wired communications media?

_____________________________________________________________________
Communications media, or communications channels, carry signals over a

communications path, the route between two or more communications media devices.
The speed at which transmission occurs—and how much data can be carried by a
signal—depends on the media and the type of signal.
A. Wired Communications Media: Wires & Cables
Three types of wired communications media are twisted-pair wire (conventional

telephone lines), coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. The various kinds of wired Internet
connections—dial-up modem, DSL, ISDN, cable modem, T1 lines, as well as Internet
backbones—are created by using these wired communications media.
1. Twisted-Pair Wire—The telephone line that runs from your house to the pole
outside, or underground, is probably twisted-pair wire. Twisted-pair wire consists of
two strands of insulated copper wire, twisted around each other. This twisted-pair
configuration (compared to straight wire) somewhat reduces interference from
electrical fields.
Twisted-pair is relatively slow, carrying data at the rate of 1–128 megabits per
second. Moreover, it does not protect well against electrical interference. However,
because so much of the world is already served by twisted-pair wire, it will no doubt
be used for years.
2. Coaxial Cable—Coaxial cable (“co-ax”) is a high-frequency transmission cable that

consists of insulated copper wire wrapped in a solid or braided metal shield and then
in an external plastic cover. Co-ax is widely used for cable television and cable
Internet connections.
Advantages:
a. Resists noise—Because of the extra insulation, coaxial cable is much better than
twisted-pair wiring at blocking out noise.
b. Faster—It can carry voice and data at a faster rate (up to 200 megabits per second).
3. Fiber-Optic Cable—A fiber-optic cable consists of dozens or hundreds of thin

strands of glass or plastic that transmit pulsating beams of light rather than electricity.
These strands, each as thin as a human hair, can transmit up to about 2 billion pulses
per second (2 gigabits). When bundled together, fiber-optic strands
in a cable 0.12 inch thick can support a quarter- to a half-million voice conversations
at the same time.
Advantages:
a. Lower error rate—Unlike electrical signals, light pulses are not affected by
random electromagnetic interference in the environment. Thus, fiber-optic cable
has a much lower error rate than normal telephone wire and cable.
b. More durable—Fiber-optic cable is lighter and more durable than twisted-pair
wire and co-ax cable, although it is more expensive.
c. More secure—It cannot easily be wiretapped, so transmissions are more secure.
B. Wired Communications Media for Homes
Many households now have more than one computer, and many have taken steps to link
their equipment in a home network that also includes telephones, lights, audio, and alarm
systems.
1. Ethernet—Most personal PCs come with Ethernet capability. Homes wanting to

network with this technology use the kind of cabling (Cat5) that permits either regular
Ethernet data speeds (10 megabits per second) or Fast Ethernet speeds (100 megabits
per second).
2. HomePNA: Using the Home’s Existing Telephone Wiring—If your house has a
phone jack in every room in which you have a computer, then you might be interested
in HomePNA (HPNA) technology. The main advantage is you can use a home’s
existing telephone wiring for a home network, transmitting data at speeds of 320
megabits per second.
3. HomePlug: Using the Home’s Existing Electric-Power Wiring—HomePlug

technology is a standard that allows users to send data over a home’s existing
electrical (AC) power lines, which can be transmitted at 200 megabits per second. A
big advantage, of course, in that there is at least one power outlet in every room.
Some households have a combination of wired and wireless networks, but
increasingly, homes are going over to all-wireless.
6.4 WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA

Key Question: What are types of wireless communications media, both long
distance and short distance?
________________________________________________________________________
A. The Electromagnetic Spectrum, the Radio-Frequency (RF) Spectrum,

& Bandwidth
Often it’s inefficient or impossible to use wired media for data transmission, and wireless
transmission is better. To understand wireless communication, we need to understand
transmission signals and the electromagnetic spectrum.
1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum—The electromagnetic spectrum of radiation is the

basis for all telecommunications signals, carried by both wired and wireless media.
Part of the electromagnetic spectrum is the radio-frequency (RF) spectrum, fields
of electrical energy and magnetic energy that carry most communications signals.

Electromagnetic waves vary according to frequency—the number of times a wave

repeats, or makes a cycle, in a second. The radio-frequency spectrum ranges from
low-frequency waves, such as those used for garage-door openers, through the
medium frequencies for certain cellphones and air-traffic control monitors, to deep-
space radio communications.
For a detailed overview of the electromagnetic spectrum:

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html
http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/
2. Bandwidth—The bandwidth is the range, or band, of frequencies that a transmission

medium can carry in a given period of time. For analog signals, bandwidth is
expressed in hertz (Hz), or cycles per second. For example, certain cellphones operate
within the range 824–849 megahertz—that is, their bandwidth is 25 megahertz. The
wider a medium’s bandwidth, the more frequencies it can use to transmit data and
thus the faster the transmission.
There are two general classes of bandwidth—narrow and broad—which can be
expressed in hertz but also in bits per second (bps):
a. Narrowband—Narrowband is used for regular telephone communications— that
is, for speech, faxes, and data. Transmission rates are usually 1.5 megabits per
second or less. Dial-up modems use this bandwidth.
b. Broadband—Broadband is used to transmit high-speed data and high-quality
audio and video. Transmission rates are 1.5 megabits to 1 gigabit per second.
For an introduction to narrowband and broadband Internet connections, go to:
www.broadbandinfo.com/cable/broadband/an-introduction-to-narrowband-a-broadband-
internet-connections.html
3. WAP: Wireless Application Protocol—Wireless devices such as cellphones use the

Wireless Application Protocol for connecting wireless users to the World Wide Web.
Just as the protocol TCP/IP gives you a wired connection to your Internet service
provider, the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is designed to link nearly all
mobile devices to your telecommunications carrier’s wireless network and content
providers.
B. Five Types of Wireless Communications Media
1. Infrared Transmission—Infrared wireless transmission sends data signals using

infrared-light waves at a frequency too low (1–16 megabits per second) for human
eyes to receive and interpret. Infrared ports can be found on some laptop computers,
PDAs, digital cameras, and printers. The drawbacks are (a) that there must be an
unobstructed view between transmitter and receiver and (b) that transmission is
confined to short range.
2. Broadcast Radio—When you tune in to an AM or FM radio station, you are using

broadcast radio, a wireless transmission medium that sends data over long distances at
up to 2 megabits per second.
In the lower frequencies of the radio spectrum, several broadcast radio bands are
reserved not only for conventional AM/FM radio but also for broadcast television, CB
(citizens band) radio, ham (amateur) radio, police and fire bands, cellphones, and
certain web-enabled devices that follow standards such as Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity).
3. Cellular Radio—Widely used for cellphones and wireless modems and uses high-
frequency radio waves to transmit voice and digital messages.
4. Microwave Radio—Microwave radio transmits voice and data at 45 megabits per

second as superhigh-frequency radio waves called microwaves, which vibrate at 2.4
gigahertz (2.4 billion hertz) per second or higher. These frequencies are used to
transmit messages between ground-based stations and satellite communications
systems. One short-range microwave standard used for communicating text is
Bluetooth.
As with infrared waves, microwaves cannot bend around corners or around the
earth’s curvature, so there must be an unobstructed view between transmitter and
receiver. Thus, microwave stations need to be placed within 25–30 miles of each
other, with no obstructions in between.
5. Communications Satellites—To avoid some of the limitations of microwave earth

stations, communications companies have added microwave “sky stations”—
communications satellites. Communications satellites are microwave relay stations in
orbit around the earth. Transmitting a signal from a ground station to a satellite is
called uplinking; the reverse is called downlinking. Communications satellites are the
basis for the Global Positioning System (GPS).
Satellite systems may occupy one of three zones in space: GEO, MEO, and LEO:
a. GEO—The highest level, known as geostationary earth orbit (GEO), is 22,300

miles and up and is always directly above the equator. Because the satellites in this
orbit travel at the same speed as the earth, they appear to an observer on the
ground to be stationary in space—that is, they are geostationary. Consequently,
microwave earth stations are always able to beam signals to a fixed location
above. At this high orbit, fewer satellites are required for global coverage;
however, their quarter-second delay makes two-way conversations difficult.
b. MEO—The medium-earth orbit (MEO) is 5,000–10,000 miles up. It requires more
satellites for global coverage than does GEO.
c. LEO—The low-earth orbit (LEO) is 200–1,000 miles up and has no signal delay.
LEO satellites may be smaller and are cheaper to launch.
C. Long-Distance Wireless: One-Way Communication
There are essentially two ways to move information through the air long distance on
radio frequencies—one way and two way. One-way communications is typified by the
satellite navigation system known as the Global Positioning System and by most pagers.
Two-way communications is exemplified by cellphones.
1. The Global Positioning System (GPS)—A $10 billion infrastructure developed by

the military in the mid-1980s, the Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of 24–32
MEO earth-orbiting satellites continuously transmitting timed radio signals that can
be used to identify earth locations.

a. How GPS works—This satellite network consists of solar-powered satellites that
circle the earth twice a day at an altitude of 11,000 nautical miles. A GPS
receiver—handheld or mounted in a vehicle, plane, or boat—can pick up
transmissions from any four satellites, interpret the information from each, and
pinpoint the receiver’s location, accurate within 3–50 feet (with 10 feet being the
norm).
b. The uses of GPS—The GPS is used for such activities as orienting drivers,
locating stolen cars, orienting hikers, search and rescue teams, and aiding in
surveying. An aerial camera connected to a GPS receiver can automatically tag
photos with GPS coordinates, showing where the photograph was taken.
c. The limitations of GPS—Not all GPS services are reliable, as is shown by online
mapping systems (such as MapQuest). About 1 in 50 computer-generated
directions is wrong, according to geographers.
www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/
www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/global.html
provide interesting information on GPS.
2. Pagers—Pagers are simple radio receivers that receive data sent from a special radio
transmitter.
a. How a pager works—The radio transmitter broadcasting to the pager sends
signals over a specific frequency. All of the pagers for that particular network have
a built-in receiver that is tuned to the same frequency broadcast from the
transmitter. The pagers listen to the signal from the transmitter constantly as long
as the pager is turned on. Often the pager has its own telephone number. When the
number is dialed from a phone, the call goes by way of the transmitter straight to
the designated pager.
b. The uses of pagers—Although generally obsolete, pagers are still used in areas
where cellphones are unreliable or prohibited, such as large hospital complexes.
D. Long-Distance Wireless: Two-Way Communication
1. 1G (First-Generation) Cellular Service: Analog Cellphones—Cellphones are

essentially two-way radios that operate using either analog or digital signals. Analog
cellphones are designed primarily for communicating by voice through a system of
ground-area cells. Each cell is hexagonal in shape, usually 8 miles or less in diameter,
and is served by a transmitter-receiving tower. Calls are directed between cells by a
mobile-telephone switching office. This technology is known as 1G, for “first
generation.”
Handing off voice calls between cells poses only minimal problems. However,
handing off data transmission (where every bit counts), with the inevitable gaps and
pauses on moving from one cell to another, is much more difficult.
2. 2G (Second-Generation) Wireless Services: Digital Cellphones and PDAs—Digital

wireless services—which support digital cellphones and personal digital assistants—
use a network of cell towers to send voice communications and data over the airwaves
in digital form. Known as 2G, for “second-generation,” technology, digital cellphones
began replacing analog cellphones during the 1990s.
2G technology was the first digital voice cellular network. Data communication
was added as an afterthought, with data speeds ranging from 9.6 to 19.2 kilobits per
second.
What’s the ideal cellphone and service for your area? Keep in mind that cellphone
reception is incredibly touchy, depending heavily on landscape, carrier technology, phone
model, service provider, tower locations, etc. Go to:
http://reviews.cnet.com/cell-phone-buying-guide/
www.cellreception.com/
www.wikihow.com/Improve-Cell-Phone-Reception

3. 3G (Third-Generation) Wireless Digital Services—3G (third-generation) wireless
digital services, often called broadband technology, are based on the U.S. GSM
standard. These services support devices that are “always on” and carry data at high
speeds (144 kilobits per second up to about 3.1 megabits per second). They accept
emails with attachments, provide Internet and web access, are able to display color
video and still pictures, and play music.
Additional Information: GSM
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications, originally from Groupe Spécial
Mobile) is the most popular standard for mobile telephony systems in the world. GSM
differs from its predecessor technologies in that both signaling and speech channels are
digital. This also facilitates the widespread implementation of data communication
applications into the system.
www.gsm.org/

6. 4G (Fourth-Generation) Wireless Digital Services: In 2008 the ITU-R organization

specified the IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced)
requirements for 4G standards, setting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100
Mbps for high-mobility communication (such as from trains and cars) and 1 Gbps for
low-mobility communication (such as pedestrians and stationary users).
4G does not include innovative applications but rather provides improved
on-demand high quality video and audio services, better than 3G. Note that not all
U.S. phone-service carriers support 4G as yet (early 2012); carriers’ status regarding
4G will change rapidly in 2012. (However, in spite of the lack of consistent 4G phone
support, Apple has announced a prototype for a 5G phone—but it will not be
available for a while.)
E. Short-Range Wireless: Two-Way Communication
Low-powered wireless communications in the 2.4–7.5 gigahertz part of the radio

spectrum are short-range and are effective only within several feet of a wireless access
point—generally between 30 and 250 feet.
1. Short-Range Wireless for Local Area Networks: Wi-Fi b, a, g, and n Wi-Fi—short

for “wireless fidelity”—is a short-range wireless digital standard aimed at helping
portable computers and handheld wireless devices to communicate at high speeds and
share Internet connections at distances of 100–228 feet, though a wired access point
connected to an Internet service provider. You can find Wi-Fi connections, which
operate at 2.4–5 gigahertz, inside offices, airports, and Internet cafés.

Four varieties of Wi-Fi standards—Wi-Fi a, Wi-Fi b, Wi-Fi g, and Wi-Fi n.

Wireless devices must use the same communications standard to communicate.
Home and business networkers looking to buy wireless local area network (WLAN)
gear face an array of choices. Many products conform to the 802.11a, 802.11b,
802.11g, or 802.11n wireless standards.
Find local Wi-Fi access points (some are free, some are fee-based):
http://local.google.com/lochp?q=wifi%20access&promo=US-HA-wifi%20access
www.wififreespot.com/
Wi-Fi security: Warn students about “wardriving.”
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wardriving
There really could be serious safety issues involving in-flight cellphone and Wi-Fi use!
http://abcnews.go.com/Blotter/safe-cellphone-plane/story?id=13791569
www.securitynewsdaily.com/how-dangerous-are-cell-phones-on-a-plane-0499/
2. Short-Range Wireless for Personal Area Networks: Bluetooth, Ultra Wideband,

and Wireless USB—Personal area networks use short-range wireless technology to
connect personal electronics, such as cellphones, MP3 players, and printers in a range
of up to about 33 feet. The principal wireless technology used so far has been
Bluetooth, which has been joined by ultra wideband (UWB) and wireless USB.
a. Bluetooth—Bluetooth is a short-range wireless digital standard aimed at linking
cellphones, PDAs, computers, and peripherals up to distances up to 33 feet. When
Bluetooth-capable devices come within range of one another, they form a mini-
network to exchange data (pairing).
What are the newest Bluetooth devices? See:
www.bluetooth.com/English/Pages/default.aspx
b. Ultra wideband (UWB)—Ultra wideband (UWB) is a promising technology

operating in the range of 480 megabits : 1.6 gigabytes per second up to 30 feet.
UWB uses a low power source to send out millions of bursts of radio energy every
second over many different frequencies, which are then reassembled by a UWB
receiver.
c. Wireless USB—Wireless USB would have a typical range of 32 feet and a
maximum data rate of 480 megabits per second.
3. Short-Range Wireless for Home Automation Networks: Insteon, ZigBee, and Z-

Wave—Home automation networks (those that link switches and sensors around the
house and yard) use low-power, narrowband wireless technology. The current
standards are Insteon, ZigBee, and Z-Wave, which operate in a range of 100–150 feet
but at relatively slow data rates of 13.1–250 kilobits per second. All three are so-
called mesh technologies—networked devices equipped with two-way radios that can
communicate with each other rather than just with the controller, the device that
serves as central command for the network.
6.5 CYBERTHREATS, HACKERS, & SAFEGUARDS

Key Question: What are areas I should be concerned about for keeping my
computer system secure?
_______________________________________________________________________
A. Cyberthreats, Hackers, & Safeguards
1. Denial-of-Service Attacks (DoS)—A denial-of-service attack consists of making

repeated requests of a computer system or network, thereby overloading it and
denying legitimate users access to it. Because computers are limited in the number of
user requests they can handle at any given time, a DoS onslaught will tie them up with
fraudulent requests that cause them to shut down. The assault may come from a single
computer or from hundreds or thousands of computers that have been taken over by
those intending harm.
For some information about some famous DoS attacks, go to:
http://staff.washington.edu/dittrich/misc/ddos/
2. Viruses—A virus is a “deviant” program, stored on a computer disk that can cause
unexpected and often undesirable effects, such as destroying or corrupting data.
Viruses can infect files and email attachments; the files must be opened for the virus
to spread.
www.virusbtn.com/
provides additional information about viruses.
3. Trojan Horses—A Trojan horse is a program that pretends to be a useful program,

usually free, such as a game or screen saver, but carries viruses, or destructive
instructions, that perpetrate mischief without your knowledge. One particularly
malicious feature is that a Trojan horse may allow so-called backdoor programs to be
installed. A backdoor program is an illegal program that allows illegitimate users to
take control of your computer without your knowledge.
4. Worms—A worm is a program that copies itself repeatedly into a computer’s

memory or onto a disk drive. Sometimes it will copy itself so often it will cause a
computer to crash.
The Conficker worm and the stuxnet worm are worrisome problems. No one is sure
where they come from and exactly what they are supposed to do.
www.microsoft.com/security/pc-security/conficker.aspx
www.mcafee.com/us/threat-center/conficker.aspx
www.microsoft.com/security/portal/Threat/Encyclopedia/Entry.aspx?name=win32%2fco
nficker
www.computerworld.com/s/article/9185919/Is_Stuxnet_the_best_malware_ever_
www.stuxnet.net/
In June 2010 The Atlantic published an excellent article about conficker:
www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2010/06/the-enemy-within/8098/
Students should be aware of these worms and what to watch out for, because they could
be dealing with them for some time.
Group Exercise
Divide students into six groups. Ask each group to research one of the following worms
and viruses and report on the prevention measures that can be taken.
Boot-sector virus
File virus
Multipartite virus
Macro virus
Logic bomb
Trojan horse
5. Blended threats—A blended threat is a more sophisticated attack that bundles some
of the worst aspects of viruses, worms, Trojan horses, and other malware into one
single threat. Blended threats can use server and Internet vulnerabilities to initiate,
then transmit and also spread an attack.
To be considered a blended thread, the attack would normally serve to transport
multiple attacks simultaneously. For example, it wouldn’t just launch a DoS attack —
it would also, for instance, install a backdoor and maybe even damage a local system.
Additionally, blended threats are designed to use multiple modes of transport—email,
flash drives, USB thumb drives, networks, and so on.
6. Rootkits—In many computer operating systems (OSs), the “root” is an account for
system administration. A “kit” is the malware introduced into the computer. A rootkit
gives an attacker “super powers” over computers—for example, the ability to steal
sensitive personal information.

7. Zombies & bots—In this situation, a botmaster uses malware to hijack hundreds to
many thousands of computers and is able to remotely control them all, including the
ability to update the malware and to introduce other programs such as spyware.
Hijacked computers are called zombies (robots, or bots). A botnet is a network of
zombies or bots. The “herder” makes money from repeatedly selling clandestine
botnet access to others to use for pop-up advertising or other purposes.
8. Ransomware—Also known as a cryptovirus, ransomeware holds the data on a

computer or the use of the computer hostage until a payment is made. Ransomware
encrypts the target’s files, and the attacker tells the victim to make a payment
of a specified amount to a special account to receive the decryption key.
9. Spyware—Spyware is a broad term that sometimes is used to mean the same thing as
malware but more narrowly is thought of as a surveillance tool that spies on computer
users and steals their information.
A keystroke logger, referred to as a keylogger, may be the most common form of
spyware. A keylogger secretly “harvests” every keystroke that a computer user makes
and so steals sensitive data for profit. Keyloggers may be hardware or software.
10. Time, logic, & email bombs—A time bomb is malware programmed to “go off” at a
particular time or date. A logic bomb is “detonated” when a specific event occurs—
for example, all personnel records are erased when an electronic notation is made that
a particular person was fired. Email bombs overwhelm a person’s email account by
surreptitiously subscribing it to dozens or even hundreds of mailing lists.
11. How Malware Is Spread—Worms, viruses, and Trojan horses are passed in these
ways:
a. By infected disks, flash drives, USB drives—perhaps even from a friend or a

repair person.
b. By opening unknown email attachments—This is why a basic rule of using the
Internet is: Never click on an email attachment that comes from someone you
don’t know. This advice also applies to unknown downloaded files, such as free
video games and screen savers.
c. By clicking on infiltrated websites—Some crackers “seed” web pages with
contagious malware that enable them to steal personal data, so that by simply
clicking on a website you can unwittingly compromise your PC. The risk can be
minimized if you have a firewall and keep antivirus software on your computer up
to date.
d. Through infiltrated Wi-Fi hot spots—If you’re a user of Wi-Fi wireless access
points, or hot spots, you have to be aware that your laptop or PDA could be
exposed to wireless transmitted diseases from illegal users. Here, too, having
wireless firewalls can reduce risks.
www.focus.com/briefs/secure-wireless-lan/#
www.securitynewsdaily.com/wi-fi-routers-hack-1455/
12. Cellphone Malware—A cellphone virus is basically the same thing as a computer
virus, although a cellphone virus or worm spreads via Internet downloads, MMS
attachments, and Bluetooth transfers. The most common method of infection occurs
when a cellphone downloads an infected file from a PC or the Internet. To avoid
cellphone infections:
a. Turn off Bluetooth discoverable mode
b. Check security updates to learn about filenames you should keep an eye out for
c. Install some type of security software on your phone
B. Some Cybervillains: Hackers & Crackers
It helps to distinguish between hackers and crackers, although the term cracker has never
caught on with the general public.

1. Hackers are defined (1) as computer enthusiasts, people who enjoy learning
programming languages and computer systems, but also (2) as people who gain
unauthorized access to computers or networks, often just for the challenge of it.
Considering the second kind of hacker, those who break into computers for
relatively benign reasons, there are probably two types:
a. Thrill-seeker hackers—Thrill-seeker hackers are hackers who illegally access
computer systems simply for the challenge of it. Although they penetrate
computers and networks illegally, they don’t do any damage or steal anything;
their reward is the achievement of breaking in.
b. White-hat hackers—White-hat hackers are usually computer professionals who
break into computer systems and networks with the knowledge of their owners to
expose security flaws that can then be fixed.
Discussion Point
What do students think of hackers? Should they be prosecuted even if they do nothing
malicious?
2. As opposed to hackers, who do break-ins for more or less positive reasons, crackers
are malicious hackers, people who break into computers for malicious purposes.
These might be to obtain information for financial gain, shut down hardware, pirate
software, steal people’s credit information, or alter or destroy data.
There seem to be four classes of crackers:
a. Script kiddies—On the low end are script kiddies, mostly teenagers without much
technical expertise who use downloadable software or source code to perform
malicious break-ins.
b. Hacktivists —Hacktivists are “hacker activists,” people who break into a computer
system for a politically or socially motivated purpose. For example, they might
leave a highly visible message on the home page of a website that expresses a
point of view that they oppose.
c. Black-hat hackers—Black-hat hackers are those who break into computer systems
to steal or destroy information or to use it for illegal profit. They are often
professional criminals, the people behind the increase in cyberattacks on corporate
networks.
d. Cyberterrorists—Cyberterrorists are politically motivated persons who
attack computer systems so as to bring physical or financial harm to a lot of people
or destroy a lot of information. Particular targets are power plants, water systems,
traffic control centers, banks, and military installations.
C. Online Safety
1. Antivirus Software—Examples of antivirus programs are McAfee VirusScan,

Norton AntiVirus, Pc-cillin Internet Security, and ZoneAlarm with Antivirus.
Antivirus software scans a computer’s hard disk, floppy disks and CDs, and main
memory to detect viruses and, sometimes, to destroy them. Such virus watchdogs
operate in two ways. Look for signatures—They scan disk drives for “signatures,”
characteristic strings of 1s and 0s in the virus that uniquely identify it. Look for
viruslike behavior—They look for suspicious viruslike behavior, such as attempts to
erase or change areas on your disks.
Need to know more about viruses and antivirus software? See:
www.symantec.com
www.mcafee.com
2. Firewalls—A firewall is a system of hardware and/or software that protects a

computer or a network from intruders. The firewall software monitors all Internet and
other network activity, looking for suspicious data and preventing unauthorized
access.
There are two types of firewalls:
a. Software firewall—If you have just one computer, a software firewall is probably
enough to protect you while you’re connected to the Internet. (Windows
XP/Windows Vista/Windows 7 and Mac OS X have built-in software firewalls
that can be activated easily.)
b. Hardware firewall—If you have more than one computer and you are linked to the
Internet by a cable modem or DSL, you probably need a hardware firewall, such
as a router.
3. Passwords—Passwords are the special words, codes, or symbols required to access a

computer system. Passwords (and PINs, too) can be guessed, forgotten, or stolen.
To foil a stranger’s guesses, experts say, you should never choose a real word or
variations of your name, your birth date, or those of your friends or family. Instead
you should mix letters, numbers, and punctuation marks in an oddball sequence of no
fewer than eight characters. Or you can also choose an obvious and memorable
password but shift the position of your hands on the keyboard, creating a meaningless
string of characters. (Use the box on p. 364 for more password rules.)
4. Biometric Authentication—A hacker or cracker can easily breach a computer

system with a guessed or stolen password. But some forms of identification can’t be
easily faked—such as your physical traits. Biometrics, the science of measuring
individual body characteristics, tries to use these in security devices. Biometric
authentication devices authenticate a person’s identity by comparing his or her
physical or behavioral characteristics with digital code stored in a computer system.
There are several kinds of devices for verifying physical or behavioral
characteristics that can be used to authenticate a person’s identity:
a. Hand-geometry systems—These are devices to verify a person’s identity by

scanning the entire hand, which, for each person, is as unique as a fingerprint and
changes little over time.
b. Fingerprint scanners—These range from optical readers, in which you place a
finger over a window, to swipe readers, such as those built into laptops and some
handhelds, which allow you to run your finger across a barlike sensor.
c. Iris-recognition systems—Because no two people’s eyes are alike, iris scans are
very reliable identifiers. In Europe, some airports are using iris-scanning systems
as a way of speeding up immigration controls.
d. Face-recognition systems—Facial-recognition systems may come to play an
important role in biometric photos embedded in U.S. passports and those of other
industrialized nations during the next few years. The technology, which compares
a live face image with a digitized image stored in a computer, is used now as a
security system for some notebook computers.
e. Voice-recognition systems—These systems compare a person’s voice with
digitized voice prints stored in a computer, which the individual has previously
“trained” to recognize his or her speech patterns.
www.biometrics.org/
provides Additional Information about biometrics.
5. Encryption—Encryption is the process of altering readable data into unreadable form

to prevent unauthorized access. Encryption is able to use powerful mathematical
concepts to create coded messages that are difficult or even virtually impossible to
break.
If you send a message in undisguised, readable form, it is called plain text. To
send it in disguised, unreadable form, you would encrypt that message into cybertext.
The person receiving it would then decrypt it, using an encryption key—a formula for
encrypting and decrypting a coded message.
There are two basic forms of encryption—private key and public key:

a. Private key—Private-key encryption means that the same secret key is used by
both sender and receiver to encrypt and decrypt a message.
b. Public key—Public-key encryption means that two keys are used. One is a public
key, which the receiver has made known beforehand to the sender, who uses it to
encrypt the message. The other is a private key, which only the receiver knows
and which is required to decrypt the message.
For a detailed overview of how encryption works:
www.howstuffworks.com/encryption.htm
Answers to End-of-Chapter Text Exercises
Self-Test Questions
1. modem 2. WAN; wide area network 3. fiber optic 4. analog; digital 5. VPN (virtual
private network) 6. file server 7. NOS (network operating system) 8. modulator/demodulator
9. Bluetooth 10. blocking 11. node 12. protocol 13. mesh
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. c 2. e 3. e 4. d 5. b 6. c 7. e 8. b
True/False Questions
1. T 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. T 6. T 7. F 8. T 9. F 10. F
Short-Answer Questions
1. An intranet is an organization’s internal private network that uses the infrastructure and
standards of the Internet and the World Wide Web. When an organization creates an intranet, it
enables employees to have quicker access to internal information and to share knowledge so that
they can do their jobs better. Information exchanged on intranets may include employee email
addresses and telephone numbers, product information, sales data, employee benefit information,
and lists of jobs available within the organization. An extranet is a private intranet that connects
not only internal personnel but also selected suppliers and other strategic parties. Extranets have
become popular for standard transactions such as purchasing.
2. A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited
geographical area, such as one office, one building, or a group of buildings close together (for
instance, a college campus). A wide area network (WAN) is a communications network that
covers a wide geographical area, such as a country or the world. Most long-distance and regional
Bell telephone companies are WANs.
3. Bandwidth, or band, refers to a range of frequencies serving as a measure of the amount of
information that can be delivered within a given period of time. The bandwidth is the difference
between the lowest and the highest frequencies transmitted. For analog signals, bandwidth is
expressed in hertz (Hz), or cycles per second. For digital signals, bandwidth is expressed in bits
per second (bps). In the United States, certain bands are assigned by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) for certain purposes. The wider the bandwidth, the faster
data can be transmitted. The narrower the band, the greater the loss of transmission power. This
loss of power must be overcome by using relays or repeaters that rebroadcast the original signal.
4. A firewall is a system of hardware and software that blocks unauthorized users inside and
outside the organization from entering the intranet. Security is essential to an intranet. A firewall
consists of two parts, a choke and a gate. The choke forces all data packets flowing between the
Internet and the intranet to pass through a gate. The gate regulates the flow between the two
networks. It identifies authorized users, searches for viruses, and implements other security
measures. Thus, intranet users can gain access to the internet (including key sites connected by
hyperlinks), but outside Internet users cannot enter the intranet.
5. 2G = second generation; 3G = third generation; these terms refer to digital wireless services
developed more recently than first-generation analog services. 4G and 5G phones are now
becoming available.
6. The bus network works like a bus system at rush hour, with various buses pausing in different
bus zones to pick up passengers. In a bus network, all communications devices are connected to
a common channel; that is, all nodes are connected to a single wire or cable, the bus, which has
two endpoints. Each communications device on the network transmits electronic messages to
other devices. If some of those messages collide, the sending device waits and tries to transmit
again.
The advantage of a bus network is that it is relatively inexpensive and good for small networks.
A disadvantage is that if a connection in the bus is broken—as when someone moves a desk and
knocks the connection out—the entire network may stop working.
A ring network is one in which all microcomputers and other communications devices are
connected in a continuous loop. There are no endpoints. Electronic messages are passed around
the ring until they reach the right destination. There is no central server. An example of a ring
network is IBM’s Token Ring Network, in which a bit pattern (called a “token”) determines
which user on the network can send information.
The advantage of a ring network is that messages flow in only one direction. Thus, there is no
danger of collisions. The disadvantage is that, if a connection is broken, the entire network stops
working.
A star network is one in which all microcomputers and other communications devices are
directly connected to a central server. Electronic messages are routed through the central switch
to their destinations. The central switch monitors the flow of traffic. A PBX system is an
example of a star network. Traditional star networks are designed to be easily expandable
because switches can be connected to additional switches of other networks.
The advantage of a star network is that the switch prevents collisions between messages.
Moreover, if a connection is broken between any communications device and the switch, the rest
of the devices on the network will continue operating. However, if the switch goes down, the
entire network will stop.
7. Telephone signals, radar waves, microwaves, and the invisible commands from a garage-door
opener all represent different waves on what is called the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation,
which is the basis for all telecommunications signals, carried by both wired and wireless media.
Part of the electromagnetic spectrum is the radio-frequency (RF) spectrum, fields of electrical
energy and magnetic energy that carry most communications signals. Internationally, the RF
spectrum is allocated by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) in Geneva,
Switzerland. Within the United States, the RF spectrum is further allocated to nongovernment
and government users. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC), acting under the
authority of Congress, allocates and assigns frequencies to nongovernment users. The National
Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) is responsible for departments and
agencies of the U.S. government.
8. A protocol is the set of rules that enable computers and other devices on the Internet to
communicate.
9. [Any three of these.]
Rule 1: Don’t tell anyone your user name and password.
Rule 2: Don’t use passwords that can be easily guessed.
Rule 3: Avoid any word that appears in a dictionary.
Rule 4: Create long passwords, especially for sensitive sites.
Rule 5: Don’t use the same password for multiple sites.
Rule 6: Change passwords often.
Rule 7: Don’t write passwords on sticky notes, in a notebook, or in a handheld computer— or
tape them under your keyboard.
Rule 8: Don’t carry passwords in your wallet.
Rule 9: Create a system for remembering passwords without writing them down.
10. We need encryption to keep secret the content of messages and files sent over the Internet.
Responses to Knowledge in Action and Web exercises will vary throughout.
Another random document with
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to say, would necessarily startle the reading public with some
explanation so extraordinary that his scientific views would cause a
real hegira to the unexplored fields of psychology. Well, he does
startle us, for to all this he quietly observes: “Recourse was had to
marriage to bring to a stop these disorders of the
Convulsionaires!”[607]
For once des Mousseaux had the best of his enemy: “Marriage, do
you understand this?” he remarks. “Marriage cures them of this
faculty of climbing dead-walls like so many flies, and of speaking
foreign languages. Oh! the curious properties of marriage in those
remarkable days!”
“It should be added,” continues Figuier, “that with the fanatics of
St. Medard, the blows were never administered except during the
convulsive crisis; and that, therefore, as Dr. Calmeil suggests,
meteorism of the abdomen, the state of spasm of the uterus of
women, of the alimentary canal in all cases, the state of contraction,
of erethism, of turgescence of the carneous envelopes of the
muscular coats which protect and cover the abdomen, chest, and
principal vascular masses and the osseous surfaces, may have
singularly contributed toward reducing, and even destroying, the
force of the blows!”
“The astounding resistance that the skin, the areolar tissue, the
surface of the bodies and limbs of the Convulsionaires offered to
things which seem as if they ought to have torn or crushed them, is
of a nature to excite more surprise. Nevertheless, it can be
explained. This resisting force, this insensibility, seems to partake of
the extreme changes in sensibility which can occur in the animal
economy during a time of great exaltation. Anger, fear, in a word,
every passion, provided that it be carried to a paroxysmal point, can
produce this insensibility.”[608]
“Let us remark, besides,” rejoins Dr. Calmeil, quoted by Figuier,
“that for striking upon the bodies of the Convulsionaires use was
made either of massive objects with flat or rounded surfaces, or of
cylindrical and blunt shapes.[609] The action of such physical agents
is not to be compared, in respect to the danger which attaches to it,
with that of cords, supple or flexible instruments, and those having a
sharp edge. In fine, the contact and the shock of the blows produced
upon the Convulsionaires the effect of a salutary shampooing, and
reduced the violence of the tortures of hysteria.”
The reader will please observe that this is not intended as a joke,
but is the sober theory of one of the most eminent of French
physicians, hoary with age and experience, the Director-in-Chief of
the Government Insane Asylum at Charenton. Really, the above
explanation might lead the reader to a strange suspicion. We might
imagine, perhaps, that Dr. Calmeil has kept company with the
patients under his care a few more years than was good for the
healthy action of his own brain.
Besides, when Figuier talks of massive objects, of cylindrical and
blunt shapes, he surely forgets the sharp swords, pointed iron pegs,
and the hatchets, of which he himself gave a graphic description on
page 409 of his first volume. The brother of Elie Marion is shown by
him striking his stomach and abdomen with the sharp point of a
knife, with tremendous force, “his body all the while resisting as if it
were made of iron.”
Arrived at this point, des Mousseaux loses all patience, and
indignantly exclaims:
“Was the learned physician quite awake when writing the above
sentences?... If, perchance, the Drs. Calmeil and Figuier should
seriously maintain their assertions and insist on their theory, we are
ready to answer them as follows: ‘We are perfectly willing to believe
you. But before such a superhuman effort of condescension, will you
not demonstrate to us the truth of your theory in a more practical
manner? Let us, for example, develop in you a violent and terrible
passion; anger—rage if you choose. You shall permit us for a single
moment to be in your sight irritating, rude, and insulting. Of course,
we will be so only at your request and in the interest of science and
your cause. Our duty under the contract will consist in humiliating
and provoking you to the last extremity. Before a public audience,
who shall know nothing of our agreement, but whom you must
satisfy as to your assertions, we will insult you; ... we will tell you that
your writings are an ambuscade to truth, an insult to common sense,
a disgrace which paper only can bear; but which the public should
chastise. We will add that you lie to science, you lie to the ears of the
ignorant and stupid fools gathered around you, open-mouthed, like
the crowd around a peddling quack.... And when, transported beyond
yourself, your face ablaze, and anger tumefying, you shall have
displaced your fluids; when your fury has reached the point of
bursting, we will cause your turgescent muscles to be struck with
powerful blows; your friends shall show us the most insensible
places; we will let a perfect shower, an avalanche of stones fall upon
them ... for so was treated the flesh of the convulsed women whose
appetite for such blows could never be satisfied. But, in order to
procure for you the gratification of a salutary shampooing—as you
deliciously express it—your limbs shall only be pounded with objects
having blunt surfaces and cylindrical shapes, with clubs and sticks
devoid of suppleness, and, if you prefer it, neatly turned in a lathe.”
So liberal is des Mousseaux, so determined to accommodate his
antagonists with every possible chance to prove their theory, that he
offers them the choice to substitute for themselves in the experiment
their wives, mothers, daughters, and sisters, “since,” he says, “you
have remarked that the weaker sex is the strong and resistant sex in
these disconcerting trials.”
Useless to remark that des Mousseaux’s challenge remained
unanswered.
CHAPTER XI.
“Strange condition of the human mind, which seems to require that it should long
exercise itself in Error, before it dare approach the Truth.”—Magendie.
“La verité que je defends est empreinte sur tous les monuments du passé. Pour
comprendre l’histoire, il faut etudier les symboles anciens, les signes sacrés du
sacerdoce, et l’art de guerir dans les temps primitifs, art oublié aujourd’hui.”—
Baron Du Potet.
“It is a truth perpetually, that accumulated facts, lying in disorder, begin to
assume some order if an hypothesis is thrown among them.”—Herbert Spencer.
A nd now we must search Magical History for cases similar to

those given in the preceding chapter. This insensibility of the
human body to the impact of heavy blows, and resistance to
penetration by sharp points and musket-bullets, is a phenomenon
sufficiently familiar in the experience of all times and all countries.
While science is entirely unable to give any reasonable explanation
of the mystery, the question appears to offer no difficulty to
mesmerists, who have well studied the properties of the fluid. The
man, who by a few passes over a limb can produce a local paralysis
so as to render it utterly insensible to burns, cuts, and the prickings
of needles, need be but very little astonished at the phenomena of
the Jansenists. As to the adepts of magic, especially in Siam and the
East Indies, they are too familiar with the properties of the akasa, the
mysterious life-fluid, to even regard the insensibility of the
Convulsionaires as a very great phenomenon. The astral fluid can be
compressed about a person so as to form an elastic shell, absolutely
non-penetrable by any physical object, however great the velocity
with which it travels. In a word, this fluid can be made to equal and
even excel in resisting-power, water and air.
In India, Malabar, and some places of Central Africa, the conjurers
will freely permit any traveller to fire his musket or revolver at them,
without touching the weapon themselves or selecting the balls. In
Laing’s Travels among Timanni, the Kourankos, and the Soulimas,
occurs a description by an English traveller, the first white man to
visit the tribe of the Soulimas, near the sources of the Dialliba, of a
very curious scene. A body of picked soldiers fired upon a chief who
had nothing to defend himself with but certain talismans. Although
their muskets were properly loaded and aimed, not a ball could strike
him. Salverte gives a similar case in his Philosophy of Occult
Sciences: “In 1568, the Prince of Orange condemned a Spanish
prisoner to be shot at Juliers; the soldiers tied him to a tree and fired,
but he was invulnerable. They at last stripped him to see what armor
he wore, but found only an amulet. When this was taken from him,
he fell dead at the first shot.”
This is a very different affair from the dexterous trickery resorted to
by Houdin in Algeria. He prepared balls himself of tallow, blackened
with soot, and by sleight of hand exchanged them for the real bullets,
which the Arab sheiks supposed they were placing in the pistols. The
simple-minded natives, knowing nothing but real magic, which they
had inherited from their ancestors, and which consists in each case
of some one thing that they can do without knowing why or how, and
seeing Houdin, as they thought, accomplish the same results in a
more impressive manner, fancied that he was a greater magician
than themselves. Many travellers, the writer included, have
witnessed instances of this invulnerability where deception was
impossible. A few years ago, there lived in an African village, an
Abyssinian who passed for a sorcerer. Upon one occasion a party of
Europeans, going to Soudan, amused themselves for an hour or two
in firing at him with their own pistols and muskets, a privilege which
he gave them for a trifling fee. As many as five shots were fired
simultaneously, by a Frenchman named Langlois, and the muzzles
of the pieces were not above two yards distant from the sorcerer’s
breast. In each case, simultaneously with the flash, the bullet would
appear just beyond the muzzle, quivering in the air, and then, after
describing a short parabola, fall harmlessly to the ground. A German
of the party, who was going in search of ostrich feathers, offered the
magician a five-franc piece if he would allow him to fire his gun with
the muzzle touching his body. The man at first refused; but, finally,
after appearing to hold conversation with somebody inside the
ground, consented. The experimenter carefully loaded, and pressing
the muzzle of the weapon against the sorcerer’s body, after a
moment’s hesitation, fired ... the barrel burst into fragments as far
down as the stock, and the man walked off unhurt.
This quality of invulnerability can be imparted to persons both by
living adepts and by spirits. In our own time several well-known
mediums have frequently, in the presence of the most respectable
witnesses, not only handled blazing coals and actually placed their
face upon a fire without singeing a hair, but even laid flaming coals
upon the heads and hands of by-standers, as in the case of Lord
Lindsay and Lord Adair. The well-known story of the Indian chief,
who confessed to Washington that at Braddock’s defeat he had fired
his rifle at him seventeen times at short range without being able to
touch him, will recur to the reader in this connection. In fact, many
great commanders have been believed by their soldiers to bear what
is called “a charmed life;” and Prince Emile von Sayn-Wittgenstein, a
general of the Russian army, is said to be one of these.
This same power which enables one to compress the astral fluid
so as to form an impenetrable shell around one, can be used to
direct, so to speak, a bolt of the fluid against a given object, with fatal
force. Many a dark revenge has been taken in that way; and in such
cases the coroner’s inquest will never disclose anything but sudden
death, apparently resulting from heart-disease, an apoplectic fit, or
some other natural, but still not veritable cause. Many persons firmly
believe that certain individuals possess the power of the evil eye.
The mal’occhio, or jettatura is a belief which is prevalent throughout
Italy and Southern Europe. The Pope is held to be possessed—
perchance unconsciously—of that disagreeable gift. There are
persons who can kill toads by merely looking at them, and can even
slay individuals. The malignance of their desire brings evil forces to a
focus, and the death-dealing bolt is projected, as though it were a
bullet from a rifle.
In 1864, in the French province of Le Var, near the little village of
Brignoles, lived a peasant named Jacques Pelissier, who made a
living by killing birds by simple will-power. His case is reported by the
well-known Dr. d’Alger, at whose request the singular hunter gave
exhibitions to several scientific men, of his method of proceeding.
The story is told as follows: “At about fifteen or twenty paces from us,
I saw a charming little meadow-lark which I showed to Jacques.
‘Watch him well, monsieur,’ said he, ‘he is mine.’ Instantly stretching
his right hand toward the bird, he approached him gently. The
meadow-lark stops, raises and lowers his pretty head, spreads his
wings, but cannot fly; at last he cannot make a step further and
suffers himself to be taken, only moving his wings with a feeble
fluttering. I examine the bird; his eyes are tightly closed and his body
has a corpse-like stiffness, although the pulsations of the heart are
very distinct; it is a true cataleptic sleep, and all the phenomena
incontestably prove a magnetic action. Fourteen little birds were
taken in this way, within the space of an hour; none could resist the
power of Master Jacques, and all presented the same cataleptic
sleep; a sleep which, moreover, terminates at the will of the hunter,
whose humble slaves these little birds have become.
“A hundred times, perhaps, I asked Jacques to restore life and
movement to his prisoners, to charm them only half way, so that they
might hop along the ground, and then again bring them completely
under the charm. All my requests were exactly complied with, and
not one single failure was made by this remarkable Nimrod, who
finally said to me: ‘If you wish it, I will kill those which you designate
without touching them.’ I pointed out two for the experiment, and, at
twenty-five or thirty paces distance, he accomplished in less than
five minutes what he had promised.”[610]
A most curious feature of the above case is, that Jacques had
complete power only over sparrows, robins, goldfinches, and
meadow-larks; he could sometimes charm skylarks, but, as he says,
“they often escape me.”
This same power is exercised with greater force by persons known
as wild beast tamers. On the banks of the Nile, some of the natives
can charm the crocodiles out of the water, with a peculiarly
melodious, low whistle, and handle them with impunity; while others
possess such powers over the most deadly snakes. Travellers tell of
seeing the charmers surrounded by multitudes of the reptiles which
they dispatch at their leisure.
Bruce, Hasselquist, and Lemprière,[611] testify to the fact that they

have seen in Egypt, Morocco, Arabia, and especially in the Senaar,
some natives utterly disregarding the bites of the most poisonous
vipers, as well as the stings of scorpions. They handle and play with
them, and throw them at will into a state of stupor.“In vain do the
Latin and Greek writers,” says Salverte, “assure us that the gift of
charming venomous reptiles was hereditary in certain families from
time immemorial, that in Africa the same gift was enjoyed by the
Psylli; that the Marses in Italy, and the Ophiozenes in Cyprus
possessed it.” The skeptics forget that, in Italy, even at the
commencement of the sixteenth century, men, claiming to be
descended from the family of Saint Paul, braved, like the Marses, the
bites of serpents.”[612]
“Doubts upon this subject,” he goes on to say, “were removed
forever at the time of the expedition of the French into Egypt, and the
following relation is attested by thousands of eye-witnesses. The
Psylli, who pretended, as Bruce had related, to possess that faculty
... went from house to house to destroy serpents of every kind.... A
wonderful instinct drew them at first toward the place in which the
serpents were hidden; furious, howling, and foaming, they seized
and tore them asunder with their nails and teeth.”
“Let us place,” says Salverte, inveterate skeptic himself, “to the
account of charlatanism, the howling and the fury; still, the instinct
which warned the Psylli of the presence of the serpents, has in it
something more real.” In the Antilles, the negroes discover, by its
odor, a serpent which they do not see.[613] “In Egypt, the same tact,
formerly possessed, is still enjoyed by men brought up to it from
infancy, and born as with an assumed hereditary gift to hunt
serpents, and to discover them even at a distance too great for the
effluvia to be perceptible to the dull organs of a European. The
principal fact above all others, the faculty of rendering dangerous
animals powerless, merely by touching them, remains well verified,
and we shall, perhaps, never understand better the nature of this
secret, celebrated in antiquity, and preserved to our time by the most
ignorant of men.”[614]
Music is delightful to every person. Low whistling, a melodious
chant, or the sounds of a flute will invariably attract reptiles in
countries where they are found. We have witnessed and verified the
fact repeatedly. In Upper Egypt, whenever our caravan stopped, a
young traveller, who believed he excelled on the flute, amused the
company by playing. The camel-drivers and other Arabs invariably
checked him, having been several times annoyed by the unexpected
appearance of various families of the reptile tribe, which generally
shirk an encounter with men. Finally, our caravan met with a party,
among whom were professional serpent-charmers, and the virtuoso
was then invited, for experiment’s sake, to display his skill. No
sooner had he commenced, than a slight rustling was heard, and the
musician was horrified at suddenly seeing a large snake appear in
dangerous proximity with his legs. The serpent, with uplifted head
and eyes fixed on him, slowly, and, as if unconsciously, crawled,
softly undulating its body, and following his every movement. Then
appeared at a distance another one, then a third, and a fourth, which
were speedily followed by others, until we found ourselves quite in a
select company. Several of the travellers made for the backs of their
camels, while others sought refuge in the cantinier’s tent. But it was
a vain alarm. The charmers, three in number, began their chants and
incantations, and, attracting the reptiles, were very soon covered
with them from head to foot. As soon as the serpents approached
the men, they exhibited signs of torpor, and were soon plunged in a
deep catalepsy. Their eyes were half closed and glazed, and their
heads drooping. There remained but one recalcitrant, a large and
glossy black fellow, with a spotted skin. This meloman of the desert
went on gracefully nodding and leaping, as if it had danced on its tail
all its life, and keeping time to the notes of the flute. This snake
would not be enticed by the “charming” of the Arabs, but kept slowly
moving in the direction of the flute-player, who at last took to his
heels. The modern Psyllian then took out of his bag a half-withered
plant, which he kept waving in the direction of the serpent. It had a
strong smell of mint, and as soon as the reptile caught its odor, it
followed the Arab, still erect upon its tail, but now approaching the
plant. A few more seconds, and the “traditional enemy” of man was
seen entwined around the arm of his charmer, became torpid in its
turn, and the whole lot were then thrown together in a pool, after
having their heads cut off.
Many believe that all such snakes are prepared and trained for the
purpose, and that they are either deprived of their fangs, or have
their mouths sewed up. There may be, doubtless, some inferior
jugglers, whose trickery has given rise to such an idea. But the
genuine serpent-charmer has too well established his claims in the
East, to resort to any such cheap fraud. They have the testimony on
this subject of too many trustworthy travellers, including some
scientists, to be accused of any such charlatanism. That the snakes,
which are charmed to dance and to become harmless, are still
poisonous, is verified by Forbes. “On the music stopping too
suddenly,” says he, “or from some other cause, the serpent, who had
been dancing within a circle of country-people, darted among the
spectators, and inflicted a wound in the throat of a young woman,
who died in agony, in half an hour afterward.”[615]
According to the accounts of many travellers the negro women of
Dutch Guiana, the Obeah women, excel in taming very large snakes
called amodites, or papa; they make them descend from the trees,
follow, and obey them by merely speaking to them.[616]
We have seen in India a small brotherhood of fakirs settled round
a little lake, or rather a deep pool of water, the bottom of which was
literally carpeted with enormous alligators. These amphibious
monsters crawl out, and warm themselves in the sun, a few feet from
the fakirs, some of whom may be motionless, lost in prayer and
contemplation. So long as one of these holy beggars remains in
view, the crocodiles are as harmless as kittens. But we would never
advise a foreigner to risk himself alone within a few yards of these
monsters. The poor Frenchman Pradin found an untimely grave in
one of these terrible Saurians, commonly called by the Hindus
Moudela.[617] (This word should be nihang or ghariyāl.)
When Iamblichus, Herodotus, Pliny, or some other ancient writer
tells us of priests who caused asps to come forth from the altar of
Isis, or of thaumaturgists taming with a glance the most ferocious
animals, they are considered liars and ignorant imbeciles. When
modern travellers tell us of the same wonders performed in the East,
they are set down as enthusiastic jabberers, or untrustworthy writers.
But, despite materialistic skepticism, man does possess such a
power, as we see manifested in the above instances. When
psychology and physiology become worthy of the name of sciences,
Europeans will be convinced of the weird and formidable potency
existing in the human will and imagination, whether exercised
consciously or otherwise. And yet, how easy to realize such power in
spirit, if we only think of that grand truism in nature that every most
insignificant atom in it is moved by spirit, which is one in its essence,
for the least particle of it represents the whole; and that matter is but
the concrete copy of the abstract idea, after all. In this connection, let
us cite a few instances of the imperial power of even the
unconscious will, to create according to the imagination or rather the
faculty of discerning images in the astral light.
We have but to recall the very familiar phenomenon of stigmata, or
birth-marks, where effects are produced by the involuntary agency of
the maternal imagination under a state of excitement. The fact that
the mother can control the appearance of her unborn child was so
well known among the ancients, that it was the custom among
wealthy Greeks to place fine statues near the bed, so that she might
have a perfect model constantly before her eyes. The cunning trick
by which the Hebrew patriarch Jacob caused ring-streaked and
speckled calves to be dropped, is an illustration of the law among
animals; and Aricante tells “of four successive litters of puppies, born
of healthy parents, some of which, in each litter, were well formed,
whilst the remainder were without anterior extremities and had hair
lip.” The works of Geoffroi St. Hilaire, Burdach, and Elam, contain
accounts of great numbers of such cases, and in Dr. Prosper Lucas’s
important volume, Sur l’Heredité Naturelle, there are many. Elam
quotes from Prichard an instance where the child of a negro and
white was marked with black and white color upon separate parts of
the body. He adds, with laudable sincerity, “These are singularities of
which, in the present state of science, no explanation can be
given.”[618] It is a pity that his example was not more generally
imitated. Among the ancients Empedocles, Aristotle, Pliny,
Hippocrates, Galen, Marcus Damascenus, and others give us
accounts quite as wonderful as our contemporary authors.
In a work published in London, in 1659,[619] a powerful argument

is made in refutation of the materialists by showing the potency of
the human mind upon the subtile forces of nature. The author, Dr.
More, views the fœtus as if it were a plastic substance, which can be
fashioned by the mother to an agreeable or disagreeable shape, to
resemble some person or in part several persons, and to be
stamped with the effigies, or as we might more properly call it,
astrograph, of some object vividly presented to her imagination.
These effects may be produced by her voluntarily or involuntarily,
consciously or unconsciously, feebly or forcibly, as the case may be.
It depends upon her ignorance or knowledge of the profound
mysteries of nature. Taking women in the mass, the marking of the
embryo may be considered more accidental than the result of
design; and as each person’s atmosphere in the astral light is
peopled with the images of his or her immediate family, the sensitive
surface of the fœtus, which may almost be likened to the
collodionized plate of a photograph, is as likely as not to be stamped
with the image of a near or remote ancestor, whom the mother never
saw, but which, at some critical moment, came as it were into the
focus of nature’s camera. Says Dr. Elam, “Near me is seated a
visitor from a distant continent, where she was born and educated.
The portrait of a remote ancestress, far back in the last century,
hangs upon the wall. In every feature, one is an accurate
presentment of the other, although the one never left England, and
the other was an American by birth and half parentage.”
The power of the imagination upon our physical condition, even
after we arrive at maturity, is evinced in many familiar ways. In
medicine, the intelligent physician does not hesitate to accord to it a
curative or morbific potency greater than his pills and potions. He
calls it the vis medicatrix naturæ, and his first endeavor is to gain the
confidence of his patient so completely, that he can cause nature to
extirpate the disease. Fear often kills; and grief has such a power
over the subtile fluids of the body as not only to derange the internal
organs but even to turn the hair white. Ficinus mentions the
signature of the fœtus with the marks of cherries and various fruits,
colors, hairs, and excrescences, and acknowledges that the
imagination of the mother may transform it into a resemblance of an
ape, pig, or dog, or any such animal. Marcus Damascenus tells of a
girl covered with hair and, like our modern Julia Pastrana, furnished
with a full beard; Gulielmus Paradinus, of a child whose skin and
nails resembled those of a bear; Balduinus Ronsæus of one born
with a turkey’s wattles; Pareus, of one with a head like a frog; and
Avicenna, of chickens with hawks’ heads. In this latter case, which
perfectly exemplifies the power of the same imagination in animals,
the embryo must have been stamped at the instant of conception
when the hen’s imagination saw a hawk either in fact or in fancy.
This is evident, for Dr. More, who quotes this case on the authority of
Avicenna, remarks very appropriately that, as the egg in question
might have been hatched a hundred miles distant from the hen, the
microscopic picture of the hawk impressed upon the embryo must
have enlarged and perfected itself with the growth of the chicken
quite independently of any subsequent influence from the hen.
Cornelius Gemma tells of a child that was born with his forehead
wounded and running with blood, the result of his father’s threats
toward his mother “ ... with a drawn sword which he directed toward
her forehead;” Sennertius records the case of a pregnant woman
who, seeing a butcher divide a swine’s head with his cleaver,
brought forth her child with his face cloven in the upper jaw, the
palate, and upper lip to the very nose. In Van Helmont’s De Injectis
Materialibus, some very astonishing cases are reported: The wife of
a tailor at Mechlin was standing at her door and saw a soldier’s hand
cut off in a quarrel, which so impressed her as to bring on premature
labor, and her child was born with only one hand, the other arm
bleeding. In 1602, the wife of Marcus Devogeler, a merchant of
Antwerp, seeing a soldier who had just lost his arm, was taken in
labor and brought forth a daughter with one arm struck off and
bleeding as in the first case. Van Helmont gives a third example of
another woman who witnessed the beheading of thirteen men by
order of the Duc d’Alva. The horror of the spectacle was so
overpowering that she “suddainly fell into labour and brought forth a
perfectly-formed infant, onely the head was wanting, but the neck
bloody as their bodies she beheld that had their heads cut off. And
that which does still advance the wonder is, that the hand, arme, and
head of these infants were none of them to be found.”[620]
If it was possible to conceive of such a thing as a miracle in
nature, the above cases of the sudden disappearance of portions of
the unborn human body might be designated. We have looked in
vain through the latest authorities upon human physiology for any
sufficient theory to account for the least remarkable of fœtal
signatures. The most they can do is to record instances of what they
call “spontaneous varieties of type,” and then fall back either upon
Mr. Proctor’s “curious coincidences” or upon such candid
confessions of ignorance as are to be found in authors not entirely
satisfied with the sum of human knowledge. Magendie
acknowledges that, despite scientific researches, comparatively little
is known of fœtal life. At page 518 of the American edition of his
Precis Elementaire de Physiologie he instances “a case where the
umbilical cord was ruptured and perfectly cicatrized;” and asks “How
was the circulation carried on in this organ?” On the next page, he
says: “Nothing is at present known respecting the use of digestion in
the fœtus;” and respecting its nutrition, propounds this query: “What,
then, can we say of the nutrition of the fœtus? Physiological works
contain only vague conjectures on this point.” On page 520, the
following language occurs: “In consequence of some unknown
cause, the different parts of the fœtus sometimes develop
themselves in a preternatural manner.” With singular inconsistency
with his previous admissions of the ignorance of science upon all
these points which we have quoted, he adds: “There is no reason for
believing that the imagination of the mother can have any influence
in the formation of these monsters; besides, productions of this kind
are daily observed in the offspring of other animals and even in
plants.” How perfect an illustration is this of the methods of scientific
men!—the moment they pass beyond their circle of observed facts,
their judgment seems to become entirely perverted. Their deductions
from their own researches are often greatly inferior to those made by
others who have to take the facts at second hand.
The literature of science is constantly furnishing examples of this
truth; and when we consider the reasoning of materialistic observers
upon psychological phenomena, the rule is strikingly manifest. Those
who are soul-blind are as constitutionally incapable of distinguishing
psychological causes from material effects as the color-blind are to
select scarlet from black.
Elam, without being in the least a spiritualist, nay, though an
enemy to it, represents the belief of honest scientists in the following
expressions: “it is certainly inexplicable how matter and mind can act
and react one upon the other; the mystery is acknowledged by all to
be insoluble, and will probably ever remain so.”
The great English authority upon the subject of malformation is
The Science and Practice of Medicine, by Wm. Aitken, M.D.,
Edinburgh, and Professor of Pathology in the Army Medical School;
the American edition of which, by Professor Meredith Clymer, M.D.,
of the University of Pennsylvania, has equal weight in the United
States. At page 233 of vol. i. we find the subject treated at length.
The author says, “The superstition, absurd notions, and strange
causes assigned to the occurrence of such malformations, are now
fast disappearing before the lucid expositions of those famous
anatomists who have made the development and growth of the
ovum a subject of special study. It is sufficient to mention here the
names, J. Muller, Rathke, Bischoff, St. Hilaire, Burdach, Allen
Thompson, G. & W. Vrolick, Wolff, Meckel, Simpson, Rokitansky, and
Von Ammon as sufficient evidence that the truths of science will in
time dispel the mists of ignorance and superstition.” One would think,
from the complacent tone adopted by this eminent writer that we
were in possession if not of the means of readily solving this intricate
problem at least of a clew to guide us through the maze of our
difficulties. But, in 1872, after profiting by all the labors and ingenuity
of the illustrious pathologists above enumerated, we find him making
the same confession of ignorance as that expressed by Magendie in
1838. “Nevertheless,” says he, “much mystery still enshrouds the
origin of malformation; the origin of them may be considered in two
main issues, namely: 1, are they due to original malformation of the
germ? 2, or, are they due to subsequent deformities of the embryo
by causes operating on its development? With regard to the first
issue, it is believed that the germ may be originally malformed, or
defective, owing to some influence proceeding either from the
female, or from the male, as in case of repeated procreation of the
same kind of malformation by the same parents, deformities on
either side being transmitted as an inheritance.”
Being unsupplied with any philosophy of their own to account for
the lesions, the pathologists, true to professional instinct, resort to
negation. “That such deformity may be produced by mental
impressions on pregnant women there is an absence of positive
proof,” they say. “Moles, mothers’ marks, and cutaneous spots as
ascribed to morbid states of the coats of the ovum.... A very
generally-recognized cause of malformation consists in impeded
development of the fœtus, the cause of which is not always obvious,
but is for the most part concealed.... Transient forms of the human
fœtus are comparable to persistent forms of many lower animals.”
Can the learned professor explain why? “Hence malformations
resulting from arrest of development often acquire an animal-like
appearance.”
Exactly; but why do not pathologists inform us why it is so? Any
anatomist who has made the development and growth of the embryo
and fœtus “a subject of special study,” can tell, without much brain-
work, what daily experience and the evidence of his own eyes show
him, viz.: that up to a certain period, the human embryo is a fac-
simile of a young batrachian in its first remove from the spawn—a
tadpole. But no physiologist or anatomist seems to have had the
idea of applying to the development of the human being—from the
first instant of its physical appearance as a germ to its ultimate
formation and birth—the Pythagorean esoteric doctrine of
metempsychosis, so erroneously interpreted by critics. The meaning
of the kabalistic axiom: “A stone becomes a plant; a plant a beast; a
beast a man, etc.,” was mentioned in another place in relation to the
spiritual and physical evolution of man on this earth. We will now add
a few words more to make the idea clearer.
What is the primitive shape of the future man? A grain, a
corpuscle, say some physiologists; a molecule, an ovum of the
ovum, say others. If it could be analyzed—by the spectroscope or
otherwise—of what ought we to expect to find it composed?
Analogically, we should say, of a nucleus of inorganic matter,
deposited from the circulation at the germinating point, and united
with a deposit of organic matter. In other words, this infinitesimal
nucleus of the future man is composed of the same elements as a
stone—of the same elements as the earth, which the man is
destined to inhabit. Moses is cited by the kabalists as authority for
the remark, that it required earth and water to make a living being,
and thus it may be said that man first appears as a stone.
At the end of three or four weeks the ovum has assumed a plant-
like appearance, one extremity having become spheroidal and the
other tapering, like a carrot. Upon dissection it is found to be
composed, like an onion, of very delicate laminæ or coats, enclosing
a liquid. The laminæ approach each other at the lower end, and the
embryo hangs from the root of the umbilicus almost like a fruit from
the bough. The stone has now become changed, by
metempsychosis, into a plant. Then the embryonic creature begins
to shoot out, from the inside outward, its limbs, and develops its
features. The eyes are visible as two black dots; the ears, nose, and
mouth form depressions, like the points of a pineapple, before they
begin to project. The embryo develops into an animal-like fœtus—
the shape of a tadpole—and like an amphibious reptile lives in water,
and develops from it. Its monad has not yet become either human or
immortal, for the kabalists tell us that that only comes at the “fourth
hour.” One by one the fœtus assumes the characteristics of the
human being, the first flutter of the immortal breath passes through
his being; he moves; nature opens the way for him; ushers him into
the world; and the divine essence settles in the infant frame, which it
will inhabit until the moment of physical death, when man becomes a
spirit.
This mysterious process of a nine-months formation the kabalists
call the completion of the “individual cycle of evolution.” As the fœtus
develops from the liquor amnii in the womb, so the earths germinate
from the universal ether, or astral fluid, in the womb of the universe.
These cosmic children, like their pigmy inhabitants, are first nuclei;
then ovules; then gradually mature; and becoming mothers in their
turn, develop mineral, vegetable, animal, and human forms. From
centre to circumference, from the imperceptible vesicle to the
uttermost conceivable bounds of the cosmos, these glorious
thinkers, the kabalists, trace cycle merging into cycle, containing and
contained in an endless series. The embryo evolving in its pre-natal
sphere, the individual in his family, the family in the state, the state in
mankind, the earth in our system, that system in its central universe,
the universe in the cosmos, and the cosmos in the First Cause:—the
Boundless and Endless. So runs their philosophy of evolution:
“All are but parts of one stupendous whole,

Whose body Nature is; and God the Soul.”
“Worlds without number

Lie in this bosom like children.”
While unanimously agreeing that physical causes, such as blows,

accidents, and bad quality of food for the mother, effect the fœtus in
a way which endangers its life; and while admitting again that moral
causes, such as fear, sudden terror, violent grief, or even extreme
joy, may retard the growth of the fœtus or even kill it, many
physiologists agree with Magendie in saying, “there is no reason for
believing that the imagination of the mother can have any influence
in the formation of monsters;” and only because “productions of this
kind are daily observed in the production of other animals and even
in plants.”
In this opinion he is supported by the leading teratologists of our
day. Although Geoffroi St. Hilaire gave its name to the new science,
its facts are based upon the exhaustive experiments of Bichat, who,
in 1802, was recognized as the founder of analytical and
philosophical anatomy. One of the most important contributions to
teratological literature is the monograph of G. J. Fisher, M. D., of Sing
Sing, N. Y., entitled Diploteratology; an Essay on Compound Human
Monsters. This writer classifies monstrous fœtal growths into their
genera and species, accompanying the cases with reflections
suggested by their peculiarities. Following St. Hilaire, he divides the
history of the subject into the fabulous, the positive, and the scientific
periods.
It suffices for our purpose to say that in the present state of
scientific opinion two points are considered as established: 1, that
the maternal, mental condition has no influence in the production of
monstrosities; 2, that most varieties of monstrosity may be
accounted for on the theory of arrest and retardation of development.
Says Fisher, “By a careful study of the laws of development and the
order in which the various organs are evolved in the embryo, it has
been observed that monsters by defect or arrest of development,
are, to a certain extent, permanent embryos. The abnormal organs
merely represent the primitive condition of formation as it existed in
an early stage of embryonic or fœtal life.”[621]
With physiology in so confessedly chaotic a state as it is at
present, it seems a little like hardihood in any teratologist, however
great his achievements in anatomy, histology, or embryology, to take
so dangerous a position as that the mother has no influence upon
her offspring. While the microscopes of Haller and Prolik, Dareste
and Laraboulet have disclosed to us many interesting facts
concerning the single or double primitive traces on the vitelline
membrane, what remains undiscovered about embryology by
modern science appears greater still. If we grant that monstrosities
are the result of an arrest of development—nay, if we go farther, and
concede that the fœtal future may be prognosticated from the
vitelline tracings, where will the teratologists take us to learn the
antecedent psychological cause of either? Dr. Fisher may have
carefully studied some hundreds of cases, and feel himself
authorized to construct a new classification of their genera and
species; but facts are facts, and outside the field of his observation it
appears, even if we judge but by our own personal experience, in
various countries, that there are abundant attainable proofs that the
violent maternal emotions are often reflected in tangible, visible, and
permanent disfigurements of the child. And the cases in question
seem, moreover, to contradict Dr. Fisher’s assertion that monstrous
growths are due to causes traceable to “the early stages of
embryonic or fœtal life.” One case was that of a Judge of an Imperial
Court at Saratow, Russia, who always wore a bandage to cover a
mouse-mark on the left side of his face. It was a perfectly-formed
mouse, whose body was represented in high relief upon the cheek,
and the tail ran upward across the temple and was lost in his hair.
The body seemed glossy, gray, and quite natural. According to his
own account, his mother had an unconquerable repugnance to mice,
and her labor was prematurely brought on by seeing a mouse jump
out from her workbox.
In another instance, of which the writer was a witness, a pregnant
lady, within two or three weeks of her accouchement, saw a bowl of
raspberries, and was seized with an irresistible longing for some, but
denied. She excitedly clasped her right hand to her neck in a
somewhat theatrical manner, and exclaimed that she must have
them. The child born under our eyes, three weeks later, had a
perfectly-defined raspberry on the right side of his neck; to this day,
when that fruit ripens, his birth-mark becomes of a deep crimson,
while, during the winter, it is quite pale.
Such cases as these, which are familiar to many mothers of
families, either in their personal experience or that of friends, carry
conviction, despite the theories of all the teratologists of Europe and
America. Because, forsooth, animals and plants are observed to
produce malformations of their species as well as human beings,
Magendie and his school infer that the human malformations of an
identical character are not at all due to maternal imagination, since
the former are not. If physical causes produce physical effects in the
subordinate kingdoms, the inference is that the same rule must hold
with ourselves.

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[Show PowerPoint 6-1 here]

Brief Chapter Outline

Section 6.2 – Networks

Section 6.3 – Wired Communications Media

Section 6.5 - Cyberthreats, Hackers, & Safeguards

Encourage students to visit technical information websites as a supplemental aid to class

are both good IT websites.

[PowerPoint 6-3 here]

6.1 FROM THE ANALOG TO THE DIGITAL AGE

[PowerPoint 6-4 here]

[PowerPoint 6-5 here]

B. The Analog Basis of Life: Electrical Signals as Continuous Waves

Analog signals are continuously varying in strength and/or quality—fluctuating,

[PowerPoint 6-6 here]

[PowerPoint 6-7 here]

Modem is short for modulate/demodulate. A sending modem modulates digital

D. Converting Reality to Digital Form

1. The Analog Recording Process—Suppose an analog tape recorder is used to record a

[PowerPoint 6-8 here]

[PowerPoint 6-9 here]

For more information on sound sampling, try:

[PowerPoint 6-10 here]

[PowerPoint 6-11 here]

Whether wired or wireless or both, a network, or communications network, is a system

A. The Benefits of Networks

1. Sharing of Peripheral Devices—Expensive devices such as printers, disk drives, and

3. Better Communications—Networks make email possible. Everyone on a network

4. Centralized Communications—Centralized administration reduces the number of

5. Security of Information—Information on a network can be backed up (duplicated)

6. Access to Databases—Networks enable users to tap into private company databases

B. The Basic Disadvantages of Networks

[PowerPoint 6-12 here]

2. Security Issues: If a computer is on a network, a computer hacker can get

More disadvantages of networks:

C. Types of Networks: WANs, MAN & Others

[PowerPoint 6-14 here]

1. Wide Area Network (WAN)—is a communications network that covers a wide

[PowerPoint 6-15 here]

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)—is a communications network covering a

3. Local Area Network (LAN)—connects computers and devices in a limited

[PowerPoint 6-16 here]

4. Home Area Network (HAN)—uses wired, cable, or wireless connections to link a

5. Personal Area Network (PAN)—doesn’t use wires or cables; it uses short-range

6. Home Automation Network—relies on very inexpensive, very short-range, low-

D. How Networks Are Structured: Client/Server & Peer-to-Peer

[PowerPoint 6-17 here]

1. Client/Server Networks—consists of clients, which are microcomputers that request

[PowerPoint 6-18 here]

[PowerPoint 6-19 here]

See some diagrams of network examples at:

E. Intranets, Extranets, & VPNs

[PowerPoint 6-20 here]

1. Intranets: For Internal Use Only—An intranet is an organization’s internal private