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CHAPTER 7: Elections

TRUE/FALSE

1. In a representative democracy, citizens can indirectly influence government policy by voting in

elections.

ANS: T DIF: Moderate REF: Page 183 TOP: Elections

MSC: Conceptual

2. Elections are important in a representative democracy because they allow citizens the opportunity to
reward and punish officeholders seeking reelection.

ANS: T DIF: Easy REF: Page 193 TOP: Elections

MSC: Conceptual

3. A candidate for the U.S. House or U.S. Senate secures the nomination of the Democratic Party by
winning the Democratic Party’s primary election.

ANS: T DIF: Easy REF: Page 193 TOP: Elections

MSC: Factual

4. An independent candidate with no affiliation to a party secures a place on the general election ballot by
first winning a primary contest that involves at least two other independent candidates.

ANS: F DIF: Easy REF: Page 193 TOP: Elections

MSC: Factual

5. A runoff election guarantees that the winning candidate has secured a majority of the vote.

ANS: T DIF: Moderate REF: Page 195 TOP: Elections

MSC: Applied

6. The use of proportional allocation for convention delegates can cause the primary season to be more
competitive and last longer.

ANS: T DIF: Difficult REF: Page 196 TOP: Procedures

MSC: Applied

7. The electoral college accords each state a number of electoral votes, which are equal to the state’s
representation in the House of Representatives and the Senate.

ANS: T DIF: Moderate REF: Page 198 TOP: Procedures

MSC: Factual

8. Citizens vote directly for presidential candidates.

ANS: F DIF: Moderate REF: Page 198 TOP: Procedures

MSC: Factual
 9. The process of campaigning for legislative office begins immediately after the most recent election
ends.

ANS: T DIF: Easy REF: Page 202 TOP: Campaigns

MSC: Factual

10. Candidates usually appeal to voters by trying to educate the public and by making complex promises
about public policies.

ANS: F DIF: Moderate REF: Pages 203–6 TOP: Campaigns

MSC: Applied

11. The main reason for the expense of American political campaigns is the increased use of television
advertising.

ANS: T DIF: Easy REF: Page 206 TOP: Campaigns

MSC: Factual

12. Soft money contributions are donations that are used to help elect or defeat a particular candidate.

ANS: F DIF: Moderate REF: Page 208 TOP: Campaigns

MSC: Factual

13. Because of high turnout in presidential election years, coattail effects from presidential candidates are
usually very powerful factors in determining election outcomes for candidates running for
congressional, state, or local office.

ANS: F DIF: Easy REF: Page 215 TOP: Voters

MSC: Applied

14. The authors of the text conclude that individual vote decisions in presidential and congressional
elections are typically made independent of each other.

ANS: T DIF: Difficult REF: Page 215 TOP: Voters

MSC: Conceptual

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. In a typical election, there is an incumbent and a:

a. challenger
b. runoff candidate
c. minor-party candidate
d. primary candidate
e. candidate with no previous political experience
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 193 TOP: Introduction
MSC: Factual

2. Voters hold incumbents accountable by:

 a. talking to neighbors, friends, and coworkers about the incumbent
b. speculating about the incumbent’s future performance
c. considering the incumbent’s past performance
d. refusing to contribute money to the incumbent’s political campaign
e. deciding not to vote in the election
ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Page 193 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Applied

3. An election in which only registered members of a particular party can vote is called a(n):
a. open primary
b. blanket primary
c. general election
d. closed primary
e. runoff election
ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Page 194 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Factual

4. An election in which any registered voter can participate in selecting a party nominee is called a(n):
a. open primary
b. blanket primary
c. general election
d. closed primary
e. runoff election
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 194 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Factual

5. Which of the following restrictions on voter eligibility is true for all Americans?
a. must be eighteen years old or older
b. cannot be mentally incompetent
c. must swear an oath to the Constitution
d. cannot be a convicted felon
e. cannot be in jail on Election Day
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 194 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Factual

6. Which of the following is a recent trend in American general elections?

a. frontloading
b. early voting
c. absentee balloting
d. regional elections
e. blanket primaries
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 194 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Factual

7. Voters who are unable to go to the polls on Election Day:

a. give up their right to cast a vote in that election
b. give up their right to cast a vote in some states, but not in others
c. may cast a vote late, but not beyond one week after the election
 d. may cast a vote early through an absentee ballot, even without an excuse in some states
e. may cast a vote through an absentee ballot, but there must be a valid excuse and the ballot
must be received by the Elections Board no later than one week after the election
ANS: D DIF: Easy REF: Page 194 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Applied

8. In a typical election for the U.S. House or U.S. Senate, officeholders are elected:
a. in multimember districts by a plurality of the vote
b. in single-member districts by a plurality of the vote
c. in multimember districts by a majority of the vote
d. in single-member districts by a majority of the vote
e. in various different ways and formats that are determined by laws in each of the fifty states
ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Page 195 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Applied

9. Any voting system in which the candidate with the most votes wins is called:
a. proportional voting
b. majority voting
c. plurality voting
d. democratic
e. republican
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 195 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Factual

10. A runoff election always involves:

a. the incumbent and the challenger
b. only two candidates who are the nominees of the two major parties
c. only two candidates who are the top two finishers in the previous election
d. multiple candidates with the winners determined through a proportional allocation process
e. the winners of the party primaries and any independent candidates who meet the state’s
ballot requirements
ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Page 195 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Applied

11. Although touch-screen voting machines are becoming increasingly popular, these machines are
controversial for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:
a. the costs of the machines
b. the potential for delays on Election Day
c. voter difficulties that often come with new technologies
d. concerns that the machines could be manipulated to change election outcomes
e. concerns that the machines could make it more difficult for the visually impaired to vote
ANS: E DIF: Moderate REF: Page 195 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Conceptual

12. Undervotes occur when:

a. a voter casts an unmarked ballot
b. a voter decides to cast a vote using an absentee ballot
c. a registered voter fails to vote in the election
 d. a voting machine erroneously fails to count votes due to a software or mechanical problem
e. a polling place has a shortage of voting supplies and voters leave the polling station before
voting
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 195 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Applied

13. Vote recounts typically occur when:

a. a major-party candidate requests it
b. a sufficient number of citizens sign a petition requesting one
c. the margin of victory for the winning candidate is within five percent or less
d. the margin of victory for the winning candidate is within one percent or less
e. a polling place has a shortage of voting supplies and voters leave the polling station before
voting
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 195 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Factual

14. Election rules and how they are implemented by officials matter because:
a. there is no legal way to challenge the outcome of an election
b. in close races, small changes to rules can change electoral outcomes
c. an election must be held a second time if the rules are not followed
d. there are different rules that must be used if voter turnout is higher than expected
e. there are different rules that must be used if voter turnout is lower than expected
ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: Page 196 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Conceptual

15. Under what conditions are particular rules most likely to influence election results?
a. close races
b. open seat races
c. situations in which optical scan ballots are used
d. primary elections
e. general elections
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 196 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Applied

16. While the ________ use(s) proportional allocation rules in all primaries and caucuses, the ________
uses a combination of proportional allocation and winner-take-all to determine convention delegates.
a. Democratic Party; Republican Party
b. Republican Party; Democratic Party
c. states; electoral college
d. United States; European Union
e. European Union; United States
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 196 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Factual

17. Under the rules of proportional allocation, a candidate who received 40 percent of the vote in a state
with 50 delegates at stake would get roughly ________ delegates.
a. 0
b. 10
 c. 20
d. 40
e. 50
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 196 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Applied

18. Traditionally, the first primary in the nation is in:

a. New Hampshire
b. Iowa
c. South Carolina
d. Nevada
e. California
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 197 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Factual

19. Traditionally, the first caucus in the nation is in:

a. New Hampshire
b. Iowa
c. Ohio
d. Nevada
e. South Carolina
ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Page 197 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Factual

20. Which of the following is NOT a responsibility of the national conventions?

a. attracting attention for the party’s electoral goals
b. developing a party platform
c. selecting the party’s presidential nominee
d. nominating state-level candidates
e. selecting the party’s vice-presidential nominee
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Pages 197–98
TOP: Procedures MSC: Factual

21. Which states do NOT allocate all of their electoral college votes to the winner of the state’s popular
vote?
a. Montana and Maine
b. Oregon and Montana
c. Nebraska and Oregon
d. Maine and Rhode Island
e. Nebraska and Maine
ANS: E DIF: Moderate REF: Page 198 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Factual

22. Swing states are important to a presidential candidate’s general election strategy because:
a. they favor one party’s candidate over another, which saves the favored candidate money to
campaign elsewhere
b. they provide better opportunities for fund-raising
c. they can be ignored
 d. they can potentially be won by either major-party candidate
e. they are always small states, so they do not provide that many electoral college votes
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 198 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Applied

23. What happens if no candidate receives a majority of the electoral college votes?
a. The winner is then determined by the candidate who received the most popular votes.
b. The votes are recalculated after dropping out candidates with less than 1 percent of the
vote; this repeats until someone has a majority.
c. The House of Representatives decides who wins, with each state getting one vote, and
voting continues until someone gets a majority of the votes.
d. The Senate decides who wins, with each state getting one vote, and voting continues until
someone gets a majority of the votes.
e. Both the House and the Senate decide who wins with a simple majority vote.
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 199 TOP: Procedures
MSC: Applied

24. After one election cycle ends, potential challengers for office in the next cycle immediately start
thinking about which of the following things?
a. which seats look vulnerable
b. how the economy affects them
c. how to get a poll in the field quickly to judge their name recognition
d. how to establish a permanent campaign
e. what their first campaign ad will be about
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 202 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

25. A district with no sitting legislator who runs for reelection is called:
a. an open seat
b. a closed seat
c. a party seat
d. a safe seat
e. a contested seat
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 202 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

26. The actions officeholders take throughout the election cycle to build support for their reelection is
called:
a. the political business cycle
b. the talent primary
c. the permanent campaign
d. the money primary
e. frontloading
ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Page 202 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

27. Incumbent officeholders have various reasons for raising significant sums of money. One common
reason is that:
 a. incumbent officeholders often face primary challengers and need money for two elections
b. high-quality potential challengers are less likely to run against the incumbent
c. outside interest groups will not contribute money to incumbents who lack significant sums
of money
d. incumbent officeholders can use any leftover campaign funds for personal use once they
retire
e. incumbent officeholders can transfer the money to lobbying firms, which in turn can repay
this favor later by hiring the incumbent officeholder when he or she retires from office
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 202 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Applied

28. Professional consultants are important in providing all of the following services to a candidate running
for office EXCEPT:
a. consultants help develop and execute campaign strategies
b. consultants manage and run public opinion polls
c. consultants coordinate campaign activities with Super PACs
d. consultants assemble ads and buy television time for the candidate
e. consultants handle media relations and talk with members of the media
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 203 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Applied

29. Because many voters know fairly little about congressional candidates, a common campaign strategy
is to:
a. improve the candidate’s name recognition among likely voters
b. educate voters about the important issues facing the district and nation
c. hold multiple press conferences each day to generate media attention
d. have the candidate write an autobiography for voters to learn more about the candidate’s
life
e. have friends and family make public comments to help spread the word about the
candidate
ANS: A DIF: Moderate REF: Page 203 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Conceptual

30. All of the following are an important part of campaign strategy EXCEPT:
a. building name recognition
b. staying “above the fray” by not dignifying an opponent’s false attack with a response
c. building a campaign platform with issue priorities
d. demonstrating an understanding of citizens’ concerns
e. voter mobilization
ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: Pages 203–5 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

31. GOTV is an acronym for:

a. Ground Operation to Victory
b. Ground Operation to Turnout Voters
c. Ground or Television campaign activities
d. Great Opportunity to Vote
e. Get Out the Vote
 ANS: E DIF: Easy REF: Page 204 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

32. Internet and social media sites play an important role in campaigns for all of the following reasons
EXCEPT:
a. informing supporters of a candidate’s issue positions
b. providing the candidate with accurate political information and poll results
c. helping to recruit new supporters
d. informing supporters of a candidate’s upcoming event or appearance
e. organizing large numbers of volunteers
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 204 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Applied

33. An important activity of any campaign is ________, which most directly involves ________.
a. mobilizing supporters; the ground game
b. converting opponents into supporters; the ground game
c. mobilizing supporters; name recognition
d. converting opponents into supporters; campaign platforms
e. name recognition; campaign platforms
ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: Page 204 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

34. A candidate’s ground game is:

a. the campaign platform
b. the candidate’s effectiveness at giving a speech
c. the candidate’s ability to raise money
d. the campaign’s emphasis on retail politics
e. the campaign’s effort to get out the vote on Election Day
ANS: E DIF: Moderate REF: Page 204 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

35. A candidate’s platform is important for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:
a. to mobilize supporters
b. to gain interest group endorsements
c. to attract campaign volunteers
d. to raise campaign funds
e. to gain ballot access
ANS: E DIF: Moderate REF: Pages 204–5 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Conceptual

36. During a campaign, a Democratic candidate should:

a. keep a low profile to avoid being attacked by conservative radio hosts like Rush Limbaugh
b. take liberal issue positions in the primary and more centrist issue positions in the general
election
c. provide detailed policy solutions because Democratic and independent voters appreciate
thoughtful solutions to big problems
d. ignore the Republican opponent and focus on himself or herself because voters like and
reward positive campaigns
e. attack opponents rather than provide the candidate’s own views on the issues because
 negativity is the only approach that usually wins for a Democrat
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 205 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Applied

37. During a campaign, a Republican candidate should:

a. keep a low profile to avoid being attacked by liberal journalists in the mainstream media
b. take conservative issue positions in the primary and more centrist issue positions in the
general election
c. provide detailed policy solutions because Republican and independent voters appreciate
thoughtful solutions to big problems
d. ignore the Democratic opponent and focus on himself or herself because voters like and
reward positive campaigns
e. attack opponents rather than provide the candidate’s own views on the issues because
negativity is the only approach that usually wins for a Republican
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 205 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Applied

38. In an effort to raise doubts about their opponents as much as they draw attention to their own records,
candidates almost all use ________ as a key part of their campaign strategy.
a. press leaks
b. opposition research
c. push polls
d. trackers
e. voting cues
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 206 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

39. A tracker is:

a. technology for watching voter reaction to candidate speeches, debates, and advertisements
b. a poll that is continuously in the field to determine trends in support for a candidate
c. a campaign staff member who follows an opponent in order to record his or her slipups
and embarrassments
d. a press term for reporters who are part of a candidate’s traveling press
e. a device to count hits on the candidate’s Web page
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 206 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

40. Candidates who are behind in election polls often use ________ as a way to gain momentum and make
the race competitive.
a. attack ads
b. the invisible primary
c. trackers
d. mobilization
e. opposition research
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 206 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual
41. Of the many billions of dollars spent during each election cycle for federal office, most of the money
goes to:
a. thirty-second television ads
b. sixty-second television ads
c. pay for polls and voter data
d. GOTV drives
e. fund-raising operations and activities
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 206 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

42. During the early years of television, many campaign ads consisted of:
a. live press conferences
b. biographical summaries of the candidate’s life and political accomplishments
c. speeches by candidates that lasted for several minutes
d. endorsement messages from top party leaders
e. party-driven messages that supported the party machine
ANS: C DIF: Moderate REF: Page 206 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

43. Recent evidence shows that attack ads:

a. lower voter turnout, but conversely increase public interest in the election
b. do not lower voter turnout and sometimes increase voters’ knowledge of the candidates
c. decrease voter turnout and decrease public interest in the election
d. decrease voter turnout and decrease voters’ knowledge of politics
e. have no effect at all on voters because people do not trust information they receive on
television
ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: Page 207 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

44. Which of the following is NOT a consequence of being exposed to television advertising in political
campaigns?
a. People become more interested in the campaign.
b. People become aware of differences between candidates.
c. People know more about the candidates.
d. People become likely to change their minds.
e. People are sometimes mobilized to vote.
ANS: D DIF: Difficult REF: Page 207 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Conceptual

45. Which of the following groups is responsible for regulating the financing of campaigns?
a. political action committees
b. Federal Election Commission
c. Electoral Assistance Commission
d. the political parties
e. Federal Communications Commission
ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Page 207 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual
46. The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act was modified significantly by:
a. President George W. Bush and Republicans in the 109th Congress
b. House Republicans and Senate Democrats in the 112th Congress
c. President Obama’s decision not to accept public funds in the 2008 presidential election
d. the Supreme Court’s ruling in Buckley v. Valeo
e. the Supreme Court’s ruling in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission
ANS: E DIF: Moderate REF: Page 207 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

47. Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission:

a. removes all campaign finance limits for corporations
b. led to the creation of 501(c)(4) and 527 organizations
c. allows donors to make anonymous contributions to candidates
d. allows corporations to contribute unlimited amounts of money to candidates directly
e. removes restrictions on the funds that corporations and labor unions can use for
independent expenditures
ANS: E DIF: Moderate REF: Page 207 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

48. Campaign funds that are subject to clear limits on how much can be raised are called:
a. hard money
b. 527 funds
c. 501(c)(3) funds
d. 501(c)(4) funds
e. electioneering funds
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 207 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

49. A 527 organization can accept unlimited amounts of ________ but cannot use that money on behalf of
a specific ________.
a. soft money; candidate
b. soft money; issue
c. hard money; candidate
d. hard money; issue
e. soft money; party platform
ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: Page 208 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

50. Soft money cannot be used to:

a. mobilize voters
b. promote a policy proposal
c. promote a point of view
d. elect or defeat a specific candidate
e. fund 527 organizations
ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 208 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

51. A major difference between a 527 organization and a 501(c)(4) is that:

 a. 501(c)(4) groups, unlike 527 groups, are allowed to make coordinated expenditures
b. 527 groups, unlike 501(c)(4) groups, can give unlimited amounts of money to candidates
directly
c. 501(c)(4) groups, unlike 527 groups, do not have to disclose the names of their donors
d. 527 groups, unlike 501(c)(4) groups, disproportionately support incumbents over
challengers
e. 501(c)(4) groups, unlike 527 groups, disproportionately support Democrats over
Republicans
ANS: C DIF: Difficult REF: Page 208 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Applied

52. Independent expenditures:

a. are considered hard money contributions
b. spent on advertising must be approved by the candidate
c. cannot be used to attack a candidate
d. cannot pay for campaign advertising
e. must not be controlled, directed, or approved by any candidate’s campaign
ANS: E DIF: Moderate REF: Page 209 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

53. Under federal law, party committees are ________ in the amount of money they can use on behalf of
the candidate through ________.
a. not limited; coordinated expenditures
b. limited; independent expenditures
c. not limited; direct campaign contributions
d. limited; coordinated expenditures
e. not limited; in-kind contributions
ANS: D DIF: Difficult REF: Page 209 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Applied

54. For presidential campaigns, the federal government provides matching funds during the primary
process to candidates who raise at least $5,000 in each of at least ________ states in contributions of
________ or less.
a. 10; $100
b. 20; $250
c. 26; $1,000
d. 38; $1,250
e. 40; $2,250
ANS: B DIF: Difficult REF: Page 209 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

55. For the general election contest for president, the federal government offers public funds to the two
major-party nominees and any minor-party candidates who belong to a party that received at least
________ of the vote in the previous election.
a. 5 percent
b. 10 percent
c. 15 percent
d. 20 percent
e. 25 percent
 ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: Page 209 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Factual

56. Campaign finance regulations seek to balance the conflict between:

a. the First Amendment and the Tenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution
b. the values of capitalism and the values of democracy
c. the freedom to spend money as one pleases and the potential for political corruption
d. the rights of political organizations to say what they want and the rights of political
candidates to control the terms of the campaign agenda
e. the First Amendment and the public interest served by restricting wealthy interests from
dominating what voters hear during the election
ANS: E DIF: Difficult REF: Page 209 TOP: Campaigns
MSC: Conceptual

57. Turnout among registered voters in presidential elections is generally between:

a. 75 and 80 percent
b. 65 and 70 percent
c. 55 and 60 percent
d. 45 and 50 percent
e. 35 and 40 percent
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 212 TOP: Voters
MSC: Factual

58. Which of the following describes a situation in which people do not go to the polls on Election Day to
cast votes, even when they have a strong candidate preference?
a. the paradox of voting
b. turnout
c. reasonable voting
d. alienation
e. apathy
ANS: A DIF: Easy REF: Page 212 TOP: Voters
MSC: Factual

59. Typically, members of which of the following groups do not turn out in large numbers to vote?
a. whites
b. men
c. people without a high school education or less
d. middle-aged people
e. women
ANS: C DIF: Easy REF: Page 212 TOP: Voters
MSC: Factual

60. A voter who uses a personal vote cue supports a candidate because the candidate:
a. captures the voter’s own anger against the incumbent party
b. shares a personality characteristic with the voter
c. is similar to the voter in some way, such as in age, appearance, gender, or race
d. has provided the voter with assistance in the past
e. is an incumbent
 ANS: D DIF: Moderate REF: Page 213 TOP: Voters
MSC: Factual

61. When someone votes against an incumbent House member or senator because of a failure to provide
federal funds to the district, it is an example of using ________ to make a voting decision.
a. partisanship
b. personal characteristics
c. a retrospective evaluation
d. incumbency
e. a personal vote
ANS: C DIF: Difficult REF: Page 213 TOP: Voters
MSC: Factual

62. Because concerns such as economic worries cause voters to lower their evaluations of incumbent
politicians, those concerns:
a. lead to retrospective voting and create conditions for nationalized elections
b. create conditions for a normal election
c. create instability in party control of the legislature
d. cause incumbents to spend more money on advertising
e. decrease the chance of the incumbent facing a strong challenger
ANS: A DIF: Difficult REF: Page 213 TOP: Voters
MSC: Conceptual

63. In a normal election, voters typically focus on all of the following factors to make a decision
EXCEPT:
a. incumbency
b. partisanship
c. personal connection
d. retrospective evaluations
e. fund-raising ability
ANS: E DIF: Moderate REF: Page 214 TOP: Voters
MSC: Factual

64. Which of the following terms describes a situation in which a popular president generates additional
support for legislative candidates and helps them gain office?
a. The president encouraged straight-ticket voting.
b. The president has coattails.
c. The president caused split-ticket voting.
d. The president provided voting cues.
e. The president caused retrospective voting.
ANS: B DIF: Moderate REF: Page 215 TOP: Voters
MSC: Factual

65. A ballot on which a voter selects candidates from more than one political party is called:
a. a blanket primary
b. an open primary
c. coattails
d. straight-ticket voting
 e. split-ticket voting
ANS: E DIF: Easy REF: Page 215 TOP: Voters
MSC: Factual

66. A straight-ticket voter is someone who:

a. selects candidates from more than one party
b. selects candidates from only one party
c. votes in every election
d. considers economic conditions when voting
e. always votes for incumbents
ANS: B DIF: Easy REF: Page 215 TOP: Voters
MSC: Factual

ESSAY

1. A key role of elections is to ensure elected representatives are accountable to their constituents. What
characteristics must both voters and elected officials have in order for elections to provide
accountability? In your opinion, do we need to do anything to ensure greater accountability? Why or
why not?

ANS:
Answers will vary.

DIF: Moderate REF: Page 193 | Pages 203–16 TOP: Elections

2. Describe how the presidential nomination process works for Democrats and Republicans. What
characteristics do they share? What is different? How does this process influence the politics of
selecting a presidential candidate?

ANS:
Answers will vary.

DIF: Easy REF: Pages 196–98 TOP: Procedures

3. Candidates who seek to build support for their election bids confront voters who are often uninterested
and lacking in knowledge. What are the different strategies they use to gain this support? How do
these strategies account for these features of the voters?

ANS:
Answers will vary.

DIF: Easy REF: Pages 200–12 TOP: Campaigns

4. A common complaint in the United States is that politicians never stop campaigning, leading to
something called the permanent campaign. Explain what this term means, and discuss how it
influences the behavior of incumbent politicians both within government and during campaigns. Do
you see this as a problem? Why or why not?
 ANS:
Answers will vary.

DIF: Difficult REF: Pages 202–3 TOP: Campaigns

5. Some people believe that campaign advertisements are good, while others believe that they detract
from American election campaigns. Review the arguments on both sides of this issue. Which side are
you on? Why?

ANS:
Answers will vary.

DIF: Moderate REF: Pages 205–7 TOP: Campaigns

6. Although political parties and interest groups spend considerable amounts of money on elections, they
cannot offer significant support to all candidates for congressional and presidential offices. What
factors do they consider when deciding to which races to devote resources? What consequences do you
think this has for the level of competition in American elections? How do you think this affects the
accountability function of elections?

ANS:
Answers will vary.

DIF: Difficult REF: Pages 207–12 TOP: Campaigns

7. What groups can raise and spend money in election campaigns? What are the different rules and
regulations that apply to each of these groups?

ANS:
Answers will vary.

DIF: Moderate REF: Pages 207–12 TOP: Campaigns

8. With the large sums of money spent on elections in the United States, many people are understandably
worried. Yet some scholars argue that this is not a significant problem. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of spending on election campaigns? On which side of this issue do you stand, and why?

ANS:
Answers will vary.

DIF: Moderate REF: Page 211 TOP: Campaigns

9. What is a voting cue? What kind of cues do Americans use in making their vote decisions? What do
you think about this process for making voting decisions? Is it good or bad? Why?

ANS:
Answers will vary.
 DIF: Easy REF: Pages 213–15 TOP: Voters

10. In 2008, Barack Obama became the first major-party presidential nominee to decline public funds in
the general election. Why did Obama decide to do this? Is the public finance system for president
likely to survive into the future? Should it survive? How should presidential campaigns be financed?

ANS:
Answers will vary.

DIF: Difficult REF: Page 217 TOP: Campaigns

Another random document with
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 Synagris.—Body rather elongate, covered with ciliated scales of
moderate size. Cleft of the mouth horizontal, with the jaws equal in
length anteriorly. One continuous dorsal, with feeble spines; dorsal
10/9, anal 3/7. Caudal deeply forked. Teeth villiform, with canines at
least in the upper jaw. Infraorbital not armed; præoperculum without,
or with a very indistinct serrature. Cheek with three series of scales.
Branchiostegals six.
Marine fishes of small size; about twenty species are known from
the tropical parts of the Indo-Pacific. Pentapus, Chætopterus, and
Aphareus are allied genera from the same area.
Maena.—Body oblong, compressed, covered with ciliated scales
of moderate size. Mouth very protractile, the intermaxillary pedicles
extending backwards to the occiput. Teeth villiform; minute teeth on
the vomer. One dorsal, scaleless, with feeble spines. D. 11/11, A. 3/9.
Caudal fin forked. Præoperculum without serrature. Branchiostegals
six.
Small fishes from the Mediterranean, known to the ancients;
valueless as food. Three species.
Smaris.—Body oblong or cylindrical, covered with rather small
ciliated scales. Mouth very protractile, the intermaxillary pedicles
extending backwards to the occiput. Teeth villiform. Palate toothless.
One dorsal, scaleless, with eleven or more very feeble spines; anal
with three. Caudal fin forked. Præoperculum without serrature.
Branchiostegals six.
Small fishes from the Mediterranean. Six species.
Cæsio.—Body oblong, covered with ciliated scales of moderate
size. Cleft of the mouth more or less oblique, with the jaws equal in
length anteriorly, or with the lower somewhat projecting. Teeth
villiform; palate generally toothless. One dorsal, with from nine to
thirteen very feeble spines, with the anterior part highest, and the
posterior covered with minute scales. Caudal fin deeply forked.
Præoperculum without, or with minute, serrature.
Small fishes from the Indo-Pacific. Twelve species.
Erythrichthys.—Body elongate, covered with small ciliated
scales. Mouth very protractile, the pedicles of the intermaxillary
extending to the occiput. Dentition quite rudimentary or entirely absent
Two dorsal fins connected by a series of very feeble spines; also the
anterior spines are feeble. Præoperculum not serrated.
Fig. 161.—Erythrichthys nitidus.

Fig. 162.—Enlarged scale.

 Fig. 163.—Protractile mouth.
Small fishes from various tropical and temperate seas. Four
species: the species figured occurs, but is not common, on the
coasts of Western Austria, Tasmania, and New Zealand.
Oligorus.—Body oblong, covered with small scales. Cleft of the
mouth rather oblique, the lower jaw being the longer. Teeth villiform,
without canines; teeth on the vomer and palatine bones. One dorsal,
with eleven spines; anal with three; caudal fin rounded. Præoperculum
with a single smooth or obtusely denticulated margin.
To this genus belong two fishes well known on account of the
excellent flavour of their flesh. The first (O. macquariensis) is called
by the colonists “Murray-Cod,” being plentiful in the Murray River and
other rivers of South Australia. It attains to a length of more than
three feet, and to a weight of nearly 100 lbs. The second (O. gigas)
is found in the sea, on the coast of New Zealand, and called by the
Maoris and colonists “Hapuku.” Its average weight is about 45 lbs.,
but occasionally large specimens of more than a hundredweight are
caught. At certain localities it is so plentiful that it may form an
important article of trade. Dr. Hector, who has had opportunity of
examining it in a fresh state, has pointed out anatomical differences
from the Murray-Cod, from which it appears that it would be better
placed in a distinct genus.
 Fig. 164.—The Murray-Cod, Oligorus macquariensis.
Grystes.—Body oblong, covered with scales of moderate size. All
the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the vomer and palatine
bones. One dorsal fin with ten spines; anal with three; caudal fin
rounded. Præoperculum with a single smooth margin.
One species, from the fresh waters of the United States (G.
salmonoides), attains to a length of more than two feet. It is known
by the name of “Growler,” and eaten.
Arripis.—Body oblong, covered with scales of moderate size. All
the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the vomer and palatine
bones. One dorsal fin, with nine slender spines; anal with three.
Præoperculum denticulated.

Fig. 165.—Arripis salar, South Australia.

 Three species are known, from the coasts of Southern Australia
and New Zealand. They are named by the colonists Salmon or Trout,
from their elegant form and lively habits, and from the sport they
afford to the angler. Their usual size is from 1 to 3 lbs., but
specimens of double that weight are taken. The smaller specimens
are the more delicate and better flavoured. When not fresh, they are
liable to assume poisonous properties; and cases of poisoning are
not unfrequently caused by them.
Huro.—Body oblong, compressed, covered with scales of
moderate size. All the teeth villiform; bones of the head without
serrature. Mouth rather oblique, with the lower jaw projecting. Two
dorsal fins, the first with six spines.
The “Black Bass” of Lake Huron (Huro nigricans).
Ambassis.—Body short, strongly compressed, covered with large
thin deciduous scales. Mouth oblique, with the lower jaw longest; teeth
villiform, without conspicuously larger canines; teeth on the vomer and
palatine bones. Two dorsal fins, the first with seven, the anal with
three spines; a horizontal spine pointing forwards in front of the dorsal
fin. The lower limb of the præoperculum with a double serrated
margin.
This genus comprises the smallest of all Percoids, some of the
species not much exceeding one inch in length. They are most
abundant on the coasts of the tropical Indo-Pacific, and in the fresh
waters belonging to that area. The species are numerous (some
thirty having been described), and very difficult to distinguish. Their
coloration is very plain, a silvery hue prevailing over the whole fish.
Apogon.—Body rather short, covered with large deciduous scales.
Mouth oblique, with the lower jaw longest; teeth villiform, without
canines; teeth on the vomer and palatine bones. Two dorsal fins, the
first with six or seven, the anal with two spines. Præoperculum with a
double edge on the margin, one or both edges being serrated. Seven
branchiostegals.
 Fig. 166.—Apogon frenatus.
Although of similarly small size, the fishes of this genus represent
a more highly developed form of the Percoid type than Ambassis.
Their distribution coincides very much with that of Ambassis, but
they are chiefly marine, comparatively few of the species entering
fresh water. They belong to the kind of fishes which, from their habit,
are termed “Coral Fishes,” being found in greatest abundance on, or
in the neighbourhood of, coral reefs, in company with Chætodonts,
Pomacentridæ, and others. Their colours also are ornamental and
highly diversified, as is generally the case in coral fishes, the majority
of the species showing transverse or longitudinal bands or large
spots, and numerous other smaller markings which, in the dead fish,
soon disappear. Nearly one hundred species have been described,
of which a few only occur in the Atlantic, one extending northwards
into the Mediterranean.
Chilodipterus, Acropoma, and Scombrops are allied genera, but
with canine teeth in one or both jaws.
 Pomatomus.—Body oblong, covered with scales of moderate size.
Eye very large. All the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the
vomer and palatine bones. Two dorsal fins, the first with seven, the
anal with two spines. No serration on any of the bones of the head.
Branchiostegals seven.
One species only is known, P. telescopium, which grows to a
length of nearly two feet. It is not uncommon in the Mediterranean
and neighbouring parts of the Atlantic, but only occasionally caught,
as it lives habitually at a greater depth than any other Percoid as far
as is known at present, probably at depths from 80 to 200 fathoms; a
habit sufficiently indicated by its exceedingly large eye.
Priacanthus.—Body short, compressed, covered with small
rough scales, which extend also over the short snout. Lower jaw and
chin prominent. Eye large. All the teeth villiform, without canines;
teeth on the vomer and palatine bones. One dorsal fin with ten
spines, anal with three. Præoperculum serrated, with a more or less
prominent, flat, triangular spine at the angle.
A very natural genus, easily recognised, and without direct
relation to the other Percoid genera. The species, of which
seventeen are known, are spread over nearly all the tropical seas,
and belong to the more common fishes. They scarcely exceed a
length of twelve inches, and are very uniformly coloured, red, pink,
and silvery prevailing.

The following three genera form a group by themselves, which,

however, is defined rather by its geographical limits and similarity of
general appearance than by distinctive anatomical characters. The
species are abundant in the fresh waters of the United States, and
well known by the name of “Sun Fishes.” They rarely exceed a
length of six inches, and are not used as food. The number of
species is uncertain.
Centrarchus.—Body short, compressed, with scales of
moderate size. All the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the
vomer, palatines, and on the tongue. One dorsal fin; anal generally
 with more than three spines. Præoperculum without serrature;
operculum not lobed.
Bryttus.—Body short, compressed, with scales of moderate size.
All the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the vomer and palatine
bones. One dorsal fin with nine or ten, anal with three spines.
Præoperculum not serrated; operculum with a rounded
membranaceous coloured lobe behind.
Pomotis.—Body short, compressed, with scales of moderate
length. All the teeth villiform, without canines; teeth on the vomer, but
none on the palatine bones. One dorsal, with from nine to eleven
spines, anal with three. Præoperculum entire or minutely serrated;
operculum with a rounded membranaceous coloured lobe behind.

A North American Freshwater genus, Aphredoderus, occupies a

perfectly isolated position in the system, and is evidently the type of
a distinct family. It resembles the “Sun-fishes” of the same country
with regard to the structure of the vertical fins, but has the vent
situated in front of the ventrals, which are composed of more than
five soft rays. The body is oblong, compressed, covered with ctenoid
scales. The dorsal fin is single, and has three spines in front.
Infraorbital and præoperculum with spinous teeth. Villiform teeth in
the jaws, on the vomer and palatine bones. A. sayanus from the
southern streams and fresh waters of the Atlantic States.
To complete the list of Percoid genera, we have to mention the
following:—Siniperca, Etelis, Niphon, Aprion, Apsilus, Pentaceros,
Velifer, Datnioides, Percilia, Lanioperca.

Second Family—Squamipinnes.
Body compressed and elevated, covered with scales, either finely
ctenoid or smooth. Lateral line continuous, not continued over the
caudal fin. Mouth in front of the snout, generally small, with lateral
cleft. Eye lateral, of moderate size. Six or seven branchiostegals.
Teeth villiform or setiform, in bands, without canines or incisors.
Dorsal fin consisting of a spinous and soft portion of nearly equal
development; anal with three or four spines, similarly developed as
the soft dorsal, both being many-rayed. The vertical fins more or less
densely covered with small scales. The lower rays of the pectoral fin
branched, not enlarged; ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five
soft rays. Stomach coecal.
The typical forms of this family are readily recognised by the form
of their body, and by a peculiarity from which they derive their name
Squamipinnes; the soft, and frequently also the spinous part of their
dorsal and anal fins are so thickly covered with scales that the
boundary between fins and body is entirely obliterated. The majority
are inhabitants of the tropical seas, and abound chiefly in the
neighbourhood of coral-reefs. The beauty and singularity of
distribution of the colours of some of the genera, as Chætodon,
Heniochus, Holacanthus, is scarcely surpassed by any other group
of fishes. They remain within small dimensions, and comparatively
few are used as food. They are carnivorous, feeding on small
invertebrates. Only a few species enter brackish water.
Extinct representatives of this family are not scarce at Monte
Bolca and in other tertiary formations. All, at least those admitting of
definite determination, belong to existing genera, viz. Holacanthus,
Pomacanthus, Ephippium, Scatophagus. Very singular is the
occurrence of Toxotes in the Monte Bolca strata.
The following genera have no teeth on the palate:—
Chætodon.—One dorsal fin, without any notch in its upper
margin, and with the soft and spinous portions similarly developed;
none of the spines elongate. Snout short or of moderate length.
Præoperculum without, or with a fine, serration, and without spine at
the angle. Scales generally large or of moderate size.
 Fig. 167.—Chætodon ephippium.
Seventy species are known from the tropical parts of the Atlantic
and Indo-Pacific, nearly all being beautifully ornamented with bands
or spots. Of the ornamental markings a dark or bicoloured band,
passing through the eye and ascending towards the back, is very
generally found in these fishes; it frequently occurs again in other
marine Acanthopterygians, in which it is not rarely a sign of the
immature condition of the individual. The Chætodonts are most
numerous in the neighbourhood of the coral-reefs of the Indo-Pacific,
the species figured (C. ephippium) being as common in the East
Indian Archipelago as in Polynesia, like many others of its
congeners.
Chelmo differs from Chætodon only in having the snout produced
into a more or less long tube.
 Fig. 168.—Chelmo marginalis, from the coast of Australia.
Only four species are known, locally distributed in the tropical
seas. Ch. rostratus, the oldest species known, is said to have the
instinct of throwing a drop of water from its bill so as to light upon
any insect resting on a leaf, and thus make it fall, that it may instantly
dart upon it. This statement is erroneous, and probably rests upon
the mistaken notion that the long bill is especially adapted for this
manœuvre, which, indeed, is practised by another fish of this family
(Toxotes). The long slender bill of Chelmo (which is a true saltwater
fish) rather enables it to draw from holes and crevices animals which
otherwise could not be reached by it.
Heniochus.—One dorsal, with from eleven to thirteen spines, the
fourth of which is more or less elongate and filiform. Snout rather short
or of moderate length. Præoperculum without spine. Scales of
moderate size.
Four species are known from the tropical Indo-Pacific. H.
macrolepidotus is one of the most common fishes of that area; the
species figured (H. varius) retains in a conspicuous manner horn-like
protuberances on bones of the head, with which the young of all the
species of this genus seem to be armed.

Fig. 169.—Heniochus varius.

Holacanthus.—Præoperculum with a strong spine at the angle.
One dorsal, with from twelve to fifteen spines. Scales of moderate or
small size.
Forty species are known, which, in their geographical distribution
accompany, and are quite analogous to, the Chætodonts. One of the
most common and most beautiful is called “Emperor of Japan” by the
Dutch, which name has been adopted by Bloch for its specific
designation, Holacanthus imperator. Its body is blue, longitudinally
traversed by about thirty yellow bands; the ocular band, and the side
behind the head, are black, edged with yellow; the caudal fin is
yellow. It is a large species of this genus, sometimes attaining a
length of 15 inches, and as an article of food is one of the most
esteemed of all the Indian species. With regard to beauty of colours
it is surpassed by another allied species, H. diacanthus, which
likewise ranges from the east coast of Africa to Polynesia.
 Pomacanthus differs from Holacanthus in having from eight to ten
spines only in the dorsal fin.
The single species (P. paru) on which this genus is founded is
one of the most common fishes of the West Indies, and offers one of
the most remarkable instances of variation of colour within the limits
of the same species: some specimens being ornamented with more
or less distinct yellowish cross-bands, others with yellow crescent-
shaped spots; in others black spots predominate.

Fig. 170.—Scatophagus multifasciatus.

Scatophagus.—Two dorsal fins, united at the base, the first with
ten or eleven spines; only the second is scaly. A recumbent spine
before the dorsal, pointing forwards. Anal with four spines. Snout
rather short. Præoperculum without spine. Scales very small.

Four species are known, from the Indian Ocean, of which S.

argus is the most generally known, in fact, one of the most common
Indian shore-fishes. It freely enters large rivers, and is said not to be
particular in the selection of its food. The species figured (S.
multifasciatus) represents S. argus on the coasts of Australia.
 Fig. 171.—Bony enlargement
of cranial bones of Ephippus. a,
Enlargement of the frontal, and b,
of the supraoccipital bones; c,
interorbital septum; d, basis
cranii. ⅓ nat. size.
Ephippus.—Snout short, with the upper profile parabolic. Dorsal
fin deeply emarginate between the spinous and soft portions, the
former with nine spines, the third of which is rather elongate, and
flexible; spinous portion not scaly; anal spines three. Pectoral fin
short. Præoperculum without spine. Scales of moderate size, or rather
small.

Two or three species are known from the warmer parts of the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The Atlantic species (E. faber) shows
the remarkable peculiarity that in old specimens (12 and more inches
long) the occipital crest, and sometimes some of the anterior neural
and hæmal spines are enormously enlarged into a globular bony
mass. This can hardly be regarded as a pathological change of the
bone, as it has been found in all old specimens, without exception.
Drepane is allied to Ephippus, but has very long falciform
pectoral fins. The single species D. punctata is common in the Indian
Ocean and on the coasts of Australia. Hypsinotus, from Japan,
appears to inhabit a greater depth than the other Squamipinnes.
 Scorpis and Atypichthys are genera distinguished from the
preceding by the presence of vomerine teeth. They belong to the
coast-fauna of Australia, New Zealand, and Chili.
Toxotes.—Body short, compressed, covered with scales of
moderate size. Snout pointed, with a wide lateral mouth and projecting
lower jaw. One dorsal, with five strong spines situated on the posterior
part of the back; the soft portion and the anal fin scaly, the latter with
three spines. Villiform teeth in the jaws, on the vomer and palatine
bones. Scales of moderate size, cycloid.

Fig. 172.—Toxotes jaculator.

Two species are known from the East Indies, one (T. jaculator),
which is the more common, ranging to the north coast of Australia. It
has received its name from its habit of throwing a drop of water at an
insect which it perceives close to the surface, in order to make it fall
into it. The Malays, who call it “Ikan sumpit,” keep it in a bowl, in
order to witness this singular habit, which it continues even in
captivity.

Third Family—Mullidæ.
 Body rather low and slightly compressed, covered with large thin
scales, without or with an extremely fine serrature. Two long erectile
barbels are suspended from the hyoid, and are received between the
rami of the lower jaw and opercles. Lateral line continuous. Mouth in
front of the snout, with the cleft lateral and rather short; teeth very
feeble. Eye lateral, of moderate size. Two short dorsal fins remote
from each other, the first with feeble spines; anal similar to the
second dorsal. Ventrals with one spine and five rays. Pectorals short.
Branchiostegals four; stomach siphonal.
The “Red Mullets” form a very natural family, which, on account
of slight modifications of the dentition, has been divided into several
sub-genera—Upeneoides, Upeneichthys, Mullus, Mulloides, and
Upeneus. They are marine fishes, but many species enter brackish
water to feed on the animalcules abounding in the flora of brack-
water. About forty different species are known chiefly from tropical
seas, the European species (M. barbatus, see p. 43, Fig. 7),
extending far northwards into the temperate zone. None attain to a
large size, specimens of from two to three lbs. being not common,
but all are highly esteemed as food.
The most celebrated is the European species (of which there is
one only, M. surmuletus being probably the female). The ancient
Romans called it Mullus, the Greeks τριγλη. The Romans priced it
above any other fish; they sought for large specimens far and wide,
and paid ruinous prices for them.
“Mullus tibi quatuor emptus
Librarum, cœnæ pompa caputque fuit,
Exclamare libet, non est hic improbe, non est
Piscis: homo est; hominem, Calliodore, voras.”
Martial, x. 31.

Then, as nowadays, it was considered essential for the

enjoyment of this delicacy that the fish should exhibit the red colour
of its integuments. The Romans brought it, for that purpose, living
into the banqueting room, and allowed it to die in the hands of the
guests, the red colour appearing in all its brilliancy during the death
struggle of the fish. The fishermen of our times attain the same
object by scaling the fish immediately after its capture, thus causing
a permanent contraction of the chromatophors containing the red
pigment (see p. 183).

Fourth Family—Sparidæ.
Body compressed, oblong, covered with scales, the serrature of
which is very minute, and sometimes altogether absent. Mouth in
front of the snout, with the cleft lateral. Eye lateral, of moderate size.
Either cutting teeth in front of the jaws, or molar teeth on the side;
palate generally toothless. One dorsal fin, formed by a spinous and
soft portion of nearly equal development. Anal fin with three spines.
The lower rays of the pectoral fin are generally branched, but in one
genus simple. Ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays.
The “Sea-breams” are recognised chiefly by their dentition, which
is more specialised than in the preceding families, and by which the
groups, into which this family has been divided, are characterised.
They are inhabitants of the shores of all the tropical and temperate
seas. Their coloration is very plain. They do not attain to a large size,
but the majority are used as food.
The extinct forms found hitherto are rather numerous; the oldest
come from the cretaceous formation of Mount Lebanon; some
belong to living genera, as Sargus, Pagellus; of others from Eocene
and Miocene formations no living representative is known—
Sparnodus, Sargodon, Capitodus, Soricidens, Asima.
First Group—Cantharina.—More or less broad cutting,
sometimes lobate, teeth in front of the jaws; no molars or vomerine
teeth; the lower pectoral rays are branched. Partly herbivorous,
partly carnivorous. The genera belonging to this group are:—
Cantharus from the European and South African coasts, of which
one species (C. lineatus), is common on the coasts of Great Britain,
and locally known by the names “Old Wife,” “Black Sea-bream;” Box,
Scatharus, and Oblata from the Mediterranean and neighbouring
parts of the Atlantic; Crenidens and Tripterodon from the Indian
Ocean; Pachymetopon, Dipterodon, and Gymnocrotaphus from the
Cape of Good Hope; Girella and Tephræops from Chinese,
Japanese, and Australian Seas; Doydixodon from the Galapagos
Islands and the coasts of Peru.

Fig. 173.—Tephræops richardsonii, from King George’s Sound.

Second Group—Haplodactylina.—In both jaws flat and generally
tricuspid teeth; no molars; vomerine teeth. The lower pectoral rays
simple, not branched. Vegetable feeders. Only one genus is known,
Haplodactylus, from the temperate zone of the Southern Pacific.
Third Group—Sargina.—Jaws with a single series of incisors in
front, and with several series of rounded molars on the side. One
genus is known, Sargus, which comprises twenty species; several of
them occur in the Mediterranean and the neighbouring parts of the
Atlantic, and are popularly called “Sargo,” “Sar,” “Saragu:” names
derived from the word Sargus, by which name these fishes were well
known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. One of the largest
species is the “Sheep’s-head” (Sargus ovis), from the coasts of the
United States, which attains to a weight of 15 lbs., and is highly
esteemed on account of the excellency of its flesh. Singularly
enough, this genus occurs also on the east coast of Africa, one of
these East-African species being identical with S. noct from the
Mediterranean. These fishes evidently feed on hard-shelled animals,
which they crush with their molar teeth.
Fig. 174.—The Sheep’s-head, Sargus ovis, of North America.
 Fig. 175.—Scale of
Lethrinus.
Fourth Group—Pagrina.—Jaws with conical teeth in front and
molar teeth on the sides. Feeding, as the preceding, on hard-shelled
animals, like Mollusks and Crustaceans. This group is composed of
several genera:—
Lethrinus.—Cheeks scaleless. Body oblong, covered with scales
of moderate size (L. lat. 45–50). Canine teeth in front; lateral teeth in a
single series, broadly conical or molar-like. Formula of the fins: D.
10/9, A. 3/8.
More than twenty species are known, all of which, with one
exception, occur in the tropical Indo-Pacific. The species, forming
this exception, occurs, singularly enough, on the west coast of
Africa, where more than one Indian genus reappears in isolated
representative species. Some Lethrini attain to a length of three feet.
Sphærodon is closely allied to Lethrinus, but has scales on the
cheek. One species from the Indo-Pacific.
Pagrus.—Body oblong, compressed, with scales of moderate
size. Several pairs of strong canine-like teeth in both jaws; molars
arranged in two series. Cheeks scaly. The spines of the dorsal fin,
eleven or twelve in number, are sometimes elongate, and can be
received in a groove; anal spines three.
Thirteen species are known, chiefly distributed in the warmer
parts of the temperate zones, and more scantily represented