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 Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht
Appalachian State University

With contributions by
Jason Carlson
St. Cloud Technical and Community College
David Cox
Lincoln Land Community College
Gretel Guest
Durham Technical Community College
Jeffrey Isaacson
Nebraska Wesleyan University
BIOLOGY, TWELFTH EDITION

Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Mader, Sylvia S.
Biology / Sylvia S. Mader, Michael Windelspecht, Appalachian State University ; with contributions by April Cognato. — Twelfth edition.
pages cm
I. Windelspecht, Michael, 1963- II. Cognato, April. III. Title.
QH308.2.M23 2016
570--dc23
2014022212

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the
authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites.

www.mhhe.com
About the Authors

Sylvia S. Mader Sylvia S. Mader has authored several nationally recognized biology texts published by McGraw-Hill.
Educated at Bryn Mawr College, Harvard University, Tufts University, and Nova Southeastern University, she holds degrees in both
Biology and Education. Over the years she has taught at University of Massachusetts, Lowell; Massachusetts Bay Community Col-
lege; Suffolk University; and Nathan Mayhew Seminars. Her ability to reach out to science-shy students led to the writing of her first
text, Inquiry into Life, that is now in its thirteenth edition. Highly acclaimed for her crisp and entertaining writing style, her books
have become models for others who write in the field of biology.
Although her writing schedule is always quite demanding, Dr. Mader enjoys taking time to visit and explore the various
ecosystems of the biosphere. Her several trips to the Florida Everglades and Caribbean coral reefs resulted in talks she has given
to various groups around the country. She has visited the tundra in Alaska, the taiga in the Canadian Rockies, the Sonoran Desert in Arizona, and tropical
rain forests in South America and Australia. A photo safari to the Serengeti in Kenya resulted in a number of photographs for her texts. She was thrilled
to think of walking in Darwin’s steps when she journeyed to the Galápagos Islands with a group of biology educators. Dr. Mader was also a member of a
group of biology educators who traveled to China to meet with their Chinese counterparts and exchange ideas about the teaching of modern-day biology.

Michael Windelspecht As an educator, Dr. Windelspecht has taught introductory biology, genetics, and human
genetics in the online, traditional, and hybrid environments at community colleges, comprehensive universities, and military insti-
tutions. For over a decade he served as the Introductory Biology Coordinator at Appalachian State University where he directed a
program that enrolled over 4,500 students annually. He currently serves as an adjunct professor of biology at ASU where he teaches
nonmajors biology and human genetics in the online and hybrid formats. He was educated at Michigan State University and the
University of South Florida. Dr. Windelspecht is also active in promoting the scientific literacy of secondary school educators.
He has led multiple workshops on integrating water quality research into the science curriculum, and has spent several summers
teaching Pakistani middle school teachers.
As an author, Dr. Windelspecht has published five reference textbooks, and multiple print and online lab manuals. He served as the series editor for
a ten-volume work on the human body. For years Dr. Windelspecht has been active in the development of multimedia resources for the online and hybrid
science classrooms. Along with his wife, Sandra, he owns a multimedia production company, Ricochet Creative Productions, which actively develops and
assesses new technologies for the science classroom.

Contributors
Jason Carlson is a Biology Instructor at St. Cloud Technical and Community College in Minnesota where he teaches introductory biology,
microbiology, nutrition, and human biology. Before entering higher education, he was a middle and high school science teacher with education
from the University of Idaho, Bemidji State University, and St. Cloud State University. In the classroom, he supports a student-driven applied
curriculum with relevant and hands-on research and investigation.

Dave Cox serves as Associate Professor of Biology at Lincoln Land Community College, in Springfield, Illinois. He was educated at Illinois
College and Western Illinois University. As an educator, Professor Cox teaches introductory biology for nonmajors in the traditional classroom
format as well as in a hybrid format. He also teaches biology for majors, and marine biology and biological field studies as study-abroad
courses in Belize. He is the co-owner of Howler Publications, a company that specializes in scientific study abroad courses. Professor Cox
served as a contributor to the fourteenth edition of Inquiry and the thirteenth edition of Human Biology.

Gretel Guest is a Professor of Biology at Durham Technical Community College, in Durham, North Carolina. She has been teaching non-
majors and majors Biology, Microbiology, and Genetics for more than 15 years. Dr. Guest was educated in the field of botany at the University
of Florida, and received her Ph.D. in Plant Sciences from the University of Georgia. She is also a Visiting Scholar at Duke University’s Gradu-
ate School. There she serves the Preparing Future Faculty program by mentoring post-doctoral and graduate students interested in teaching
careers. Dr. Guest was a contributor to the fourth edition of Essentials of Biology.

Jeffrey Isaacson is an Associate Professor of Biology at Nebraska Wesleyan University, where he teaches courses in microbiology, im-
munology, pathophysiology, infectious disease, and senior research. He also serves as the Assistant Provost for Integrative and Experiential
Learning. Dr. Isaacson was educated at Nebraska Wesleyan, Kansas State College of Veterinary Medicine, and Iowa State University. He
worked as a small-animal veterinarian in Nevada and California, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship in the Department of Immunology
at the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota. Dr. Isaacson has been a significant contributor and coauthor for three editions of Inquiry Into Life, for the eleventh edition
of Biology, and is a frequent contributor to McGraw-Hill’s LearnSmart adaptive learning program for several textbooks.

iii
Preface

Goals of the Twelfth Edition

The mission of Dr. Sylvia Mader’s text, Biology, has always been to give students an understanding of biological concepts and a working
knowledge of the scientific process. However, like the world around us, the process of teaching science is changing rapidly. Increasingly,
instructors are being asked to engage their students by making content more relevant, while still providing students with a firm foundation
in those core principles on which biology is founded. These changes are clearly outlined in the AAAS/NSF report, Vision and Change in
Undergraduate Biology Education (2009). The eleventh edition of Biology was one of the first texts to address the principles of Vision
and Change by integrating themes within the text. In this edition we expand on that effort with the development of a number of new
resources and processes.
In addition to the evolution of the introductory biology curriculum, students and instructors are increasingly requesting digital
resources to utilize as learning resources. McGraw-Hill Education has long been an innovator in the development of digital resources,
and the Biology text, and its authors, are at the forefront of the integration of these technologies into the science classroom.
In this edition, the authors focused on the following areas:
1. utilization of the data from the LearnSmart adaptive learning platforms to identify content areas within the text that students
demonstrated difficulty in mastering,
2. further development of the themes that connect the content of the text across multiple chapters,
3. development of a new series of videos and websites to introduce relevancy and engage students in the content,
4. refinement of digital assets to provide a more effective assessment of learning outcomes to enable instructors in the flipped,
online, and hybrid teaching environments.

Relevancy
The use of real world examples to demonstrate the importance • A new website, RicochetScience.com that provides updates
of biology in the lives of students is a key component of Vision on news and stories that are interesting to nonscience majors.
and Change and an effective teaching strategy for introductory The Biology101 project links these resources to the major
biology. The development of relevancy-based resources is a major topics of the text. The site also features videos to assist
focus for the authors of the Mader series of texts. Some examples the students in recognizing the relevancy of what they are
include: learning in the classroom.
• A series of new chapter openers to introduce relevancy to the
chapter. The authors chose topics that would be of interest to
a nonscience major, and represent what would typically be
found on a major news source.
• The development of new relevancy-based videos, BioNow
Sessions, that offer relevant, applied classroom resources
to allow students to feel that they can actually do and learn
biology themselves. For more on these, see page ix.
The Vision and Change document clearly identifies the
need to integrate core concepts throughout the curriculum.
We recognize that scientific literacy is not based upon the
memorization of a series of facts. Instead, learning is based on
establishing associations and links between what, at first glance,
appear to be diverse topics. The main themes we have chosen to
emphasize include:
• Evolution
• Nature of Science
• Biological Systems

iv
 These themes are integrated into all aspects
of the textbook, from the unit learning outcomes
to the theme-based feature readings in the text.
At the start of each chapter, “Following the
Themes” introduces the relationship of the chapter’s content to
each of the themes. At the end of each chapter, “Connecting the
Concepts with the Themes” not only reminds the student of the
relationships between chapter content and the three core themes,
but also acts as a prelude to topics in the next few chapters of
the text. In essence, the themes act as the threads that unite
the concepts throughout the text, enabling the student to see
relationships from the molecular to ecosystem levels of biology.

Evolution Theme
Evolutionary change, along with the mechanism of natural
selection, represents the unifying concept of the biological
sciences. In essence, biological evolution is the thread that
links all life together. Throughout this textbook, feature
readings on this theme both demonstrate the process of
evolution and illustrate how scientists study and measure
evolutionary change. By following this theme through the
book, students develop a better understanding of why
evolution is a dynamic process, and one that has shaped,
and will continue to influence, life on this planet.

Nature of Science Theme

Through the processes of observation, the application of
the scientific method, and the use of both inductive and
deductive reasoning, scientists study life. To develop a
deeper understanding of the biological sciences, students
must appreciate that the study of life is a process, and that
this process has application in their everyday lives. This
theme focuses not only on how biologists do science, but
also on the influences scientific inquiry has on our
understanding of our world.

Biological Systems Theme

From cells to ecosystems, all life is interconnected. Increasingly, scientists
are becoming aware that small changes in the chemical composition of an
ecosystem can have a tremendous influence on the life in that ecosystem.
This theme was chosen to provide a holistic approach to the study of the
life sciences, by demonstrating not only that all life is interconnected, but
also that the principles regulating life at the cellular level play a role in
physiology and ecosystem biology as well.

Assessment To help instructors assess their student’s understanding

of these core concepts, we have designed a series of Connect questions for
each theme in each unit of the text .

v
 Author’s Guide to Using the Textbook
I use LearnSmart Labs to encourage critical thinking, teach
scientific processes, and to integrate lab activities into the
classroom environment.
I encourage my students
to use the Before You
Begin feature to identify
concepts they need to
review before beginning to
read the chapter content.

Pre-Class During Class

Built-in Preview Discussion

and Review Tools Questions
and Activities
Students come to
class prepared Flip class and
engage students

Learning Outcomes at the start of each section provide a

preview of the content to come, while the Check Your Progress
feature at the end of the section helps my students assess how
well they understood the material. The learning outcomes are
the same ones used in Connect, so I can easily assign a quiz to
assess which topics I need to clarify during class.

I use the Questions to Consider at the end of each reading and

Thinking Scientifically questions at the end of the chapter as
the basis for class discussions and active learning exercises.

vi
 Media Study Tools includes a table
that shows students the animations,
videos, and multimedia assets
that are available to further explain
difficult topics. These may be used
as tutorials for the students, and
I may assign the accompanying
Connect activities to gauge whether
my students understand the content.

Post-Class

Assessment and
Integration

Apply content and

build critical thinking

Traditional end-of-chapter summaries and review questions provide students

with an opportunity for low-stakes assessment of their comprehension of the
chapter’s topics.

Features like Following the Themes and Connecting the Concepts with
the Themes help them understand how the main concepts of the chapter
relate to each other, building a deeper understanding of the content.

vii
 Author’s Guide to the Digital Classroom

Using reports from within the LearnSmart

system, especially the Most Missed
Questions report, I am able to identify areas
of content that my students are struggling
with before they enter the lecture.

Pre-Class During Class

LearnSmart & Instructor

SmartBook Resources

Students come to Flip class and

class prepared engage students

I generally assign 20-30 minutes of SmartBook 3-5 days before class. The assignments cover only the
core topics for the upcoming lesson.

viii
 During class I can focus on engaging the students with the
relevancy of the content using the BioNow Sessions videos,
active learning exercises, and animations. Tegrity lecture capture
lets my students review these concepts later.

Using feedback from the

LearnSmart reports, I am
Post-Class able to design Connect
assignments that act as
Connect tutorials that target the
concepts my students are
Apply content and struggling with.
build critical thinking

The Connect reports allow me to assess whether my students The quizzing option within Connect allows me to develop
have met the learning objectives. assessments for any classroom environment.

ix
Engaging Your Students
Today’s science classroom relies heavily on the use of digital assets, including animations
and videos, to engage students and reinforce difficult concepts. Biology 12e includes two
resources specifically designed for the introductory science class to help you achieve
these goals.

BioNow Sessions Videos

A relevant, applied approach
allows your students to feel they
can actually do and learn biology
themselves. While tying directly
to the content of your course, the
videos help students relate their
daily lives to the biology you teach
and then connect what they learn
back to their lives.

Each video provides an engaging

and entertaining story about
applying the science of biology
to a real situation or problem.
Attention is taken to use tools and
techniques that any regular person
could perform, so your students
see the science as something they
could do and understand.
A 27-video series narrated and produced by author Jason Carlson

Our new tutorials were prepared to assist

students in understanding some of the more
difficult topics in biology. Each of the videos
explores a specific figure in the text.

For students, these act as informal office

hours, where they can review the most difficult
concepts in the chapter at a pace which helps
them learn.

Instructors of hybrid and flipped courses will

find these useful as online supplements.

A 36-animation series narrated by Michael Windelspecht and produced by

Ricochet Creative Productions, LLC

x

Theme Evolution
Metagenomics 256
The Anatomy of Speciation 299
Carboniferous Forests 421
Evolutionary History of Maize 427
Survival Mechanisms of Plants 438
Theme Biological Systems
The Impact of Acid Deposition 31
How Cells Talk to One Another 87
Tropical Rain Forest Destruction and Climate Change 122
Moving Genes Between Species: Green Fluorescent
Protein and Cells 219
Same but Not the Same—the Role of Epigenetics 237
African Sleeping Sickness 388
Pathogenic Protists and Climate Change 386
Deadly Fungi 404
Theme Nature of Science
Saturated and Trans Fats in Foods 44
Microscopy Today 60
Enzyme Inhibitors Can Spell Death 107
Fermentation and Food Production 135
The G1 Checkpoint 150
Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning 157
Meiosis and the Parthenogenic Lizards 171
Hemophilia and the Royal Families of Europe 203
Testing for Genetic Disorders 254
The Tree of Life: 150 Years of Support for the Theory of
Evolution by Natural Selection 272
Inbreeding in Populations 290
Genetic Basis of Beak Shape in Darwin’s Finches 308
DNA Barcoding of Life 342
Flu Viruses 359
DIY Bio 362
Bryophytes—Frozen in Time 418
The Many Uses of Bamboo 446
Plants Can Be Used for Cleaning and Discovery of
Minerals 462
Why So Many Scientists Work with Arabidopsis 488
Vertebrates and Human Medicine 555
A Genomic Comparison of Homo sapiens
and Chimpanzees 568
Readings
The Chemical Ecology of Plants 484
Plants and Their Pollinators 500
Evolution of the Animal Body Plan 518
Sexual Selection in Male Bowerbirds 830
Interactions and Coevolution 865
The Concept of Water Potential 467
Would You Eat Insects? 538
UV Rays: Too Much Exposure or Too Little? 593
AIDS and Opportunistic Infections 633
Drugs of Abuse 700
Preventing Transmission of STDs 787
Preventing and Testing for Birth Defects 805
When a Population Grows Too Large 848
Biomagnification of Mercury 901
Some Major Questions Remaining to Be Answered About
Human Evolution 576
Regenerative Medicine 588
Recent Findings About Preventing Cardiovascular
Disease 612
How Horseshoe Crabs Save Human Lives 617
Cancer Vaccines: Becoming a Reality 635
Should You Go Gluten-Free? 650
New Approaches to Treating Obesity 655
Artificial Lung Technology 671
Is “Vaping” Safer Than Smoking? 673
The Misuse of Erythropoietin in Sports 686
An Accidental Experimental Model for Parkinson
Disease 706
Artificial Retinas Come into Focus 723
The Accidental Discovery of Botox 744
Identifying Insulin as a Chemical Messenger 764
Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis 784
Do Animals Have Emotions? 825
Island Biogeography Pertains to Biodiversity 860
Global Climate Change 877
Wildlife Conservation and DNA 887
Overexploitation of Asian Turtles 915
Emiquon Floodplain Restoration 919
xi
Overview of Content Changes
to Biology, Twelfth Edition
Chapter 1: A View of Life has been reorganized to provide a
briefer overview of biology as a science. The content on the scien-
tific process (section 1.3) has been reworked with new examples
and a new section (1.4) has been added that explores some of the
major challenges facing science.
Unit 1: The Cell
Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry starts with new content on the search
for life on Mars. Chapter 3: The Chemistry of Organic ­Molecules
opens with a look at trans fats in common foods. ­Chapter 5:
­Membrane Structure and Function begins with a new open-
ing article on chili peppers and calcium channels. C ­ hapter 6:
Metabolism: Energy and Enzymes includes new material on
the function of ATP in cells. The content on redox reactions now
focuses more on the processes of photosynthesis and cellular res-
piration. Chapter 7: Photosynthesis begins with new content on
biofuels.
Unit 2: Genetic Basis of Life
Chapter 9: The Cell Cycle and Cellular Reproduction now
contains information on the structure of a eukaryotic chromosome
(section 9.2). Chapter 10: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
starts with a new essay on the importance of meiosis and a new
featured reading, “Meiosis and the Parthenogenic Lizards.” The
figure comparing meiosis I and II (Fig. 10.5) has been reworked to
provide an easier comparison of the two processes. Chapter 11:
Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance begins with a new essay on
PKU sensitivity. A new featured reading examines hemophilia
and the royal families of Europe. The content on polygenic in-
heritance now contains references to the genetics of skin coloring
(Fig. 11.17). Chapter 12: Molecular Biology of the Gene has a
new chapter opener that explains the genetic basis of skin, hair,
and eye coloration. The content on the eukaryotic chromosome
has been moved to chapter 9. There is a new illustration on semi-
conservative replication (Fig 12.6) and a new featured reading
that examines GFP protein. Chapter 13: Regulation of Gene
­Expression starts with new content on how gene regulation relates
to the physiology and behavior of primates. A new featured reading,
“Same but Not the Same—the Role of Epigenetics,” has been in-
cluded on epigenetic inheritance. Chapter 14: Biotechnology and
Genomics opens with a new essay on how biotechnology is being
used to treat dental disease. New illustrations on the PCR reaction
(Fig. 14.3) and the nature of transposons (Fig. 14.10) are included.
Unit 3: Evolution
Chapter 16: How Populations Evolve opens with an essay on
MRSA evolution. Chapter 17: Speciation and Macroevolution
contains an updated illustration on allopatric speciation (Fig. 17.8).
xii
Unit 4: Microbiology and Evolution
Chapter 20: Viruses, Bacteria, and Archaea contains a new fea-
tured reading, “DIY Bio,” that examines synthetic biology. A new
illustration (Fig. 20.8) on gram staining is included. Chapter 21:
Protist Evolution and Diversity has been restructured to give
more emphasis on the supergroup classification system. The chap-
ter begins with a new opener on Naegleria fowleri, and contains a
new featured reading on pathogenic protists and climate change.
The evolutionary relationships in Chapter 22: Fungi Evolution
and Diversity now includes the microsporidia (Fig. 22.1).
Unit 5: Plant Evolution and Biology
Chapter 23: Plant Evolution and Diversity contains a new
featured reading, “Bryophytes—Frozen in Time.” Chapter 24:
Flowering Plants: Structure and Organization begins with new
content on the importance of the neem tree. The chapter has been
reorganized to start with content on plant cells and tissues be-
fore exploring organ systems. Chapter 25: Flowering Plants:
­Nutrition and Transport now contains information on hydro­
ponics (Fig. 25.2) and effects of nutrient deficiencies on plants
(Fig. 25.3). Table 26.1 in Chapter 26: Flowering Plants: Control
of Growth Responses now contains the chemical structures of the
plant hormones. A new featured reading explores coevolution and
the chemical ecology of plants. Chapter 27: Flowering Plants:
Reproduction begins with a new essay on the economic impor-
tance of flowers.
Unit 6: Animal Evolution and Diversity
Chapter 28: Invertebrate Evolution begins with new content that
examines the importance of colony-collapse disorder in honeybees.
A new featured reading, “Would You Eat Insects?,” discusses the
potential benefits of using insects as a food source. Chapter 30:
Human Evolution contains a new featured reading that explores
some of the remaining questions on human evolution.
Unit 7: Comparative Animal Biology
Chapter 31: Animal Organization and Homeostasis begins with
an essay that examines the importance of homeostasis for astro-
nauts. Chapter 32: Circulation and Cardiovascular S ­ ystems
opens with material on cardiovascular-related diseases and the
NFL. Chapter 33: The Lymphatic and Immune Systems has
a new opener on foods and anaphylactic shock. Chapter 34:
­Digestive Systems and Nutrition contains a new featured read-
ing on gluten-free diets. Chapter 35: Respiratory Systems has
a new figure (Fig. 35.8) explaining the relationship between air
pressure and volume of a container. The chapter also contains a
new featured reading on the health aspects of using e-cigarettes.
­Chapter 37: Neurons and Nervous Systems begins with new
Overview of Content Changes to Biology, Twelfth Edition xiii

content on Parkinson disease. Chapter 39: Locomotion and Sup-
port Systems starts with a new essay on Olympian Gabby Doug-
las. Chapter 41: Reproductive Systems has a new opener that
explores variations between the sexes in the animal kingdom.
Unit 8: Behavior and Ecology
Chapter 43: Behavioral Ecology starts with content on behav-
ior and communication in honeybees. The featured reading on
animals and emotions has been updated to include recent develop-
ments. Chapter 44: Population Ecology contains a new illustra-
tion on the environmental impact of developed countries. The
predator-prey relationships and content on global climate change
in ­Chapter 45: Community and Ecosystem Ecology has been
updated to include more recent data. Chapter 47: Conservation
of Biodiversity now begins with an essay on the impact of invasive
species.

The Next Generation of Textbook Reviews: Heat Map Technology

The twelfth edition of Biology is the first text-
book in the Mader s­eries which utilized the
data derived from the LearnSmart platform as
a form of review,
The premise is very straightforward. Stu-
dents don’t know what they don’t know—but
LearnSmart does. By compiling data from all
of the probes answered by all of the students,
and then overlaying that data on the text, we
are able to visualize areas of content where
the students are having problems.
The authors were able to use this infor-
mation to not only identify areas of the text
that the students were having problems with,
but also areas that needed additional digital
resources, such as tutorials and new Connect
questions.
Acknowledgments

Dr. Sylvia Mader represents one of the icons of science education. Twelfth Edition Reviewers
Her dedication to her students, coupled to her clear, concise writing
LaQuetta Anderson, Grambling State University
style, has benefited the education of thousands of students over the
Isaac Barjis, City University of New York
past four decades. As an educator, it is an honor to continue her
Gladys Bolding, Georgia Perimeter College
legacy, and to bring her message to the next generation of students.
Bertha M. Byrd, Wayne County Community College District
As always, I had the privilege to work with the phenomenal
Sarah Clark, Howard Community College
team of science educators and coauthors on this edition. They are
Lewis Deaton, University of Louisiana at Lafayette
all dedicated and talented teachers, and their passion is evident in
Angela Edwards, Trident Technical College
the quality of this text. Thank you also to the countless instructors
Salman Elawad, Chattahoochee Valley Community College
who have invited me into their classrooms, both physically and
Victor Fet, Marshall University
virtually, to discuss their needs as instructors and the needs of their
Julie Fischer, Wallace Community College
students. Your energy, and devotion to quality teaching, is what
Monica Frazier, Columbus State University
drives a textbook revision.
Melanie Glasscock, Wallace State Community College
Many dedicated and talented individuals assisted in the de-
George Goff, Wayne County Community College District
velopment of this edition of Biology. I am very grateful for the
Shashuna J. Gray, Germanna Community College
help of so many professionals at McGraw-Hill who were involved
Sylvester Hackworth, Bishop State Community College
in the development of this project. In particular, let me thank my
Cameron Harmon, Fayetteville Technical Community College
product developer, Anne Winch, for not only keeping me on track
Zinat Hassanpour, Cabarrus College of Health Sciences/Rowan
and her valuable advice, but for her endless patience. My editor
Cabarrus Community College
for this text was Chris Loewenberg. From start to finish a project of
Holly Hereau, Macomb Community College
this magnitude can take over 18 months, and Chris has the natural
Dagne Hill, Grambling State University
ability of keeping his authors focused and in reminding me of the
Kimberly Brown, Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College
importance we are making in education. Thanks also to my market-
Ryan Lazik, Pacific College of Oriental Medicine
ing manager, Chris Ho, who offers a unique insight on the needs of
Lynne Lohmeier, Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College
our students. No modern team would be complete without digital
Geralyne Lopez-de-Victoria, Midlands Technical College
support, and for that I thank Eric Weber and Christine Carlson.
Tiffany McFalls-Smith, Elizabethtown Community and
Production of this text was directed by Angela Fitzpatrick
Technical College
and Jayne Klein, who faithfully steered this project through the
Christian Nwamba, Wayne County Community College District
publication process. I was very lucky to have Dawnelle Krouse,
Tom Reeves, Midlands Technical College
Deb Debord, and Rose Kramer as proofreaders and copy editors.
Lyndell Robinson, Lincoln Land Community College
Today’s textbooks are visual productions, and so I need to thank
William Simcik, Lone Star College-Tomball
the creative talents of David Hash. Lori Hancock and Evelyn Jo
Viji Sitther, Morgan State University
Johnson did a superb job of finding just the right photographs
Phillip Snider, Gadsden State Community College
and micrographs. Electronic Publishing Services produced this
Kimberly Sonanstine, Wallace Community College
textbook, emphasizing pedagogy and beauty to arrive at the best
Chris Sorenson, St. Cloud Technical and Community College
presentation on the page.
Salvatore A. Sparace, Clemson University
Who I am, as an educator and an author, is a direct reflection
Marinko Sremac, Mount Wachusett Community College
of what I have learned from my students. Education is a mutualistic
Todd Tolar, Wallace Community College
relationship, and it is my honest opinion that while I am a teacher,
Frances Turner, Howard Community College
both my professional and personal life have been enriched by inter-
Alanna M. Tynes, Lone Star College-Tomball
actions with my students. They have encouraged me to learn more,
Amale Wardani, Lincoln Land Community College
teach better, and never stop questioning the world around me.
Last, but never least, I want to acknowledge my wife, Sandra.
You have never wavered in your support of my projects. Devin and
Kayla, your natural curiosity of the world we live in gives me the
energy to want to make the world a better place.

Michael Windelspecht
Blowing Rock, NC

xiv
 Contents

Preface iv
7 Photosynthesis 114
1 A View of Life 1 7.1
7.2
Photosynthetic Organisms 115
The Process of Photosynthesis 117
1.1 The Characteristics of Life 2
7.3 Plants Convert Solar Energy 119
1.2 Evolution and the Classification of Life 6
7.4 Plants Fix Carbon Dioxide 123
1.3 The Process of Science 9
7.5 Other Types of Photosynthesis 125
1.4 Challenges Facing Science 13
8 Cellular Respiration 129
Unit
1 The Cell 18
8.1
8.2
8.3
Overview of Cellular Respiration 130
Outside the Mitochondria: Glycolysis 132
Outside the Mitochondria: Fermentation 134
2 Basic Chemistry 19 8.4
8.5
Inside the Mitochondria 136
Metabolism 141
2.1 Chemical Elements 20
2.2 Molecules and Compounds 24
2.3
2.4
Chemistry of Water 26
Acids and Bases 30
Unit
2 Genetic Basis of Life 146

3 The Chemistry of Organic Molecules 35

9 The Cell Cycle and Cellular Reproduction 147
3.1 Organic Molecules 36
9.1 The Cell Cycle 148
3.2 Carbohydrates 39
9.2 The Eukaryotic Chromosome 151
3.3 Lipids 42
9.3 Mitosis and Cytokinesis 152
3.4 Proteins 46
9.4 The Cell Cycle and Cancer 158
3.5 Nucleic Acids 50
9.5 Prokaryotic Cell Division 161
4 Cell Structure and Function 57
10 Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction 166
4.1 Cellular Level of Organization 58
10.1 Overview of Meiosis 167
4.2 Prokaryotic Cells 62
10.2 Genetic Variation 169
4.3 Introduction to Eukaryotic Cells 64
10.3 The Phases of Meiosis 172
4.4 The Nucleus and Ribosomes 67
10.4 Meiosis Compared to Mitosis 174
4.5 The Endomembrane System 69
10.5 The Cycle of Life 176
4.6 Microbodies and Vacuoles 72
10.6 Changes in Chromosome Number and Structure 177
4.7 The Energy-Related Organelles 73
4.8 The Cytoskeleton 75
11 Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance 186
5 Membrane Structure and Function 82 11.1 Gregor Mendel 187
11.2 Mendel’s Laws 188
5.1 Plasma Membrane Structure and Function 83
11.3 Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance and Human
5.2 Passive Transport Across a Membrane 88
Disease 194
5.3 Active Transport Across a Membrane 91
11.4 Beyond Mendelian Inheritance 198
5.4 Modification of Cell Surfaces 95

6 Metabolism: Energy and Enzymes 100

12 Molecular Biology of the Gene 207
12.1 The Genetic Material 208
6.1 Cells and the Flow of Energy 101
12.2 Replication of DNA 211
6.2 Metabolic Reactions and Energy Transformations 103
12.3 The Genetic Code of Life 216
6.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes 105
12.4 First Step: Transcription 218
6.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions and Metabolism 109
12.5 Second Step: Translation 220

 xv
xviContents

13 Regulation of Gene Expression 228 22 Fungi Evolution and Diversity 395

13.1 Prokaryotic Regulation 229 22.1 Evolution and Characteristics of Fungi 396
13.2 Eukaryotic Regulation 232 22.2 Diversity of Fungi 398
13.3 Gene Mutations 238 22.3 Symbiotic Relationships of Fungi 405

14 Biotechnology and Genomics 244

5 Plant Evolution and Biology

14.1 DNA Cloning 245
Unit
14.2 Biotechnology Products 247 410
14.3 Gene Therapy 250
14.4 Genomics 251
23 Plant Evolution and Diversity 411

3
23.1 Ancestry and Features of Land Plants 412
Unit
Evolution 260 23.2 Evolution of Bryophytes: Colonization of Land 415
23.3 Evolution of Lycophytes: Vascular Tissue 417
23.4 Evolution of Pteridophytes: Megaphylls 419
15 Darwin and Evolution 261 23.5 Evolution of Seed Plants: Full Adaptation
15.1 History of Evolutionary Thought 262 to Land 423
15.2 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution 265
15.3 Evidence for Evolution 270 24 Flowering Plants: Structure
and Organization 435
16 How Populations Evolve 279 24.1 Cells and Tissues of Flowering Plants 436
16.1 Genes, Populations, and Evolution 280 24.2 Organs of Flowering Plants 440
16.2 Natural Selection 286 24.3 Organization and Diversity of Roots 442
16.3 Maintenance of Diversity 290 24.4 Organization and Diversity of Stems 445
17 Speciation and Macroevolution 296 24.5 Organization and Diversity of Leaves 450

17.1 How New Species Evolve 297

17.2 Modes of Speciation 303
25 Flowering Plants: Nutrition and Transport 456
17.3 Principles of Macroevolution 308 25.1 Plant Nutrition and Soil 457
25.2 Water and Mineral Uptake 461
18 Origin and History of Life 317 25.3 Transport Mechanisms in Plants 465
18.1 Origin of Life 318
18.2 History of Life 323 26 Flowering Plants: Control of Growth
18.3 Geological Factors That Influence Evolution 332 Responses 476
26.1 Plant Hormones 477
19 Taxonomy, Systematics, and Phylogeny 337 26.2 Plant Growth and Movement Responses 485
19.1 Systematic Biology 338 26.3 Plant Responses to Phytochrome 489
19.2 The Three-Domain System 341
19.3 Phylogeny 344 27 Flowering Plants: Reproduction 495
27.1 Sexual Reproductive Strategies 496
Unit
4 Microbiology and Evolution 352 27.2
27.3
Seed Development 502
Fruit Types and Seed Dispersal 504
27.4 Asexual Reproductive Strategies 507
20 Viruses, Bacteria, and Archaea 353
20.1 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions 354
20.2
20.3
20.4
The Prokaryotes 360
The Bacteria 363
The Archaea 368
Unit
6 Animal Evolution and Diversity 512

21 Protist Evolution and Diversity 373 28 Invertebrate Evolution 513

21.1 General Biology of Protists 374 28.1 Evolution of Animals 514
21.2 Supergroup Archaeplastida 377 28.2 The Simplest Invertebrates 521
21.3 Supergroup Chromalveolata 380 28.3 Diversity Among the Lophotrochozoans 524
21.4 Supergroup Excavata 385 28.4 Diversity of the Ecdysozoans 532
21.5 Supergroups Amoebozoa, Opisthokonta, and Rhizaria 389 28.5 Invertebrate Deuterostomes 539
Contents xvii

29 Vertebrate Evolution 544 37 Neurons and Nervous Systems 691

29.1 The Chordates 545 37.1 Evolution of the Nervous System 692
29.2 The Vertebrates 547 37.2 Nervous Tissue 695
29.3 The Fishes 548 37.3 The Central Nervous System 699
29.4 The Amphibians 551 37.4 The Peripheral Nervous System 707
29.5 The Reptiles 553
29.6 The Mammals 559 38 Sense Organs 714
38.1 Sensory Receptors 715
30 Human Evolution 564 38.2 Chemical Senses 716
30.1 Evolution of Primates 565 38.3 Sense of Vision 718
30.2 Evolution of Humanlike Hominins 569 38.4 Senses of Hearing and Balance 724
30.3 Evolution of Early Genus Homo 572 38.5 Somatic Senses 729
30.4 Evolution of Later Genus Homo 573
39 Locomotion and Support Systems 733
39.1 Diversity of Skeletons 734
Unit
7 Comparative Animal Biology 580
39.2 The Human Skeletal System 736
39.3 The Muscular System 742

31 Animal Organization and Homeostasis 581 40 Hormones and Endocrine Systems 750
31.1 Types of Tissues 582 40.1 Animal Hormones 751
31.2 Organs, Organ Systems, and Body Cavities 589 40.2 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 758
31.3 The Integumentary System 591 40.3 Other Endocrine Glands and Hormones 758
31.4 Homeostasis 594
41 Reproductive Systems 770
32 Circulation and Cardiovascular Systems 600 41.1 How Animals Reproduce 771
32.1 Transport in Invertebrates 601 41.2 Human Male Reproductive System 773
32.2 Transport in Vertebrates 603 41.3 Human Female Reproductive System 777
32.3 The Human Cardiovascular System 605 41.4 Control of Human Reproduction 781
32.4 Blood  613 41.5 Sexually Transmitted Diseases 785

33 The Lymphatic and Immune Systems 621 42 Animal Development 793

33.1 Evolution of Immune Systems 622 42.1 Early Developmental Stages 794
33.2 The Lymphatic System 623 42.2 Developmental Processes 798
33.3 Innate Immune Defenses 625 42.3 Human Embryonic and Fetal Development 802
33.4 Adaptive Immune Defenses 628 42.4 The Aging Process 809
33.5 Immune System Disorders
and Adverse Reactions 636

34 Digestive Systems and Nutrition 641

Unit
8 Behavior and Ecology 816
34.1 Digestive Tracts 642
34.2 The Human Digestive System 645 43 Behavioral Ecology 817
34.3 Digestive Enzymes 651 43.1 Inheritance Influences Behavior 818
34.4 Nutrition and Human Health 652 43.2 The Environment Influences Behavior 820
43.3 Animal Communication 824
35 Respiratory Systems 659 43.4 Behaviors That Increase Fitness 828
35.1 Gas-Exchange Surfaces 660
35.2 Breathing and Transport of Gases 665 44 Population Ecology 836
35.3 Respiration and Human Health 669 44.1 Scope of Ecology 837
44.2 Demographics of Populations 838
36 Body Fluid Regulation and Excretory 44.3 Population Growth Models 841
Systems 677 44.4 Regulation of Population Size 844
36.1 Animal Excretory Systems 678 44.5 Life History Patterns 846
36.2 The Human Urinary System 681 44.6 Human Population Growth 849
xviiiContents

45 Community and Ecosystem Ecology 855 Appendices

45.1 Ecology of Communities 856
45.2 Community Development 866
A Answer Key A-1
45.3 Dynamics of an Ecosystem 868 B Tree of Life A-16
46 Major Ecosystems of the Biosphere 881 Glossary G-1
46.1 Climate and the Biosphere 882
46.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems 885 Credits C-1
46.3 Aquatic Ecosystems 895 Index I-1
47 Conservation of Biodiversity 905
47.1 Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 906
47.2 Value of Biodiversity 908
47.3 Causes of Extinction 911
47.4 Conservation Techniques 916
 1
A View of Life

The themes of evolution, the nature of science, and biological

systems are important to understanding biology.

O ur planet is home to a staggering diversity of life. It is estimated that there are over
15 million different species, including our species, Homo sapiens, that inhabit the
globe. Furthermore, life may be found everywhere, from the deepest trenches in
Chapter Outline
1.1 The Characteristics of Life 2
1.2 Evolution and the Classification
the oceans to the tops of the highest mountains. Biology is the area of scientific study
of Life 6
that focuses on understanding all aspects of living organisms. To further our under-
1.3 The Process of Science 9
standing of what it means to be alive, biologists explore life from the molecular level of
the information in our genes to the large-scale ecological interactions of multiple spe- 1.4 Challenges Facing Science 13
cies and their environments.
In this text, we are going to focus on three themes that define these explorations.
The first is evolution—the central theme of biology and the explanation for how life
adapts and changes over time. The second theme is the nature of science. Science is
a process that relies on experimentation and hypothesis testing to validate its findings.
The third theme is biological systems. Throughout this text you will discover that life is
interconnected at many levels, from similarities in our genetic information to the cycling
of nutrients in ecosystems.
As we proceed through this chapter, consider how we as humans are intercon-
nected with other species by these three themes.
As you read through this chapter, think about the following questions:
1. Why is evolution a central theme of the biological sciences?
2. In what ways is life interconnected?
3. How do scientists use the scientific method to study life?

Following the Themes

chapter 1 a view of life

Understanding the scientific process, the theory of evolution, and the interaction
Evolution of biological systems is important in the study of biology.

Scientists make observations, form hypotheses, and conduct experiments in an

Nature of Science attempt to understand the principles of life.

From communities of organisms to individual cells, all life is based on atoms and
Biological Systems molecules.

1
2
1.1 The Characteristics of Life
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Distinguish among the levels of biological organization.
2. Identify the basic characteristics of life.
Biology is the scientific study of life. Life on Earth takes on a stag-
gering variety of forms, often functioning and behaving in ways
strange to humans. For example, gastric-brooding frogs swallow
their embryos and give birth to them later by throwing them up!
Some species of puffballs, a type of fungus, are capable of produc-
ing trillions of spores when they reproduce. Fetal sand sharks kill
and eat their siblings while still inside their mother. Some Ophrys
orchids look so much like female bees that male bees try to mate
with them. Octopuses and squid have remarkable problem-solving
abilities despite a small brain. Some bacteria live their entire life
in 15 minutes, while bristlecone pine trees outlive 10 generations
of humans. Simply put, from the deepest oceanic trenches to the
upper reaches of the atmosphere, life is plentiful and diverse.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the major groups of living organisms.
From left to right, bacteria are widely distributed, microscopic
organisms with a very simple structure. A Paramecium is an ex-
ample of a microscopic protist. Protists are larger in size and more
complex than bacteria. The other organisms in Figure 1.1 are easily
seen with the naked eye. They can be distinguished by how they
get their food. A morel is a fungus that digests its food externally.
A sunflower is a photosynthetic plant that makes its own food,
and an octopus is an aquatic animal that ingests its food.
Although life is tremendously diverse, it may be defined by
several basic characteristics that are shared by all organisms. Like
nonliving things, organisms are composed of chemical elements.
Also, organisms obey the same laws of chemistry and physics that
govern everything within the universe. The characteristics of life,
however, provide insight into the unique nature of life, and help to
distinguish living organisms from nonliving things.
19,000× 100×
Bacteria Paramecium Morel
Figure 1.1 Diversity of life. Biology is the scientific study of life. This is a sample of the many diverse forms of life that are found on planet Earth.
chapter 1 A View of Life
Life Is Organized
The complex organization of life (Fig. 1.2) begins with atoms, the
basic units of matter. Atoms combine to form small molecules, which
join to form larger molecules within a cell, the smallest, most basic
unit of life. Although a cell is alive, it is made from nonliving mol-
ecules. Some cells, such as single-celled Paramecium, live indepen-
dently. In some cases, single-celled organisms clump together to form
colonies, as does the alga Volvox.
Many living organisms are multicellular, meaning they contain
more than one cell. In multicellular organisms, similar cells com-
bine to form a tissue—for example, the nerve and muscle tissues of
animals. Tissues make up organs, such as the brain or a leaf. Organs
work together to form organ systems; for example, the brain works
with the spinal cord and a network of nerves to form the nervous
system. Organ systems are joined together to form an organism,
such as an elephant.
The levels of biological organization extend beyond the in-
dividual organism. All the members of one species (a group of
similar, interbreeding organisms) in a particular area belong to a
­population. A nearby forest may have a population of gray squir-
rels and a population of white oaks, for example. The populations
of various animals and plants in the forest make up a community.
The community of populations interacts with the physical environ-
ment (water, land, climate) to form an ecosystem. Collectively, all
the Earth’s ecosystems make up the biosphere.
You should recognize from Figure 1.2 that each level of bio-
logical organization builds upon the previous level and is more com-
plex. Moving up the hierarchy, each level acquires new e­ mergent
properties, or new, unique characteristics, that are determined by
the interactions between the individual parts. For example, when
cells are broken down into bits of membrane and liquids, these
parts themselves cannot carry out all the basic characteristics of life.
However, all the levels of biological organization are interconnected
and function as biological systems. For example, a change in carbon
dioxide concentrations (a small molecule) may negatively influence
the operation of organs, organisms, and entire ecosystems. In other
words, life is interconnected at a variety of levels.
Sunflower Octopus
 3

Biosphere
Regions of the Earth’s crust,
waters, and atmosphere inhabited
by living organisms

Ecosystem
A community plus the physical environment

Community
Interacting populations in a particular area

Population
Organisms of the same species
in a particular area

Organism elephant tree

An individual; complex individuals
contain organ systems

Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs system system
working together

Organ the brain leaves

Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

nervous tissue leaf tissue

Cell nerve cell plant cell

The structural and functional
unit of all living organisms

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms
of the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons

Figure 1.2 Levels of biological organization. The basic functional unit of life is the cell, which is built from nonliving molecules and atoms.
4 chapter 1 A View of Life

Life Requires Materials and Energy Solar

Living organisms cannot maintain their organization or carry on energy
life’s activities without an outside source of nutrients and energy
(Fig. 1.3). Food provides nutrients, which are used as building
blocks or for energy. Energy is the capacity to do work, and it Heat
takes work to maintain the organization of the cell and the organ-
ism. When cells use nutrient molecules to make their parts and
products, they carry out a sequence of chemical reactions. The term Producers
metabolism (Gk. meta, “change”) encompasses all the chemical
reactions that occur in a cell.
The ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on Earth is the Heat
sun. Plants and certain other organisms are able to capture solar en-
ergy and carry on photosynthesis, a process that transforms solar
energy into the chemical energy of organic nutrient molecules. All Consumers
life on Earth acquires energy by metabolizing nutrient molecules
made by photosynthesizers. This applies even to plants themselves.

Chemicals
The energy and chemical flow between organisms also de-
fines how an ecosystem functions (Fig. 1.4). Within an ecosystem,

Chemicals
chemical cycling and energy flow begin when producers, such as
grasses, take in solar energy and inorganic nutrients to produce
food (organic nutrients) by photosynthesis. Chemical cycling (aqua
arrows in Fig. 1.4) occurs as chemicals move from one population
to another in a food chain, until death and decomposition allow
inorganic nutrients to be returned to the producers once again. En-
ergy (red arrows), on the other hand, flows from the sun through
Decomposers Heat
plants and the other members of the food chain as they feed on
one another. The energy gradually dissipates and returns to the
atmosphere as heat. Because energy does not cycle, ecosystems
could not stay in existence without solar energy and the ability of Figure 1.4­  Chemical cycling and energy flow in an
photosynthetic organisms to absorb it. ecosystem. In an ecosystem, chemical cycling (aqua arrows)
and energy flow (red arrows) begin when plants use solar energy and
Energy flow and nutrient cycling in an ecosystem climate
inorganic nutrients to produce their own food. Chemicals and energy
largely determine not only where different ecosystems are found are passed from one population to another in a food chain. Eventually,
in the biosphere but also what communities are found in the eco- energy dissipates as heat. With the death and decomposition of
system. For example, deserts exist in areas of minimal rain, while organisms, chemicals are returned to living plants once more.
forests require much rain. The two most biologically diverse

ecosystems—tropical rain forests and coral reefs—occur where

solar energy is most abundant. One example of an ecosystem in
North America is the grasslands, which are inhabited by populations
of rabbits, hawks, and various types of grasses, among many others.
These populations interact with each other by forming food chains
in which one population feeds on another. For example, rabbits feed
on grasses, while hawks feed on rabbits and other organisms.

Living Organisms Maintain Homeostasis

Figure 1.3 Acquiring nutrients and energy.
this bear and the fish, need to acquire energy.
To survive, it is imperative that an organism maintain a state of bio-
logical balance, or homeostasis (Gk. homoios, “like”; stasis, “the
same”). For life to continue, temperature, moisture level, acidity, and
other physiological factors must remain within the tolerance range
of the organism. Homeostasis is maintained by systems that monitor
internal conditions and make routine and necessary adjustments.
Organisms have intricate feedback and control mechanisms
All life, including that do not require any conscious activity. These mechanisms may
be controlled by one or more tissues themselves or by the nervous
CHAPTER 1 A View of Life 5

system. When you are studying and forget to eat lunch, your liver
releases stored sugar to keep blood sugar levels within normal
limits. Many organisms depend on behavior to regulate their in-
ternal environment. In animals, these behaviors are controlled by
the nervous system and are usually not consciously controlled. For
example, a lizard may raise its internal temperature by basking in
the sun, or cool down by moving into the shade.
Living Organisms Respond
Living organisms interact with the environment as well as with
other organisms. Even single-celled organisms can respond to their
environment. In some, the beating of microscopic hairs or, in oth-
ers, the snapping of whiplike tails moves them toward or away
from light or chemicals. Multicellular organisms can manage more
complex responses. A vulture can detect a carcass a kilometer away
and soar toward ­dinner. A monarch butterfly can sense the approach
of fall and begin its flight south, where resources are still abundant.
The ability to respond often results in movement: The leaves
of a land plant turn toward the sun, and animals dart toward
safety. Appropriate responses help ensure the survival of the or-
ganism and allow it to carry on its daily activities. All together,
these activities are termed the behavior of the organism. Organ-
isms display a variety of behaviors as they maintain homeostasis
and search and compete for energy, nutrients, shelter, and mates.
Many organisms display complex communication, hunting, and
defense behaviors.
Mutations help create a staggering diversity of life, even
within a group of otherwise identical organisms. Sometimes, or-
ganisms inherit characteristics that allow them to be more suited to
their way of life.
Living Organisms Have Adaptations
Adaptations are modifications that make organisms better able
to function in a particular environment. For example, penguins
are adapted to an aquatic existence in the Antarctic. An extra
layer of downy feathers is covered by short, thick feathers,
which form a waterproof coat. Layers of blubber also keep the
birds warm in cold water. Most birds have forelimbs propor-
tioned for flying, but penguins have stubby, flattened wings
suitable for swimming. Their feet and tails serve as rudders in
the water, but the flat feet also allow them to walk on land. Pen-
guins also have many behavioral adaptations to living in the Ant-
arctic. Penguins often slide on their bellies across the snow in order
to conserve energy when moving quickly (Fig. 1.5). They carry
their eggs—one or at most two—on their feet, where the eggs are
protected by a pouch of skin. This also allows the birds to huddle
together for warmth while standing erect and incubating the eggs.
From penguins to giant sequoia trees, life on Earth is very
diverse, because over long periods of time, organisms respond
to ever-changing environments by developing new adaptations.

Living Organisms Reproduce and Develop

Life comes only from life. All forms of life have the ability to
reproduce, or make another organism like itself. Bacteria, protists,
and other single-celled organisms simply split in two. In most
multicellular organisms, the reproductive process begins with the
pairing of a sperm from one partner and an egg from the other
partner. The union of sperm and egg, followed by many cell divi-
sions, results in an immature stage, which proceeds through stages
of development, or change, to become an adult.
When living organisms reproduce, their genes, or genetic
instructions, are passed on to the next generation. Random com-
binations of sperm and egg, each of which contains a unique
collection of genes, ensure that the offspring has new and differ-
ent characteristics. An embryo develops into a whale, a yellow
daffodil, or a human because of the specific set of genes it inher-
its from its parents. In all organisms, the genes are made of long
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. DNA provides the
blueprint, or instructions, for the organization and metabolism
of the particular organism. All cells in a multicellular organism
contain the same set of genes, but only certain genes are turned
on in each type of specialized cell. You may notice that not all
members of a species are exactly the same, and that there are
obvious differences between species. These differences are the
result of mutations, or inheritable changes in the genetic infor-
mation. Mutation provides an important source of variation in
the genetic information. However, not all mutations are bad— Figure 1.5 Living organisms have adaptations. Penguins
the observable differences in eye and hair color are examples of have evolved complex behaviors, such as sliding across ice to conserve
mutations. energy, to adapt to their environment.
6 chapter 1 A View of Life

These adaptations are unintentional, but they provide the frame-
work for evolutionary change. Evolution (L. evolutio, “an unroll-
ing”) includes the way in which populations of organisms change
over the course of many generations to become more suited to
their environments. All living organisms have the capacity to
evolve, and the process of evolution constantly reshapes every
species on the planet, potentially providing a way for organisms
to persist, despite a changing environment. We
will take a closer look at this process in the MP3
Life
next section. Characteristics
Check Your Progress 1.1
1. Distinguish between an ecosystem and a population in
the levels of biological organization.
2. List the common characteristics of all living organisms.
3. Explain how adaptations relate to evolutionary change.
1.2 Evolution and the Classification
of Life
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Explain the relationship between the process of natural
selection and evolutionary change.
2. Distinguish among the three domains of life.
plant species generally produces smooth leaves, but a mutation
occurs that causes one plant to have leaves that are covered with
small extensions, or “hairs.” The plant with hairy leaves has an ad-
vantage, because the deer (the selective agent) prefer to eat smooth
leaves, not hairy leaves. Therefore, the plant with hairy leaves
survives best and produces more seeds than most of its neighbors.
As a result, generations later most plants of this species produce
hairy leaves.
As with this example, Darwin realized that although all in-
dividuals within a population have the potential to reproduce, not
all do so with the same success. Prevention of reproduction can be
the result of a number of factors, including an inability to capture
resources, as when long-necked but not short-necked giraffes can
reach their food source, or an inability to escape being eaten be-
cause long legs, but not short legs, can carry an animal to safety.
Whatever the example, it can be seen that organisms with
advantageous traits can produce more offspring than those that
lack them. In this way, living organisms change over time, and
these changes are passed on from one generation to the next. Over
long periods of time, the introduction of newer, more advantageous
traits into a population may drastically reshape a species. Natural

Despite diversity in form, function, and lifestyle, organisms share Some plants within a population exhibit variation in leaf structure.
the same basic characteristics. As mentioned, they are all com-
posed of cells organized in a similar manner. Their genes are com-
posed of DNA, and they carry out the same metabolic reactions to
acquire energy and maintain their organization. The unity of life
suggests that they are descended from a common ancestor—the
first cell or cells.

Evolution—the Core Concept of Biology

The phrase “common descent with modification” sums up the process Deer prefer a diet of smooth leaves over hairy leaves. Plants with
hairy leaves reproduce more than other plants in the population.
of evolution, because it means that as descent occurs from common
ancestors, so do modifications that cause organisms to be adapted
to their environment. Through many observations and experiments,
Charles Darwin came to the conclusion that natural selection is
the process that makes modification—that is, adaptation—possible.

Natural Selection
During the process of natural selection, some aspect of the environ-
ment selects which traits are more apt to be passed on to the next
generation. The selective agent can be an abiotic agent (part of the Generations later, most plants within the population have hairy
leaves, as smooth leaves are selected against.
physical environment, such as altitude), or it can be a biotic agent
(part of the living environment, such as a deer). Figure 1.6 shows
Figure 1.6 Natural selection. Natural selection selects for or
how the dietary habits of deer might eventually affect the charac- against new traits introduced into a population by mutations. Over many
teristics of the leaves of a particular land plant. generations, selective forces such as competition, predation, and the
Mutations fuel natural selection, because mutation introduces physical environment alter the makeup of a population, favoring those
variations among the members of a population. In Figure 1.6, a more suited to the environment and lifestyle.
CHAPTER 1 A View of Life 7

selection tends to sculpt a species to fit its environment and lifestyle Table 1.1 Levels of Classification
and can create new species from existing ones. The end result is the Category Human Corn
diversity of life classified into the three domains of life (Fig. 1.7).
Domain Eukarya Eukarya
Kingdom Animalia Plantae
Organizing Diversity
  Phylum Chordata Anthophyta
An evolutionary tree is like a family tree. Just as a family tree
   Class Mammalia Monocotyledones
shows how a group of people have descended from one couple, an
evolutionary tree traces the ancestry of life on Earth to a common     Order Primates Commelinales
ancestor (Fig. 1.7). One couple can have diverse children, and      Family Hominidae Poaceae
likewise a population can be a common ancestor to several other       Genus Homo Zea
groups, each adapted to a particular set of environmental condi-        Species* H. sapiens Z. mays
tions. In this way, over time, diverse life-forms have arisen. Evolu-
tion may be considered the unifying concept of biology, because *To specify an organism, you must use the full binomial name, such as Homo
sapiens.
it explains so many aspects of it, including how living organisms
arose from a single ancestor.
Because life is so diverse, it is helpful to group organisms into example, all species in the genus Pisum look pretty much the same—
categories. Taxonomy (Gk. tasso, “arrange”; nomos, “usage”) is that is, like pea plants—but species in the plant kingdom can be quite
the discipline of identifying and grouping organisms according to varied, as is evident when we compare grasses to trees. Species placed
certain rules. Taxonomy makes sense out of the bewildering variety in different domains are the most distantly related.
of life on Earth and is meant to provide valuable insight into evo-
lution. Systematics is the study of the evolutionary relationships Domains
between organisms. As systematists learn more about living organ- Current biochemical evidence suggests that there are three do-
isms, the taxonomy often changes. DNA technology is now widely mains: domain Bacteria, domain Archaea, and domain Eukarya.
used by systematists to revise current information and to discover Figure 1.7 shows how the domains are believed to be related. Both
previously unknown relationships between ­organisms. domain Bacteria and domain Archaea may have evolved from the first
Several of the basic classification categories, or taxa, going common ancestor soon after life began. These two domains contain
from least inclusive to most inclusive, are species, genus, family, the prokaryotes, which lack the membrane-bound nucleus found in
order, class, phylum, kingdom,
and ­domain (Table 1.1). The least
inclusive category, species (L. spe-
cies, “model, kind”), is defined as a
group of interbreeding individuals. BACTERIA
Each successive classification cat-
egory above species contains more
types of organisms than the preced-
ing one. Species placed within one common
ancestor ARCHAEA
genus share many specific char- (first cells)
acteristics and are the most closely
related, while species placed in the
same kingdom share only general
Protists
characteristics with one another. For

Plants
cell with nucleus

Figure 1.7 Evolutionary tree

of life. As existing organisms EUKARYA
change over time, they give rise to Fungi
new species. Evolutionary studies
show that all living organisms arose
from a common ancestor about
4 billion years ago. Domain Archaea
and domain Bacteria include the Animals
prokaryotes. Domain Eukarya includes
both single-celled and multicellular
Past Present
organisms that possess a membrane- Time
bound nucleus.
8 chapter 1 A View of Life

the eukaryotes of domain Eukarya. However, archaea organize their Scientific Name
DNA differently than bacteria, and their cell walls and membranes Biologists use binomial nomenclature to assign each living or-
are chemically more similar to eukaryotes than to ganism a two-part name called a scientific name. For example,
bacteria. So, the conclusion is that eukarya split Animation the scientific name for mistletoe is Phoradendron tomentosum.
Three Domains
off from the archaeal line of descent. The first word is the genus, and the second word is the species
Prokaryotes are structurally simple but metabolically complex. designation (specific epithet) of each species within a genus. The
Archaea (Fig. 1.8) can live in aquatic environments that lack oxy- genus may be abbreviated (e.g., P. tomentosum) and, if the species
gen or are too salty, too hot, or too acidic for most other organisms.
Perhaps these environments are similar to those of the primitive
Earth, and archaea (Gk. archae, “ancient”) are the least evolved
forms of life, as their name implies. Bacteria (Fig. 1.9) are variously Domain Eukarya: Protists
adapted to living almost anywhere—in the water, soil, and atmo-
• Algae, protozoans,
sphere, as well as on our skin and in our mouth and large intestine. slime molds, and
Taxonomists are in the process of deciding how to categorize water molds
archaea and bacteria into kingdoms. Domain Eukarya, on the other • Complex single cell
(sometimes filaments,
hand, contains four major groups of organisms (Fig. 1.10). Protists, colonies, or even
which comprise a number of kingdoms, range from single-celled multicellular)
forms to a few multicellular ones. Some are photosynthesizers, and • Absorb, photosynthesize,
160× or ingest food
some must acquire their food. Common protists include algae, the
protozoans, and the water molds. Figure 1.7 shows that plants, fungi, Paramecium, a single-celled protozoan
and animals most likely evolved from protists. Plants (kingdom Plan-
tae) are multicellular photosynthetic organisms. Example plants in-
clude azaleas, zinnias, and pines. Among the fungi (kingdom Fungi) Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi
are the familiar molds and mushrooms that, along with bacteria, help
decompose dead organisms. Animals (kingdom Animalia) are multi- • Molds, mushrooms, yeasts,
and ringworms
cellular organisms that must ingest and process their food. Aardvarks, • Mostly multicellular filaments
jellyfish, and zebras are representative animals. with specialized, complex cells
• Absorb food

Domain Archaea
Amanita, a mushroom
• Prokaryotic cells
of various shapes
• Adaptations to
extreme environments Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae
• Absorb or
chemosynthesize food
• Certain algae, mosses, ferns,
• Unique chemical
conifers, and flowering plants
characteristics
• Multicellular, usually with
33,200× specialized tissues,
containing complex cells
Sulfolobus, an archaean • Photosynthesize food

Figure 1.8 Domain Archaea.

Phalaenopsis, orchid, a flowering plant

Domain Bacteria Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Animalia

• Prokaryotic cells
• Sponges, worms, insects,
of various shapes
fishes, frogs, turtles,
• Adaptations to
birds, and mammals
all environments
• Multicellular with
• Absorb, photosynthesize,
specialized tissues
or chemosynthesize food
containing complex cells
• Unique chemical
• Ingest food
characteristics
6,600×

Escherichia coli, a bacterium Vulpes, a red fox

Figure 1.9 Domain Bacteria. Figure 1.10 Domain Eukarya.

CHAPTER 1 A View of Life 9

has not been determined, it may simply be indicated with a generic
abbreviation (e.g., Phoradendron sp.). Scientific names are univer-
sally used by biologists to avoid confusion. Common names tend
to overlap and often differ depending on locality and the language
of a particular country. But scientific names are based on Latin, a
universally used language that not too long ago was well known
by most scholars.
Check Your Progress 1.2
1. Explain how natural selection results in new adaptations
within a species.
2. List the levels of taxonomic classification from most
inclusive to least inclusive.
3. Describe the differences that might be used to distinguish
among the various kingdoms of domain Eukarya.
1.3 The Process of Science
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Identify the components of the scientific method.
2. Distinguish between a theory and a hypothesis.
3. Analyze a scientific experiment and identify the
hypothesis, experiment, control groups, and conclusions.
The process of science pertains to the study of biology. As you can
see from Figure 1.2, the multiple stages of biological organization
mean that life can be studied at a variety of levels. Some biological
disciplines are cytology, the study of cells; anatomy, the study of
structure; physiology, the study of function; botany, the study of
plants; zoology, the study of animals; genetics, the study of hered-
ity; and ecology, the study of the interrelationships between organ-
isms and their environment.
Religion, aesthetics, ethics, and science are all ways in which
human beings seek order in the natural world. The nature of scien-
tific inquiry differs from these other ways of knowing and learning,
because the scientific process uses the scientific method, a stan-
dard series of steps used in gaining new knowledge that is widely
accepted among scientists. The scientific method (Fig. 1.11) acts as
a guideline for scientific studies. Scientists often modify or adapt
the process to suit their particular field of study.
Observation
Scientists believe that nature is orderly and measurable—that natu-
ral laws, such as the law of gravity, do not change with time—and
that a natural event, or phenomenon, can be understood more fully
through observation—a formal way of “seeing what happens.”
Scientists use all of their senses in making observations. The
behavior of chimpanzees can be observed through visual means, the
disposition of a skunk can be observed through olfactory means, and
the warning rattles of a rattlesnake provide auditory information of
imminent danger. Scientists also extend the ability of their senses
by using instruments; for example, the microscope enables us to see
objects that could never be seen by the naked eye. Finally, scientists
may expand their understanding even further by taking advantage
of the knowledge and experiences of other scientists. For instance,
they may look up past studies at the library or on the Internet, or they
may write or speak to others who are researching similar topics.

Hypothesis
Observation After making observations and gathering knowledge about a phe-
nomenon, a scientist uses inductive reasoning to formulate a pos-
sible explanation. Inductive reasoning occurs
Hypothesis 1 whenever a person uses creative thinking to
Potential Hypothesis 2
hypotheses Reject combine isolated facts into a cohesive whole. In
Hypothesis 3 Prediction Experiment hypothesis 1
some cases, chance alone may help a scientist
arrive at an idea.
One famous case pertains to the antibiotic
Remaining Reject penicillin, which was discovered in 1928. While
possible Hypothesis 2 Prediction Experiment
Hypothesis 3 hypothesis 2 examining a petri dish of bacteria that had
hypotheses

Last remaining
possible Hypothesis 3 Figure 1.11 Flow diagram for the scientific
hypothesis Modify hypothesis method. On the basis of new and/or previous
observations, a scientist formulates a hypothesis.
The hypothesis is used to develop predictions to be
Predictions tested by further experiments and/or observations,
and new data either support or do not support the
hypothesis. Following an experiment, a scientist often
Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4 chooses to retest the same hypothesis or to test a
related hypothesis. Conclusions from many different
but related experiments may lead to the development
of a scientific theory. For example, studies pertaining to
Predictions development, anatomy, and fossil remains all support
Conclusion
confirmed
the theory of evolution.
10
become contaminated with the mold Penicillium, Alexander Flem-
ming (1881–1955) observed an area that was free of bacteria. Flem-
ming, an early expert on antibacterial substances, reasoned that the
mold might have been producing an antibacterial compound.
We call such a possible explanation for a natural event a
hypothesis. A hypothesis is not merely a guess; rather, it is an
informed statement that can be tested in a manner suited to the pro-
cesses of science.
All of a scientist’s past experiences, no matter what they might
be, have the potential to influence the formation of a hypothesis.
But a scientist considers only hypotheses that can be tested. Moral
and religious beliefs, while very important in the lives of many
people, differ between cultures and through time and may not be
scientifically testable.
Predictions and Experiments
Scientists often perform an experiment, which is a series of proce-
dures, to test a hypothesis. To determine how to test a hypothesis, a
scientist uses deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning involves
“if, then” logic. In designing the experiment, the scientist may make
a prediction, or an expected outcome, based on knowledge of the
factors in the experiment.
The manner in which a scientist intends to conduct an ex-
periment is called the experimental design. A good experimental
design ensures that scientists are examining the contribution of a
specific variable, called the experimental variable, to the obser-
vation. The result is termed the responding variable, or dependent
variable, because it is due to the experimental ­variable:
Experimental Variable Responding Variable
(Independent Variable) (Dependent Variable)
Factor of the experiment Result or change that occurs
being tested due to the experimental variable
To ensure that the results will be meaningful, an experiment
contains both test groups and a control group. A test group is ex-
posed to the experimental variable, but the control group is not. If
the control group and test groups show the same results, the experi-
menter knows that the hypothesis predicting a difference between
them is not supported.
Scientists often use model organisms and model systems to
test a hypothesis. Model organisms, such as the fruit fly Drosophila
melanogaster or the mouse Mus musculus, are chosen because they
allow the researcher to control aspects of the experiment, such as age
and genetic background. Cell biologists may use mice for modeling
the effects of a new drug. Like model organisms, model systems
allow the scientist to control specific variables and environmental
conditions in a way that may not be possible in the natural environ-
ment. For example, ecologists may use computer programs to model
how human activities will affect the climate of a specific ecosystem.
While models provide useful information, they do not always answer
the original question completely. For example, medicine that is ef-
fective in mice should ideally be tested in humans, and ecological
experiments that are conducted using computer simulations need to
be verified by field experiments. Biologists, and all other scientists,
chapter 1 A View of Life
continuously design and revise their experiments to better understand
how different factors may influence their original observation.
Presenting and Analyzing the Data
The data, or results, from scientific experiments may be presented
in a variety of formats, including tables and graphs. A graph shows
the relationship between two quantities. In many graphs, the ex-
perimental variable is plotted on the x-axis (horizontal), and the
result is plotted along the y-axis (vertical). Graphs are useful tools
to summarize data in a clear and simplified manner. For example,
the line graph in Figure 1.12 shows the variation in the concentra-
tion of blood cholesterol over a four-week study. The bars above
each data point represent the variation, or standard error, in the
results. The title and labels can assist you in reading a graph;
therefore, when looking at a graph, first check the two axes to
determine what the graph pertains to. By looking at this graph, we
know that the blood cholesterol levels were highest during week 2,
and we can see to what degree the values varied over the course
of the study.
Statistical Data
Most authors who publish research articles use statistics to help
them evaluate their experimental data. In statistics, the standard
error, or standard deviation, tells us how uncertain a particular value
is. Suppose you predict how many hurricanes Florida will have next
year by calculating the average number during the past 10 years.
If the number of hurricanes per year varies widely, your standard
error will be larger than if the number per year is usually about the
same. In other words, the standard error tells you how far off the
average could be. If the average number of hurricanes is four and
the standard error is ± 2, then your prediction of four hurricanes is
between two and six hurricanes. In Figure 1.12, the standard error
is represented by the bars above and below each data point. This
provides a visual indication of the statistical analysis of the data.
Variation in Blood Cholesterol Levels
225
Blood Cholesterol (mg/dL)
standard error
200
y-axis
Data
175
150
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
x-axis
Figure 1.12 Presentation of scientific data. This line graph
shows the variation in the concentration of blood cholesterol over a
four-week study. The bars above each data point represent the variation,
or standard error, in the results.
CHAPTER 1 A View of Life 11

Statistical Significance As stated earlier, the theory of evolution is the unifying concept
When scientists conduct an experiment, there is always the pos- of biology because it pertains to many different aspects of life.
sibility that the results are due to chance or to some factor other For example, the theory of evolution enables scientists to under-
than the experimental variable. Investigators take into account stand the history of life, as well as the anatomy, physiology, and
several factors when they calculate the probability value (p) that embryological development of organisms. Even behavior can be
their results were due to chance alone. If the probability value is described through evolution, as we will see in a study discussed
low, researchers describe the results as statistically significant. A later in this chapter.
probability value of less than 5% (usually written as p < 0.05) is The theory of evolution has been a fruitful scientific theory,
acceptable; even so, keep in mind that the lower the p value, the meaning that it has helped scientists generate new hypotheses.
less likely it is that the results are due to chance. Therefore, the Because this theory has been supported by so many observations
lower the p value, the greater the confidence the investigators and and experiments for over 100 years, some biologists refer to the
you can have in the results. Depending on the type of study, most principle of evolution, a term sometimes used for theories that are
scientists like to have a p value of < 0.05, but p values of < 0.001 generally accepted by an overwhelming number of scientists. The
are common in many studies. term law instead of principle is preferred by some. For instance,
in a subsequent chapter concerning energy relationships, we will
examine the laws of thermodynamics.
Scientific Publications
Scientific studies are customarily published in scientific journals An Example of the Scientific Method
(Fig. 1.13), so that all aspects of a study are available to the scientific
We now know that most stomach and intestinal ulcers (open sores) are
community. Before information is published in scientific journals, it
caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori. Let’s say investigators
is typically reviewed by experts, who ensure that the research is cred-
want to determine which of two antibiotics is best for the treatment of
ible, accurate, unbiased, and well executed. Another scientist should
an ulcer. When clinicians do an experiment, they try to vary just the
be able to read about an experiment in a scientific journal, repeat the
experiment in a different location, and get the same (or very similar)
results. Some articles are rejected for publication by reviewers when
they believe there is something questionable about the design of an
experiment or the manner in which it was conducted. This process
of rejection is important in science since it causes researchers to
critically review their hypotheses, predictions, and experimental de-
signs, so that their next attempt will more adequately address their
hypothesis. Often, it takes several rounds of revision before research
is accepted for publication in a scientific journal.
Scientific magazines (Fig. 1.13), such as Scientific American,
differ from scientific journals in that they report scientific findings
to the general public. The information in these articles is usually
obtained from articles first published in scientific journals.

Scientific Theory
The ultimate goal of science is to understand the natural world in
terms of scientific theories, which are concepts that join together
well-supported and related hypotheses. In ordinary speech, the
word theory refers to a speculative idea. In contrast, a scientific
theory is supported by a broad range of observations, experiments,
and data, often from a variety of disciplines. Some of the basic
theories of biology are:

Theory Concept Figure 1.13 Scientific

publications. Scientific
Cell All organisms are composed of cells, and journals, such as Science, are
new cells come only from preexisting cells. scholarly journals in which
Homeostasis The internal environment of an organism researchers share their findings
stays relatively constant—within a range that with other scientists. Scientific
magazines, such as Scientific
is protective of life.
American, New Scientist, and
Evolution All living organisms have a common ancestor, Science News, contain articles
but each is adapted to a particular way of life. that are usually written by
reporters for a broader audience.
12 chapter 1 A View of Life

experimental variables—in this case, the medications being tested.

State Hypothesis:
A control group is not given the medications, but one or more test Antibiotic B is a better treatment for
groups receive them. If by chance the control group shows the same ulcers than antibiotic A.
results as a test group, the investigators immediately know that the
results of their study are invalid, because the medications may have
had nothing to do with the results. The study depicted in Figure 1.14
shows how investigators may study this hypothesis:
Hypothesis: Newly discovered antibiotic B is a better treat-
ment for ulcers than antibiotic A, which is in current use.

Experimental Design
Next, the investigators might decide to use three experimental
groups: one control group and two test groups. It is important to
reduce the number of possible variables (differences), such as sex,
weight, and other illnesses, among the groups. Therefore, the investi-
gators randomly divide a very large group of volunteers equally into
the three groups. The hope is that any differences will be distributed
evenly among the three groups. This is possible only if the investiga-
tors have a large number of volunteers.
The three groups are to be treated like this:
Control group: Subjects with ulcers are not treated with either Perform Experiment:
Groups were treated the same
antibiotic. except as noted.
Test group 1: Subjects with ulcers are treated with antibiotic A.
Test group 2: Subjects with ulcers are treated with antibiotic B.
After the investigators have determined that all volunteers do have
ulcers, they will want the subjects to think they are all receiving the
same treatment. This is an additional way to protect the results from
any influence other than the medication. To achieve this end, the sub-
jects in the control group can receive a placebo, a treatment that ap- Control group: Test group 1: Test group 2:
received received received
pears to be the same as that administered to the other two groups but placebo antibiotic A antibiotic B
actually contains no medication. In this study, the use of a placebo
would help ensure the same dedication by all subjects to the study.
Collect Data:
Each subject was examined
Results and Conclusion for the presence of ulcers.
After two weeks of administering the same amount of medication (or
placebo) in the same way, the stomach and intestinal linings of each
subject are examined to determine if ulcers are still present. Endos-
copy is a procedure that involves inserting an endoscope (a small,
flexible tube with a tiny camera on the end) down the throat and into
the stomach and the upper part of the small intestine. Then, the doc-
tor can see the lining of these organs and can check for ulcers. Tests
performed during an endoscopy can also determine if Helicobacter
pylori is present.
Because endoscopy is somewhat subjective, it is probably best if
the examiner is not aware of which group the subject is in; otherwise, Effectiveness of Treatment
100
the examiner’s prejudice may influence the examination. When nei-
ther the patient nor the technician is aware of the specific treatment, 80
it is called a double-blind study.
% Treated

60

40 80
60
Figure 1.14 Example of a controlled study. In this study, a large number
20
of people were divided into three groups. The control group received a placebo and no
medication. One of the test groups received medication A, and the other test group received 10
0
medication B. The results are depicted in a graph, and it shows that medication B was a Control Test Test
more effective treatment than medication A for the treatment of ulcers. Group Group 1 Group 2
CHAPTER 1 A View of Life
In this study, the investigators may decide to determine the ef-
fectiveness of the medication by the percentage of people who no
longer have ulcers. So, if 20 people out of 100 still have ulcers, the
medication is 80% effective. The difference in effectiveness is easily
read in the graph portion of Figure 1.14.
Conclusion: On the basis of their data, the investigators con-
clude that their hypothesis has been supported.
Check Your Progress 1.3
1. Identify the role of the experimental variable in an
experiment.
2. Distinguish between the roles of the test group and the
control group in an experiment.
3. Describe the process by which a scientist may test a
hypothesis about an observation.
1.4 Challenges Facing Science
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Distinguish between science and technology.
2. Summarize the major challenges facing science and society.
As we have learned in this chapter, science is a systematic way of
acquiring knowledge about the natural world. Science is a slightly
different endeavor than technology. Technology is the application
a. Healthy coral reef
1975 Minimal coral death 1985 Some coral death with 1995 Coral bleaching with limited
no fish present chance of recovery
b.
13
of scientific knowledge to the interests of humans. Scientific in-
vestigations are the basis for the majority of our technological
advances. As is often the case, a new technology, such as your
cell phone or a new drug, is based on years of scientific investiga-
tions. However, despite our scientific and technological advances,
there are many challenges facing society. In this section, we will
explore a few of those critical challenges that scientists are actively
investigating.
Biodiversity and Habitat Loss
Biodiversity is the total number and relative abundance of spe-
cies, the variability of their genes, and the different ecosystems in
which they live. The present biodiversity of our planet has been
estimated to be as high as 15 million species, and so far, less than
2 million have been identified and named. Extinction is the death
of a species or larger classification category. It is estimated that
presently we are losing hundreds of species per day due to human
activities and that as much as 38% of all species, including most
primates, birds, and amphibians, may be in danger of extinction
before the end of the century. Many biologists are alarmed about
the present rate of extinction and hypothesize it may eventually
rival the rates of the five mass extinctions that occurred during our
planet’s history. The last mass extinction, about 65 million years
ago, caused many plant and animal species, including the dino-
saurs, to become extinct.
The two most biologically diverse ecosystems—tropical rain
forests and coral reefs—are home to many organisms. These eco-
systems are also threatened by human activities. The canopy of the
tropical rain forest alone supports a variety of organisms, including
orchids, insects, and monkeys. Coral reefs, which are found just
offshore of the continents and islands near the equator, are built
up from calcium carbonate skeletons of sea animals called ­corals.
Reefs provide a habitat for many animals, including jellyfish,
sponges, snails, crabs, lobsters, sea turtles, moray eels, and some
of the world’s most colorful fishes (Fig. 1.15a). Like tropical rain
Figure 1.15 Coral reef, a marine ecosystem. a. Coral reefs,
a type of ecosystem found in tropical seas, contain many diverse forms
of life, a few of which are shown here. b. Various human activities have
caused catastrophic damage to this coral reef off the coast of Florida,
as shown over the course of 29 years. Preserving biodiversity is a
modern-day challenge of great proportions.
2004 Coral is black from sedimentation;
bleaching still evident
14
forests, coral reefs are severely threatened as the human population
increases in size. Some reefs are 50 million years old, yet in just a
few decades, human activities have destroyed an estimated 25% of
all coral reefs and seriously degraded another 30% (Fig. 1.15b). At
this rate, nearly three-quarters could be destroyed within 40 years.
Similar statistics are available for tropical rain forests.
The destruction of healthy ecosystems has many unintended
effects. For example, we depend on them for food, medicines,
and various raw materials. Draining of the natural wetlands of
the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers and the construction of levees
have worsened flooding problems, making once fertile farmland
undesirable. The destruction of South American rain forests has
killed many species that may have yielded the next miracle drug
and has decreased the availability of many types of lumber. We
are only now beginning to realize that we depend on ecosystems
even more for the services they provide. Just as chemical cycling
occurs within a single ecosystem, so all ­ecosystems keep chemi-
cals cycling throughout the ­biosphere. The workings of ecosys-
tems ensure that the environmental conditions of the biosphere
are suitable for the continued existence of humans. And several
studies show that ecosystems cannot function properly unless
they remain biologically diverse. We will explore the concept of
biodiversity in greater detail in Chapters 44 through 47 of the text.
Emerging Diseases
Over the past decade, avian influenza (H5N1 and H7N9), swine
flu (H1N1), and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) have
been in the news. These are considered new, or emerging, diseases.
Where do emerging diseases come from? Some of them may result
from new and/or increased exposure to animals or insect popula-
tions that act as vectors for disease. Changes in human behavior
and use of technology can also result in new diseases. SARS is
thought to have arisen in Guandong, China, due to the consump-
tion of civets, a type of exotic cat considered a delicacy. The civets
were possibly infected by exposure to horseshoe bats sold in open
markets. Legionnaires’ disease emerged in 1976 due to bacterial
contamination of a large air-conditioning system in a hotel. The
bacteria thrived in the cooling tower used as the water source for
the air-conditioning system. In addition, globalization results in
the transport of diseases all over the world that were previously
restricted to isolated communities. The first SARS cases were re-
ported in southern China the week of November 16, 2002. By the
end of February 2003, SARS had reached nine countries/provinces,
chapter 1 A View of Life
mostly through airline travel. Some pathogens mutate and change
hosts, jumping from birds to humans, for example. Before 1997,
avian flu was thought to affect only birds. A mutated strain jumped
to humans in the 1997 outbreak. To control that epidemic, officials
killed 1.5 million chickens to remove the source of the virus. New
forms of avian influenza (bird flu) are being discovered every few
years. Each of these has the potential to cause health problems for
humans across the globe. Scientists investigate not only the causes
of these diseases (for example, the viruses) but also their effects on
our bodies and the mechanisms by which they are transmitted. We
will take a closer look at viruses in Chapter 20 of the text.
Climate Change
The term climate change refers to changes in the normal cycles
of the Earth’s climate that may be attributed to human activity.
­Climate change is primarily due to an imbalance in the chemi-
cal cycling of the element carbon. Normally, carbon is cycled
within an ecosystem. However, due to human activities, more
carbon ­dioxide is being released into the atmosphere than is being
removed. In 1850, atmospheric CO2 was at about 280 parts per
million (ppm); today, it is over 400 ppm. This increase is largely
due to the burning of fossil fuels and the destruction of forests to
make way for farmland and pasture. Today, the amount of carbon
dioxide released into the atmosphere is about twice the amount that
remains in the atmosphere. It’s believed that most of this dissolves
in the ocean. The increased amount of carbon dioxide (and other
gases) in the atmosphere is causing a rise in temperature called
global warming. These gases allow the sun’s rays to pass through,
but they absorb and radiate heat back to Earth, a phenomenon
called the greenhouse effect.
Global warming is contributing to climate change, which is
causing significant changes in many of the Earth’s ecosystems.
We will examine climate change in more detail in Chapter 46.
Check Your Progress 1.4
1. Explain how a new technology differs from a scientific
discovery.
2. Explain why the conservation of biodiversity is important
to human society.
3. Summarize how emerging diseases and climate change
have the potential for influencing the entire human
population.
CHAPTER 1 A View of Life 15

Connecting the Concepts with the Themes

Evolution
• Evolution is the core concept of ­biology;
it explains how species develop adapta-
tions to an ever-­changing environment.
• Natural selection is the mechanism by
which evolutionary change occurs.
Nature of Science
• Science is based on the ability to observe
the natural world and then formulate hy-
potheses as potential explanations for
these observations.
• Scientists use an ordered series of
events, called the scientific method, to
construct experiments that explore the
structure of the natural world.
Biological Systems
• All life is based on atoms and molecules,
which in turn are involved in the forma-
tion of a cell, the basic unit of all life.
• Members of a species form populations.
Populations of different species in a
given area are called a community. The
interaction of a community with the envi-
ronment is called an ecosystem.
• Ecosystems are characterized by energy
flow and chemical cycling.


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1.1 Life Characteristics 1.2 Three Domains

e
Summariz
1.1 The Characteristics of Life
Biology is the area of science that studies life. Although living organ-
isms are diverse, they have certain characteristics in common. Living
organisms:
• are organized. These levels of organization extend from the
cell (the basic unit of life) to multicellular tissues, organs
and organ systems. Atoms and molecules are the nonliving
components of cells. Above the level of the cell, organisms are
organized into populations and communities. Ecosystems
and the biosphere represent the highest levels of biological
organization.
• require materials and energy. All living organisms need an outside
source of materials and energy. Metabolism is the term used to
summarize these chemical reactions in the cell. Photosynthesis is
an example of a metabolic process.
• maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a
stable internal environment.
• respond to stimuli. These stimuli help an organism react to
changes in its environment, such as the presence of food.
• reproduce and develop. Organisms reproduce to pass on their
genetic information, included in the genes of their DNA, to the
next generation. Mutations introduce variation into the DNA.
Development is the series of steps that an organism proceeds
through to become an adult.
• have adaptations. Adaptations allow an organism to exist in a
particular environment. Evolution is the accumulation of these
changes over multiple generations.
1.2 Evolution and the Classification of Life
Life on Earth is diverse, but the theory of evolution unifies life and
describes how all living organisms evolved from a common ancestor.
Natural selection describes the process by which living organisms
are descended from a common ancestor. Mutations occur within a
population, creating new traits. The agents of natural selection, pres-
ent in both biological and physical environments, shape species over
time and may create new species from existing ones.
In taxonomy, organisms are assigned an italicized binomial
nomenclature that consists of the genus and the specific epithet.
From the least inclusive to the most inclusive category, each ­species
belongs to a genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and
finally domain. Systematics is the study of evolutionary relationships
between species.
The three domains of life are Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
Domain Archaea and domain Bacteria contain prokaryotic organ-
isms that are structurally simple but metabolically complex. Domain
Eukarya contains the eukaryotic protists, fungi, plants, and ani-
mals. Protists range from single-celled to multicellular organisms
and include the protozoans and most algae. Among the fungi are the
familiar molds and mushrooms. Plants are well known as the multicel-
lular photosynthesizers of the world, while animals are multicellular
and ingest their food. An evolutionary tree shows how the domains are
related by way of common ancestors.
 ssess
16 chapter 1 A View of Life

1.3 The Process of Science A

When studying the natural world, scientists use a process called the
scientific method. Choose the best answer for each question.

1.1 The Characteristics of Life

Observation 1. Which of these is not a property of all living organisms?
a. organization
Hypothesis 1 b. acquisition of materials and energy
Potential Hypothesis 2 Reject c. care for their offspring
hypotheses Hypothesis 3 Prediction Experiment hypothesis 1 d. reproduction
e. responding to the environment
Remaining 2. The level of organization that includes cells of similar structure
Hypothesis 2 Reject
possible Prediction Experiment and function is
Hypothesis 3 hypothesis 2
hypotheses a. an organ.
Last b. a tissue.
remaining Hypothesis 3 c. an organ system.
possible Modify hypothesis d. an organism.
hypothesis
Predictions 3. The process that involves passing on genetic information
between generations is called
a. natural selection.
Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Experiment 4
b. reproduction.
c. development.
d. metabolism.
Predictions Conclusion
confirmed
1.2 Evolution and the Classification of Life
4. Which of the following includes prokaryotic organisms?
• Observations, along with previous data, are used to formulate a
a. protists
hypothesis. Inductive reasoning allows a scientist to combine
b. fungi
facts into a hypothesis.
c. archaea
• New observations and/or experiments are carried out in order d. plants
to test the hypothesis. Deductive reasoning allows for the
development of a prediction of what may occur as a result 5. The most inclusive level of classification is
of the experiment. A good experimental design includes an a. species.
experimental variable and a control group. Scientists may use b. kingdom.
models and model organisms in their experimental design. c. domain.
d. phylum.
• The data from the experimental and observational results are
analyzed, often using statistical methods. The results are often 6. The process by which evolution occurs is called
presented in tables or graphs for ease of interpretation. a. natural selection.
• A conclusion is made as to whether the b. development.
results support the hypothesis or do c. reproduction.
not support the hypothesis. d. taxonomy.
• The results may be submitted to 1.3 The Process of Science
a scientific publication for review
by the scientific community. 7. After formulating a hypothesis, a scientist
a. proves the hypothesis to be true or false.
• Over time multiple conclusions
b. tests the hypothesis.
in a particular area may allow
c. decides how to best avoid having a control.
scientists to arrive at a theory (or
d. makes sure environmental conditions are just right.
principle or law), such as the cell
e. formulates a scientific theory.
theory or the theory of evolution. The
theory of evolution is a unifying concept 8. Experiments examine the contribution of the _________ to the
of biology. observation.
a. responding variable
1.4 Challenges Facing Science b. control group
c. standard deviation
While science investigates the principles of the natural world,
d. experimental variable
­technology applies this knowledge to the needs of society. Some
challenges that scientists are investigating include: 9. Which of the following is not correctly linked?
a. model: a representation of an object used in an experiment
• The loss of biodiversity and habitats such as coral reefs and rain b. standard deviation: a form of statistical analysis
forests. This often results in the extinction of species. c. principle: a theory that is not supported by experimental
• Emerging diseases, such as avian influenza and SARS evidence
• The impact of climate change and global warming d. data: the results of an experiment or observation
CHAPTER 1 A View of Life 17

1.4 Challenges Facing Science Thinking Scientifically

10. Which of the following applies scientific knowledge to the needs 1. An investigator spills dye on a culture plate and notices that
of society? the bacteria live, despite their exposure to sunlight. He decides
a. evolution to test if the dye is protective against ultraviolet (UV) light. He
b. taxonomy exposes one group of culture plates containing bacteria and
c. systematics dye and another group containing only bacteria to UV light. The
d. technology bacteria on all plates die. Complete the following diagram.
11. Which of the following represents the permanent loss of a
species?
Scientific Method Example
a. natural selection
b. greenhouse effect
Observations a.
c. extinction
d. climate change
12. H5N1 and SARS are examples of
a. extinct species. Hypothesis b.
b. forms of greenhouse gases.
c. endangered habitats.
d. emerging diseases.
Experiments and/or
c.
observations

Engage Conclusion d.

2. You want to grow large tomatoes, and you notice that a

The following LearnSmart Labs contain exercises that are related to
name-brand fertilizer claims to produce larger plants than a
the content of this chapter:
generic brand. How would you test this claim?
• Scientific Method
3. A scientist wishes to test her hypothesis that a commonly
used drug causes heart attacks in some individuals. What
kind of study should she initiate? What would you expect her
experimental and responding variables to be?
 Unit
1
The Cell

A s we learned in Chapter 1, there are general characteristics that all life shares. We also know that the cell is the basic
unit of life. However, before we explore the various functions of the cell, we need to understand what cells are made
of. For that, we are going to take a quick exploration of chemistry. We will start with developing an understanding of basic
chemistry and the nature of water, which is probably one of the most important molecules for life as we know it. Once
we have established this chemical foundation of life, we can proceed to the structure of the organic molecules, such as
carbohydrates and proteins, that are used to perform the functions of the cell.
Cells, being alive, must acquire energy and materials and maintain an internal environment by homeostasis. The majority
of the chapters in this unit help us develop an understanding of how cells accomplish these goals. We will also explore how
the cell’s structure relates to its function, either as a single-celled organism or as part of a multicellular tissue, organ, or
organism. Later units will discuss the process of cellular reproduction and response to stimuli.
Since the cell forms the foundation for all life, your understanding of these concepts will serve you well as you move into
the later parts of this text.

Unit Outline
Chapter 2 B
 asic Chemistry  19 Chapter 6 Metabolism: Energy and Enzymes   100
Chapter 3 The Chemistry of Organic Molecules   35 Chapter 7 Photosynthesis  114
Chapter 4 Cell Structure and Function   57 Chapter 8 Cellular Respiration  129
Chapter 5 Membrane Structure and Function   82

Unit learning Outcomes

The learning outcomes for this unit focus on three major themes in the life sciences.

Evolution Examine how inanimate elements can be combined to produce a living cell.

Nature of Science Describe how science is used to investigate cellular phenomena.

Biological Systems Evaluate how cellular components work together in order to function and live.

18
 2
Basic Chemistry

The Curiosity rover on Mars.

O n August 6, 2012, NASA’s Curiosity rover successfully landed on the surface of

Mars. Previous missions, including the long-lived Spirit and Opportunity rovers,
focused on exploring the planet and detecting whether water once existed on Mars.
Chapter Outline
2.1 Chemical Elements 20
2.2 Molecules and Compounds 24
Curiosity was designed to explore whether Mars at one time may have had the conditions
to support life by looking for elements that we know are associated with life on Earth. 2.3 Chemistry of Water 26
Curiosity possesses a collection of highly sophisticated instruments that can detect 2.4 Acids and Bases 30
trace levels of specific elements and minerals in the Martian soil and rocks. For example,
ChemCam uses a small laser to blast away portions of rocks. As the rocks are vapor-
ized, another instrument records the types of elements and molecules that are released.
ChemCam can determine whether the rocks were formed in the presence of water, a
molecule that is essential for life as we know it. Another set of experiments is called
SAM (Sample Analysis at Mars), which contains an instrument, called a spectrometer,
that can be used to detect the presence of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen in
the Martian soil. Other spectrometers on Curiosity are also able to detect the presence
of elements and chemical compounds that are associated with life. In its first year of Before You Begin
operation, Curiosity detected water in the soil of Mars, and it is providing insights into Before beginning this chapter, take a
whether the conditions on Mars may have supported life in the past. In the process, we few moments to review the following
may better understand how life evolved on our planet. discussions.
Section 1.1 What are the general
As you read through this chapter, think about the following questions:
characteristics shared by all living
1. Why are scientists looking for carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen on Mars? organisms?
2. What is an isotope, and how would a scientific instrument detect its presence? Section 1.3 How does the scientific process
3. Why is water considered to be so important to life? help us understand the natural world?

Following the Themes

Chapter 2 Basic chemistry
Unit 1
The Cell

Chemicals form the basis of living organisms, which evolve by changing their
Evolution chemistry over time.

Nature of Science Knowledge of chemicals is used to understand the scientific basis of life.

Chemical elements are combined into molecular compounds, which are used to
Biological Systems build cells, the basic units of life.

19
20 unit 1 The Cell

2.1 Chemical Elements
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Describe how protons, neutrons, and electrons relate to
atomic structure.
2. Use the periodic table to evaluate relationships between
atomic number and mass number.
3. Describe how variations in an atomic nucleus account for
its physical properties.
4. Determine how electrons are configured around a nucleus.
elements (see Appendix C) that serve as the building blocks of
matter. Other elements have been artificially constructed by physi-
cists and are not biologically important.
Both the Earth’s crust and all organisms are composed of
elements, but they differ as to which ones are common. Only
six elements—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxy­gen, phosphorus,
and sulfur—are basic to life and make up about 95% of the body
weight of organisms. The properties of these elements are essen-
tial to the uniqueness of cells and organisms, such as both the
human and the tree in Figure 2.1. Other elements, such as potas-
sium, calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc, are also important
to life.

Throw a ball, pat your dog, rake leaves, turn a page; everything we
touch—from the water we drink to the air we breathe—is com-
posed of matter. Matter refers to anything that takes up space and
has mass. Although matter has many diverse forms—anything from
molten lava to kidney stones­—it exists in only four distinct states:
solid, liquid, gas, or plasma.
Elements
All matter, both nonliving and living, is composed of basic sub-
stances called elements. An element is a substance that cannot be
broken down to simpler substances by ordinary chemical means.
Each element has its own unique properties, such as density,
solubility, melting point, and reactivity. It is quite remarkable
that, in the known universe, there are only 92 naturally occurring
Atoms
In the early 1800s, the English scientist John Dalton (1776–
1844) developed the atomic theory, which says that elements
consist of tiny particles called atoms (Gk. atomos, “uncut, indi-
visible”). An atom is the smallest part of an element that dis-
plays the properties of the element. An element and its atoms
share the same name. One or two letters create the atomic
symbol that stands for this name. For example, the symbol H
means a hydrogen atom, the symbol Rn stands for radon, and the
symbol Na (L. natrium) is used for a sodium atom.
Physicists have identified a number of subatomic particles
that make up atoms. The three best-known subatomic particles
are positively charged protons, uncharged neutrons, and nega-
tively charged electrons. Protons and neutrons are located within

Figure 2.1 A comparison of the elements that make up the Earth’s crust and living organisms. The graph inset shows that the
Earth’s crust primarily contains the elements silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), and oxygen (O). Living organisms, such as the tree and human, primarily contain
the elements oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), carbon (C), and hydrogen (H). Biological molecules also often contain the elements sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P).

Earth’s crust
60 organisms
Percent by Weight

40

20

0
Fe Ca K S P Si Al Mg Na O N C H
Element
CHAPTER 2 Basic Chemistry 21

the nucleus of an atom, and electrons move about the nucleus.
Figure 2.2 shows the arrangement of the subatomic particles in
a helium atom, which has only two electrons. Since the precise
location of the electrons is difficult to establish, we often indicate
their probable positions using shading (­Fig. 2.2a). When we are
using a model of an atom—for example, to predict a chemical
reaction—we indicate the average location of the electrons using
electron shells (Fig. 2.2b).
The concept of an atom has changed greatly since ­Dalton’s
day. Today’s physicists are using high-energy supercolliders, such
as the Large Hadron Collider in Europe, to explore the intricate
structure of the atom.
It is also important to note that the majority of an atom is
empty space. If an atom could be drawn the size of a football field,
the nucleus would be like a gumball in the center of the field, and
the electrons would be tiny specks whirling about in the upper
stands. We should also realize that both of the models in Figure 2.2
indicate only where the electrons are expected to be most of the
time. In our analogy, the electrons might very well stray outside the
stadium at times.
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Atoms have not only an atomic symbol but also an atomic number
and a mass number. All the atoms of an element have the same
number of protons housed in the nucleus. This is called the atomic
number, which accounts for the unique properties of this type
of atom. Generally, atoms are assumed to be electrically neutral,
meaning that the number of electrons is the same as the number
of protons in the atom. The atomic number tells you not only the
number of protons but also the number of electrons.
Each atom also has its own mass number, which is the sum of
the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Protons and neutrons are
assigned one atomic mass unit (AMU) each. Electrons are so small
that their AMU is considered zero in most calculations (Fig. 2.2c).
By convention, when an atom stands alone (and not in the periodic
table, discussed next), the atomic number is written as a subscript to
the lower left of the atomic symbol. The mass number is written as a
superscript to the upper left of the atomic symbol:
12
6C
mass number
atomic symbol
atomic number
Whereas each atom of an element has the same atomic number, the
number of neutrons may vary slightly. Isotopes (Gk. isos, “equal”)
are atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons.
For example, the element carbon has three naturally occurring
isotopes:
12 C 13 C 14 C
6 6 6
It is important to note that the term mass is used, not weight,
because mass is constant, while weight changes according to the
gravitational force of a body. The gravitational force of the Earth is
greater than that of the moon; therefore, substances weigh less on
the moon, even though their mass has not changed.
The term atomic mass refers to the average mass for all the
isotopes of that atom. Since the majority of carbon is carbon 12, the
atomic mass of carbon is closer to 12 than to 13 or 14. To determine
the number of neutrons from the atomic mass, subtract the number
of protons from the atomic mass and take the closest whole number.

= proton 6 atomic number

C atomic symbol
= neutron
12.01 atomic mass
= electron

a. b. The Periodic Table

Once chemists discovered a number of the elements, they began
Subatomic Particles
to realize that even though each element consists of a different
Electric Atomic Mass Unit atom, certain chemical and physical characteristics ­recur. The peri-
Particle Charge (AMU) Location
odic table, developed by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev
Proton +1 1 Nucleus (1834–1907), was constructed as a way to group the elements, and
Neutron 0 1 Nucleus
therefore atoms, according to these characteristics.
Figure 2.3 is a portion of the periodic table, which is shown
Electron –1 0 Electron shell in total in Appendix C. In the periodic table, the horizontal rows
c. are called periods, and the vertical columns are called groups.
The atomic number of every atom in a period increases by one if
Figure 2.2 Model of helium (He). Atoms contain subatomic you read from left to right. All the atoms in a group share similar
particles, which are located as shown. Protons and neutrons are found
chemical characteristics, namely in the type of chemical bonds
within the nucleus, and electrons are outside the nucleus. a. The shading
shows the probable location of the electrons in the helium atom. b. The
that they form. For example, the atoms in group VIII are called
average location of an electron is sometimes represented by an electron the noble gases, because they are inert and rarely react with
shell. c. The electric charge and the atomic mass units (AMU) of the another atom. Helium, neon, argon, and krypton are all examples
subatomic particles vary as shown. of noble gases.
22 unit 1 The Cell

I VIII Positron-emission tomography (PET) is a way to determine the

1 atomic number 2 comparative activity of tissues. Radioactively labeled glucose, which
1 H atomic symbol atomic mass He emits a subatomic particle known as a positron, is injected into the
1.008 4.003
body. The radiation given off is detected by sensors and analyzed
II III IV V VI VII
by a computer. The result is a color image that shows which tissues
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 have taken up the glucose and are therefore metabolically active. The
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne red areas surrounded by green in Figure 2.4b indicate which areas of
the brain are most active. PET scans of the brain are used to evaluate
Periods

6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18

patients who have memory disorders of an undetermined cause or
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
suspected brain tumors or seizure disorders that might benefit from
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
surgery. PET scans, utilizing radioactive thallium, can detect signs of
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
coronary artery disease and low blood flow to the heart.
19 20 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
High Levels of Radiation
39.10 40.08 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.60 Radioactive substances in the environment can harm cells, damage
DNA, and cause cancer. When Marie Curie was studying radiation,
Groups its harmful effects were not known, and she and many of her co-
workers developed cancer. The release of radioactive particles fol-
Figure 2.3 A portion of the periodic table. In the periodic lowing a nuclear power plant accident, as occurred in Japan in 2011
table, elements are listed in the order of their atomic numbers but are following a tsunami, can have far-reaching and long-lasting effects
arranged so that each element is placed in a group (vertical column) and
on human health. The harmful effects of radiation can be put to good
period (horizontal row). All the atoms in a particular group have the same
number of valence electrons and therefore share common chemical
use, however (Fig. 2.5). Radiation from radioactive isotopes has
characteristics. Each period shows the number of electron shells for an been used for many years to sterilize medical and dental products.
element. This abbreviated periodic table contains the elements most Radiation is now used to sterilize the U.S. mail and other packages
important in biology; the complete periodic table is in Appendix C. to free them of possible pathogens, such as anthrax spores. High
radiation is often used to kill cancer cells. Targeted radioisotopes can
be introduced into the body, so that the subatomic particles emitted
Radioactive Isotopes destroy only cancer cells, with little risk to the rest of the body.
Some isotopes of an element are unstable, or radioactive. For exam-
ple, unlike the other two isotopes of carbon, carbon 14 changes
over time into nitrogen 14, which is a stable isotope of the element
nitrogen. As carbon 14 decays, it releases various types of energy
in the form of rays and subatomic particles. The radiation given
off by radioactive isotopes can be detected in various ways. The
Geiger counter is an instrument that is commonly used to detect
radiation. In 1896, the French physicist Antoine-Henri Becquerel
larynx
(1852–1908) discovered that a sample of uranium would produce
a bright image on a photographic plate even in the dark, and a
thyroid gland
similar method of detecting radiation is still in use today. Marie
Curie (1867–1934), who worked with Becquerel, coined the term trachea
radioactivity and contributed much to its study. Today, biologists a.
use radiation to date objects from our distant past, to create images,
and to trace the movement of substances in the body.

Low Levels of Radiation

The chemical behavior of a radioactive isotope is essentially the
same as that of the stable isotopes of an element. This means that
you can put a small amount of radioactive isotope in a sample and it
becomes a tracer by which to detect molecular changes. Melvin Cal-
vin and his co-workers used carbon 14 to detect all the various reac-
tions that occur during the process of photosynthesis (see Chapter 7).
The importance of chemistry to medicine is nowhere more evi-
dent than in the many medical uses of radioactive isotopes. Specific b.
tracers are used in imaging the body’s organs and tissues. For exam-
Figure 2.4 Low levels of radiation. a. Medical scan of the
ple, after a patient drinks a solution containing a minute amount of thyroid gland (colored image) indicates the presence of a tumor that
iodine 131, it becomes concentrated in the thyroid—the only organ does not take up radioactive iodine. b. A positron-emission tomography
to take it up. A subsequent image of the thyroid indicates whether it (PET) scan reveals which portions of the brain are most active (green
is healthy in structure and function (Fig. 2.4a). and red colors).
CHAPTER 2 Basic Chemistry
a. b.
Figure 2.5 High levels of radiation. a. Radiation used to kill
bacteria and fungi on peaches reduces spoilage and allows them to stay
fresh for a longer period of time. b. Physicians use targeted radiation
therapy to kill cancer cells.
Electrons and Energy
Various models may be used to illustrate the structure of a single
atom. While the number of neutrons and protons may easily be
depicted, since they are located in the nucleus, it is not possible
to determine the precise location of any individual electron at any
given moment. One of the more common models is the Bohr model
(Fig. 2.6), developed by the physicist Niels Bohr (1885–1962).
In the Bohr model, the electron shells (also called electron
orbitals) about the nucleus are used to represent the average
energy levels of an electron. Because the negatively charged
electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus, it takes
energy to push them away and keep them in their own shell. The
more distant the shell, the more energy it takes. Therefore, it is
more accurate to speak of electrons as being at particular energy
levels in relation to the nucleus. Electrons may move between
energy levels. For example, when we explore the processes of
photosynthesis, you will learn that when atoms absorb the energy
of the sun, electrons are boosted to a higher energy level. Later,
as the electrons return to their original energy
level, energy is released and transformed into
chemical energy. This chemical energy sup-
ports all life on Earth; therefore, our very exis- H nucleus
tence is dependent on the energy of electrons.
Let’s take a more detailed look at the Bohr
hydrogen
models depicted in Figure 2.6. The first shell is 1 12
1H
Figure 2.6 Bohr models of atoms.
Electrons orbit the nucleus at particular energy levels
(electron shells). The first shell contains up to two
electrons, and thereafter each shell is most stable O
when it contains 8 electrons. Atoms with an atomic
number above 20 may have more electrons in their
outer shells. The outermost, or valence, shell helps
determine the atom’s chemical properties and how oxygen
16
many other elements it can interact with. 8O
23
closest to the nucleus and can contain two electrons; the second
shell can contain eight electrons. In all atoms, the lower shells
are filled with electrons before the next higher level contains any
electrons.
The sulfur atom, with an atomic number of 16, has two
electrons in the first shell, eight electrons in the second shell, and
six electrons in the outer, third shell. Revisit the periodic table
(see Fig. 2.3), and note that sulfur is in the third period. In other
words, the period tells you how many shells an atom has. Also
note that sulfur is in group VI. The group tells you how many
electrons an atom has in its outer shell.
Regardless of how many shells an atom has, the outermost
shell is called the valence shell. The valence shell is important,
because it determines many of an atom’s chemical properties. If
an atom has only one shell, the valence shell is complete when it
has two electrons. In atoms with more than one shell, the valence
shell is most stable when it has eight electrons. This is called the
octet rule. Each atom in a group within the periodic table has the
same number of electrons in its valence shell. As mentioned previ-
ously, all the atoms in group VIII of the periodic table have eight
electrons in their valence shell. These elements are also called the
noble gases, because they do not ordinarily react.
The electrons in the valence shells play an important role in
determining how an element undergoes chemical reactions. Atoms
with fewer than eight electrons in the outer shell react with other
atoms in such a way that after the reaction each has a stable outer
shell. As we will see, the number of electrons in an atom’s valence
shell determines whether the atom gives up, accepts, or shares
electrons to acquire eight electrons in the outer shell.
Check Your Progress 2.1
1. Contrast atomic number and mass number.
2. Examine the periods and groups from the periodic table
to determine the electron configuration of chlorine.
3. Explain how two isotopes of an element vary with regard
to their atomic structure.
electron valence shell
electron shell C N
carbon nitrogen
14
6C 7N
P S
phosphorus sulfur
31P 32S
15 16
24 unit 1 The Cell

2.2 Molecules and Compounds shift in their relationship to one another, and energy is released.
Spontaneous reactions, which occur freely,
MP3
Learning Outcomes always release energy. Chemical Bonding

Upon completion of this section, you should be able to

1. Describe how elements are combined into molecules
and compounds.
2. List the different types of bonds that occur between elements.
3. Explain the difference between a polar and a nonpolar
covalent bond.
A molecule exists when two or more elements bond together; it is
the smallest part of a compound that retains its chemical properties.
A compound is a molecule containing at least two different ele-
ments. In practice, these two terms are used interchangeably, but in
biology we usually speak of molecules. Water (H2O) is a molecule
that contains atoms of hydrogen and oxygen. A formula tells you
the number of each kind of atom in a molecule. For example, the
formula for glucose is:
one molecule
Ionic Bonding
Sodium (Na), with only one electron in its valence shell, tends to
be an electron donor (Fig. 2.7a). Once it gives up this electron,
the second shell, with its stable configuration of eight electrons,
becomes its outer shell. Chlorine (Cl), on the other hand, tends to
be an electron acceptor. Its valence shell has seven electrons, so if
it acquires only one more electron it has a stable outer shell. When
a sodium atom and a chlorine atom come together, an electron is
transferred from the sodium atom to the chlorine atom. Now both
atoms have eight electrons in their outer shells.
This electron transfer, however, causes a charge imbalance in
each atom. After giving up an electron, the sodium atom has one
more proton than it has electrons; therefore, it has a net charge of +1
(symbolized by Na+). After accepting an electron, the chlorine atom
has one more electron than it has protons; therefore, it has a net charge
of −1 (symbolized by Cl−). These charged particles are called ions.
Sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) are not the only biologically impor-

C6H12O6 tant ions. Some, such as potassium (K+), are formed by the transfer of
a single electron to another atom; others, such as calcium (Ca2+) and
indicates 6 atoms indicates 12 atoms indicates 6 atoms
magnesium (Mg2+), are formed by the transfer of two electrons.
of carbon of hydrogen of oxygen Ionic compounds are held together by an attraction between
negatively and positively charged ions, called an ionic bond. When
Electrons possess energy, as do the bonds b­etween atoms. sodium reacts with chlorine, an ionic compound called sodium
Organisms are directly dependent on chemical-bond energy to main- chloride (NaCl) results. Sodium chloride is an example of a salt.
tain their organization. As you may know, organisms routinely break It is commonly called table salt, because it is used to season food
down glucose, the sugar shown above, to obtain energy. When a (Fig. 2.7b). Salts are solid substances that usually separate and
chemical reaction occurs, as when glucose is broken down, electrons exist as individual ions in water, as discussed on page 28.

Figure 2.7 Formation of sodium chloride (table salt). a. During the

formation of sodium chloride, an electron is transferred from the sodium atom to the
chlorine atom. At the completion of the reaction, each atom has eight electrons in the
outer shell, but each also carries a charge as shown. b. In a sodium chloride crystal,
Na Cl ionic bonding between Na+ and Cl− causes the atoms to assume a three-dimensional
lattice in which each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions, and each chloride
ion is surrounded by six sodium ions. The result is crystals of salt as in table salt.

sodium atom (Na) chlorine atom (Cl)

+ – Na+ Cl−

Na Cl

sodium ion (Na+) chloride ion (Cl– )

sodium chloride (NaCl)

a. b.
CHAPTER 2 Basic Chemistry 25

Covalent Bonding Structural Molecular

Electron Model
A covalent bond results when two atoms share electrons in such Formula Formula
a way that each atom has an octet of electrons in the outer shell
(or two electrons, in the case of hydrogen). In a hydrogen atom,
the outer shell is complete when it contains two electrons. If H H H H H2
hydrogen is in the presence of a strong electron acceptor, it gives
up its electron to become a hydrogen ion (H+). But if this is not
possible, hydrogen can share with another atom and thereby a. Hydrogen gas
have a completed outer shell. For example, one hydrogen atom
will share with another hydrogen atom. Their two electron shells
overlap, and the electrons are shared between them (Fig. 2.8a).
Because they share the electron pair, each atom has a completed
O O O O O2
outer shell.
A more common way to symbolize that atoms are sharing
electrons is to draw a line between the two atoms, as in the struc-
tural formula H—H. Just as a handshake requires two hands, one
from each person, a covalent bond between two atoms requires two b. Oxygen gas
electrons, one from each atom. In a molecular formula, the line is
omitted and the molecule is simply written as H2.
Sometimes, atoms share more than one pair of electrons to
H
complete their octets. A double covalent bond occurs when two
atoms share two pairs of electrons (Fig. 2.8b). To show that oxygen
gas (O2) contains a double bond, the molecule can be written as H
O O. It is also possible for atoms to form triple covalent bonds, H C H H C H CH4
as in nitrogen gas (N2), which can be written as N≡N. Single cova-
lent bonds between atoms are quite strong, but double and triple H
bonds are even stronger.
H
Nonpolar and Polar Covalent Bonds
When the sharing of electrons between two atoms is equal, the
covalent bond is said to be a nonpolar covalent bond. However,
c. Methane
in some cases one atom is able to attract electrons to a greater
degree than the other atom. In this case, we say that the atom that Figure 2.8 Covalently bonded molecules. In a covalent
has a greater attraction for a shared pair of electrons has a greater bond, atoms share electrons, allowing each atom to have a completed
electronegativity. When electrons are not shared equally, the cova- outer shell. a. A molecule of hydrogen (H2) contains two hydrogen atoms
lent bond is a polar covalent bond. sharing a pair of electrons. This single covalent bond can be represented
in any of the three ways shown. b. A molecule of oxygen (O2) contains
The shape of a molecule may also influence whether it is polar
two oxygen atoms sharing two pairs of electrons. This results in a double
or nonpolar. While carbon is larger and has more protons than a covalent bond. c. A molecule of methane (CH4) contains one carbon atom
hydrogen atom, the symmetrical nature of a methane molecule bonded to four hydrogen atoms.
cancels out any polarities; thus, methane is a nonpolar molecule.
Not so in water, which has this shape:
−
Oxygen is partially negative (δ )
of the molecule is designated slightly negative (δ−), and the hydro-
gens are designated slightly positive (δ+).
Water is not the only polar molecule in living organisms. For
O
example, the amine group (—NH2) is polar, and this causes amino
acids and nucleic acids to exhibit polarity, as we will see in the next
H H
chapter. The polarity of molecules affects how Animation
they interact with other molecules. Ionic Versus
Covalent Bonding

Hydrogens are partially positive (δ )

+ Check Your Progress 2.2
1. Compare and contrast an ionic bond with a covalent
In water, the oxygen atom is more electronegative than the hydrogen bond.
atoms; as a result, water molecules are polar. Moreover, because 2. Describe the process by which ions are formed.
of its nonsymmetrical shape, the polar bonds cannot cancel each 3. Explain why methane is nonpolar but water is polar.
other, and water is a polar molecule. The more electronegative end
26 unit 1 The Cell

2.3 Chemistry of Water
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to
1. Describe how water associates with other molecules in solution.
2. Describe why the properties of water are important to life.
3. Analyze how water’s solid, liquid, and vapor states allow
life to exist on Earth.
Figure 2.9a recaps what we know about the water molecule.
The structural formula at the top shows that when water forms,
an oxygen atom is sharing electrons with two hydrogen atoms.
The ball-and-stick model in the center shows that the covalent
bonds between oxygen and each of the hydrogens are at an angle
of 104.5°. Finally, the space-filling model gives us the three-­
dimensional shape of the molecule and indicates its polarity.
In biology, we often state that structure relates to function. This
is true at a variety of organizational levels, including molecules
such as water. For example, hormones have specific shapes that
allow them to be recognized by the cells in the body. We can stay
well only when antibodies recognize the shapes of disease-causing
agents, the way a key fits a lock, and are able to remove them.
The shape of a water molecule and its polarity result in the
formation of hydrogen bonds. A hydrogen bond is caused by the
attraction of a slightly positive hydrogen to a slightly negative atom
in the vicinity. In carbon dioxide, O C O, a slight difference
in polarity between carbon and the oxygens is present, but because
carbon dioxide is symmetrical, the opposing charges cancel one
another and hydrogen bonding does not occur.
Hydrogen Bonding
The dotted lines in Figure 2.9b indicate that the hydrogen atoms
in one water molecule are attracted to the oxygen atoms in other

Electron Model

H H

Ball-and-stick Model

δ+
H
O H
O δ+
δ–
hydrogen
H H bond
104.5º

Space-filling Model
b. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules
Oxygen attracts the shared
electrons and is partially negative.
δ–

O
Figure 2.9 Water molecule. a. Three models for the structure of water. The
H H
electron model does not indicate the shape of the molecule. The ball-and-stick model
δ+ δ+ shows that the two bonds in a water molecule are angled at 104.5°. The space-filling
model also shows the V shape of a water molecule. b. Hydrogen bonding between
Hydrogens are partially positive. water molecules. Each water molecule can hydrogen bond with up to four other
molecules, in three dimensions. When in a liquid state, water is
a. Water (H2O) Tutorial
constantly forming and breaking hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen Bonds
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As a class, these people are sadly put upon. They are criticised not only
for their own shortcomings, but for those of all their irresponsible fellow
citizens. If anything goes wrong they are sure to hear about it, for they
listen to sermons, and read the newspapers, and attend meetings. No
reformer can be truly eloquent who does not point his finger at his hearer,
and say, “Thou art the man!” Now, unfortunately, the real delinquents are
usually absent, and the right-minded, conscientious hearer of the word,
who is doing all he can for social regeneration, even to the verge of
nervous prostration, has to act as substitute. He has been so often
assured that he is the guilty man that, by and by, he comes to believe it.
He walks to church with his family only to be told that it is his fault, and
the fault of those like him, that other people have gone off in their
automobiles. Perhaps, if he had walked differently, he might have made
church-going more attractive to them. The evils of intemperance are laid
at his door. It is not worth while to blame the drunkard or the saloon-
keeper; they are not within ear-shot. As to pauperism and vice, every one
knows that they arise from social conditions; and pray who is responsible
for these conditions unless it be the meek man who sits in the pew,—at
least, he is the only one who can readily be made to assume the
responsibility.
There is something wholesome in all this if it be not overdone. I, myself,
like to have my fling at the man who is trying to do his duty, and to twit him
occasionally for not doing more. It keeps him from self-righteousness. But
sometimes it is carried too far, and the poor man staggers under a load of
vicarious guilt.
I especially hate to see the man who is trying to do his duty given over to
the censures of those who do not try. There is something very harsh in the
judgment of the ne’er-do-well upon his well-to-do brother. His attitude is
the extreme of phariseeism, as he contrasts his own generous and care-
free nature with the pickayunish prudence which he scorns. To be sure,
his brother in the end pays his debts for him, but he does it with a narrow
scrutiny which robs the act of its natural charm. His acts of helpfulness
are marred by a tendency to didacticism. All these things are laid up
against him.
But allowance should be made for the difference in condition. Ne’er-do-
wellness is an expansive state. There are no natural limits to it. It
develops broad views, and its peculiar virtues have a free field. It is
different with well-to-doness, which is a precarious condition with a very
narrow margin of safety. The ne’er-do-well can afford to be generous,
seeing that his generosity costs him nothing. He is free from all belittling
calculations necessary to those who are compelled to adjust means to
ends,—he is indifferent to ends and he has no means.
When the morally responsible person finds himself too much put upon, I
would grant him a generous indulgence. After all, I would tell him, the
prudential virtues are not so bad. It is a good deal of an achievement to
make both ends meet. I am not disposed to be too hard on those who
accomplish this, even though I may think a little fullness in their moral
garments might be more becoming.
I should also make provision for the pardon of those good people who are
harshly judged because their virtues are unseasonable. But their case
involves delicate considerations that can best be treated in another
chapter.
 UNSEASONABLE VIRTUES

T HERE are certain philosophers who have fallen into the habit of
speaking slightingly of Time and Space. Time, they say, is only a poor
concept of ours corresponding to no ultimate reality, and Space is little
better. They are merely mental receptacles into which we put our
sensations. We are assured that could we get at the right point of view we
should see that real existence is timeless. Of course we cannot get at the
right point of view, but that does not matter.
It is easy to understand how philosophers can talk in that way, for
familiarity with great subjects breeds contempt; but we of the laity cannot
dismiss either Time or Space so cavalierly. Having once acquired the
time-habit, it is difficult to see how we could live without it. We are
accustomed to use the minutes and hours as stepping-stones, and we
pick our way from one to another. If it were not for them, we should find
ourselves at once beyond our depth. It is the succession of events which
makes them interesting. There is a delightful transitoriness about
everything, and yet the sense that there is more where it all comes from.
To the unsophisticated mind Eternity is not the negation of Time; it is
having all the time one wants. And why may not the unsophisticated mind
be as nearly right in such matters as any other?
In a timeless existence there would be no distinction between now and
then, before and after. Yesterdays and to-days would be merged in one
featureless Forever. When we met one another it would be impertinent to
ask, “How do you do?” The chilling answer would be: “I do not do; I am.”
There would be nothing more to say to one who had reduced his being to
such bare metaphysical first principles.
I much prefer living in Time, where there are circumstances and incidents
to give variety to existence. There is a dramatic instinct in all of us that
must be satisfied. We watch with keen interest for what is coming next.
We would rather have long waits than to have no shifting of the scenes,
and all the actors on the stage at once, doing nothing.
An open-minded editor prints the following question from an anxious
reader in regard to a serial story appearing in his paper: “Does it make
any difference in reading the serial whether I begin with Saturday’s
chapter and read backward toward Monday, or should the tale be read as
the chapters appear?”
The editor assures his subscriber that the story is of such uniform
excellence that it would read well in either direction. In practical affairs our
dramatic instinct will not allow us this latitude. We insist upon certain
sequences. There is an expectancy that one thing will lead up to another.
We do not take kindly to an anti-climax or to an anachronism. The Hebrew
sage declares, “He hath made everything beautiful in his time.” That is in
the right time, but alas for the beautiful thing that falls upon the wrong
time! It is bewitched beyond all recognition by the old necromancer who
has power to make “ancient good uncouth.”
It is just here that charity requires that we should discriminate. There is a
situation that demands the services of a kind-hearted indulgencer. Ethics
has to do with two kinds of offenses: one is against the eternal and
unchanging standards of right and wrong, and the other against the
perpetually varying conditions of the passing day. We are continually
confusing the two. We visit upon the ancient uncouth good which comes
honestly stumbling on its belated journey toward the perfect, all the
condemnation that properly belongs to willful evil. It is lucky if it gets off so
easily as that, for we are likely to add the pains and penalties which
belong to hypocritical pretense. As for a premature kind of goodness
coming before there is time properly to classify it, that must expect
martyrdom. Something of the old feeling about strangers still survives in
us. We think it safer to treat the stranger as an enemy. If he survives our
attacks we may make friends with him.
Those good people who, in their devotion to their own ideals, have
ignored all considerations of timeliness, have usually passed through sore
tribulations. They have been the victims of cruel misunderstandings.
Such, for example, was Saint Cerbonius. Cerbonius is one of the October
saints. October is a good month for saints. The ecclesiastical calendar
gives us a sense of spiritual mellowness and fruitfulness. The virtues
celebrated are without the acidity which belongs to some other seasons:
witness Saint Francis of Assisi, Saint Teresa, Saint Luke, the beloved
physician, Saint John Capistran, of whom it is written, “he had a singular
talent for reconciling inveterate enemies and inducing them to love one
another.” Cerbonius has a modest place in this autumnal brotherhood;
indeed, in some Lives of the Saints, he is not even mentioned, and yet he
had the true October spirit. Nevertheless, his good was evil spoken of,
and he came near to excommunication, and all because of his divergence
from popular custom in the matter of time.
It seems that he lived towards the end of the sixth century, and that he
was bishop of Piombino. Very soon a great scandal arose, for it was
declared that the bishop was neglecting his duties. At the accustomed
hour the citizens came to the cathedral for their devotions, only to find the
chancel devoid of clergy. Cerbonius and his priests were at that moment
comfortably seated at breakfast. Each succeeding morning witnessed the
same scene. The bishop was evidently an infidel scoffing at the rites of
religion. Appeal was made to Rome, and legates were appointed who
confirmed the astounding rumors. At last Cerbonius went to Rome to
plead his cause; but only by a special miracle was his character cleared.
The miracle induced the authorities to look into the matter more carefully,
and it was found that Cerbonius, instead of neglecting his duties, had
been carried away by holy zeal. While the people of Piombino were still in
their beds, Cerbonius and his clergy would be celebrating mass. As for
breakfast, that was quite late in the day.
It is easy to be wise after the event, and now that the matter has been
cleared up it is evident that all the religion was not on one side. Taking a
large view of the subject, we see that in the course of the twenty-four
hours the bishop spent as much time in the church as the most
scrupulous parishioner could ask. But it was just this large view that they
were unwilling to take. With them it was now or never. They judged his
character by the cross-section which they took at one particular hour.
I suppose that, had I lived in Piombino, I should have been a moderate
anti-Cerbonian. Cerbonius was in error, but not in mortal sin. He was
guilty of a heresy that disturbed the peace of the church,—that of early
rising. So long as early rising is held only as a creed for substance of
doctrine and set forth as a counsel of perfection, it may be tolerated, but
when the creed becomes a deed it awakens fanatical opposition. This
breeds schism. A person cannot be popular who gets the reputation of
being a human alarm clock. The primitive instinct in regard to an alarm
clock is to stop it. If Cerbonius had possessed the tact necessary to a
man in his position, he would not only have done his duty, but he would
have done it at the time most convenient to the greatest number. His
virtue was unseasonable; but between a man of unseasonable virtue and
an abandoned character who has no virtue at all, there is a great
difference. It is just this difference which the majority of people will not
see. They make no distinction between one who deliberately offends
against the eternal verities and one who accidentally tramples upon a
temporary verity that he didn’t know was there.
Most of our quarrels do not concern absolute right and wrong; they arise
from disputes about the time of day. Two persons may have the same
qualities and convictions and yet never agree. An ironical fate sets them
at cross purposes and they never meet without irritating contradictions. It
is all because their moods do not synchronize. One is always a little too
slow, the other a little too fast. When one is in fine fettle the other is just
beginning to get tired. They are equally serious, but never on the same
occasion, and so each accuses the other of heartless frivolity. They have
an equal appreciation of a pleasantry, but they never see it at the same
instant. One gives it an uproarious welcome when the other is speeding
the parting guest.
Two quick-tempered people may live together very comfortably so long as
they lose their tempers simultaneously; they are then ready to make up at
the same time. They get on like an automobile, by a series of small
explosions accurately timed. But when a quick-tempered person is
unequally yoked with one who is slow to wrath, the case is difficult. The
slowness causes continual apprehension. The fuse burns so deliberately
that it seems to have gone out and then the explosion comes. In such
cases there can be no adequate explanation. The offender would
apologize if he could remember what the offense was, and he doesn’t
dare to ask.
Said one theologian to another: “The difference between us is that your
God is my Devil.” This involved more than the mere matter of
nomenclature. It upset the spiritual time-table and caused disastrous
collisions. When one good man set forth valiantly to fight the Devil, the
other would charge him with disturbing his worship.
The fact that one man’s work is another man’s play is equally fruitful in
misunderstandings. The proverbial irritability of the literary and artistic
tribes arises in part from this cause. They feel that they are never taken
seriously. When we go to a good play we find it so easy to be amused that
we do not realize what hard work it is for those whose business it is to be
amusing. The better the work, the more effortless it seems to us. On a
summer afternoon we take up a novel in a mood which to the
conscientious novelist seems sacrilege. He has thrown all the
earnestness of his nature into it, and he wants his message to be
received in the same spirit. We have earnestness of nature too, but we
have expended it in other directions. Having finished our work, we take
our rest by reading his. It is a pleasant way to pass the time. This enrages
the novelist, and he writes essays to rebuke us. He calls us Philistines
and other hard names, and says that we are incapable of appreciating
literary art.
But what is our offense? We have used his work for our own purpose,
which was to rest our minds. We got out of it what at the time we needed.
Does he not act in very much the same way? Did we not see him at the
town-meeting when a very serious question concerning the management
of the town poor-house was to be settled? It was a time when every good
citizen should have shown his interest by speaking an earnest word.
Unmindful of all this, he sat through the meeting with the air of an amused
outsider. He paid little attention to the weighty arguments of the
selectmen, but noted down all their slips in grammar. He confessed
unblushingly that he attended the meeting simply to get a little local color.
What is to become of the country when a tax-payer will take the duties of
citizenship so lightly?
These recriminations go on endlessly. Because we do not see certain
qualities in action, we deny their existence. The owl has a reputation for
sedentary habits and unpractical wisdom, simply because he keeps
different business hours from those to which we are accustomed. Could
we look in on him during the rush time, we would find him a hustling
fellow. He has no time to waste on unremunerative meditation. This is his
busy night. How ridiculous is the sleepiness of the greater part of the
animal world! There is the lark nodding for hours on his perch. They say
he never really wakes up—at least, nobody has seen him awake.

* * * * * *
There is a pedagogical theory according to which each individual in his
early life repeats quite accurately the history of mankind up to date. He
passes through all the successive stages in the history of the race, with a
few extra flourishes now and then to indicate the surprises which the
future may have in store for us. The history of civilization becomes, for the
initiated, the rehearsal of the intensely interesting drama of the nursery
and the schoolroom. It lacks the delicacy of the finished performance, but
it presents the argument clearly enough and suggests the necessary
stage business. The young lady who attempts to guide a group of
reluctant young cave-dwellers from one period in human culture to
another is not surprised at any of their tantrums. Her only anxiety is lest
some form of barbarism appropriate to their condition may have been
skipped. Her chief function is like that of the chorus in the Greek tragedy,
to explain to the audience each dramatic situation as it unfolds.
I should not like to take the responsibility of running such an excellent
theory into the ground, yet it does seem to me that it might be carried
further. Granted that childhood is innocent savagery and that adolescence
is gloriously barbaric, what is the matter with mature life? Does it not have
any remnants of primitiveness? Does not Tennyson write of “the gray
barbarian”?
The transitions from primitive savagery to civilization which took the race
centuries to accomplish are repeated by the individual, not once but many
times. After we get the knack of it, we can run over the alphabet of human
progress backwards as well as forwards.
Exit Troglodyte. Enter Philosopher discoursing on disinterested virtue.
Reënter Troglodyte. Such dramatic transformations may be expected by
merely changing the subject of the conversation.
I remember sitting, one Sunday afternoon, on a vine-covered piazza
reading to a thoughtful and irascible friend. The book was Martineau’s
“Endeavors after the Christian Life.” In the middle of the second discourse
my friend’s dog rushed into the street to attack the dog of a passer-by. It
was one of those sudden and unpredictable antipathies to which the
members of the canine race are subject. My friend, instead of preserving
a dignified neutrality, rushed into the fray in the spirit of offensive
partisanship, and instantly became involved in an altercation with the
gentleman on the sidewalk. Canes were brandished, fierce threats were
exchanged, and only by the greatest efforts were the Homeric heroes
separated. Returning to his chair, my friend handed me the book, saying,
“Now let us go on with our religion.” The religion went on as placidly as
aforetime. There was no sense of confusion. The wrath of Achilles did not
disturb the calm spirituality of Martineau. Each held the centre of the
stage for his own moment, and there was no troublesome attempt to
harmonize them. Why should there be? Martineau was not talking about
dogs.
I know no greater luxury than that of thinking well of my fellow-men. It is a
luxury which a person in narrow circumstances, who is compelled to live
within the limits of strict veracity, sometimes feels to be beyond his
means. Yet I think it no harm to indulge in a little extravagance in this
direction. The best device for seeing all sorts and conditions of men to
advantage is to arrange them in their proper chronological order.
For years it was the custom to speak disparagingly of the “poor whites” of
our Southern mountains. Shut off from the main currents of modern life,
they seemed unpardonably unprogressive. They were treated as mere
degenerates. At last, however, a keener and kindlier observer hit upon a
happy phrase. These isolated mountaineers, he said, have retained the
characteristic habits of a former generation. They are our “contemporary
ancestors.” Instantly everything was put in a more favorable light; for we
all are disposed to see the good points in our ancestors. After all, the
whole offense with which these mountain people are charged is that they
are behind the times. In our bona-fide contemporaries this is a grave fault,
but in our ancestors it is pardonable. We do not expect them to live up to
our standards, and so we give them credit for living up to their own.
In this case we agree to consider fifty miles of mountain roads, if they be
sufficiently bad, as the equivalent of rather more than a hundred years of
time. Behind the barrier the twentieth century does not yet exist. Many
things may still be winked at for which the later generation may be sternly
called to repentance. Then, too, the end of the eighteenth century has
some good points of its own. These contemporary ancestors of ours are
of good old English stock, and we begin to look upon them with a good
deal of family pride.
But when we once accept poor roads as the equivalent of the passage of
time, putting people at the other end into another generation, there is no
knowing what we may come to in our charitable interpretations. For there
are other equally effective non-conductors of thought. By the simple
device of not knowing how to read, a man cuts off some thousands of
culture years and saves himself from no end of intellectual distractions.
He becomes the contemporary of “earth’s vigorous, primitive sons.” If to
his illiteracy he adds native talent and imagination, there is a chance for
him to make for himself some of those fine old discoveries which we lose
because we got the answer from some blabbing book before we had
come to the point of asking the question. Of course the danger is that if he
has native talent and imagination he will learn to read, and it must be
confessed that for this reason we do not get such a high order of illiterates
as formerly.
I once made the acquaintance of an ancient Philosopher. His talents were
for cosmogony, and his equipment would have been deemed ample in the
days when cosmogony was the fashion. He had meditated much on the
genesis of things and had read nothing, so that his speculations were
uncontaminated by the investigations of others. He was just the man to
construct a perfectly simple and logical theory of the universe, and he did
it. His universe was not like that of which our sciences give us imperfect
glimpses, but it was very satisfactory to him. He was very fair in dealing
with facts; he explained all that could be explained by his system. As the
only criterion of a fact which he recognized was that it agreed with his
system, there was none left over to trouble him. His manner of thought
was so foreign to that of our time that his intellectual ability was not widely
appreciated; yet had his birth not been so long delayed, he might have
been the founder of a school and have had books written about him. For
so far as I could learn, his views of the four elements of earth, air, fire, and
water, were very much like those of the early Greek physicists. Had I
taken him as a fellow American, I should have dismissed him as not up to
date; but considering him in the light of an ancient sage, I found much in
him to admire.
Once upon the coast of Maine I came upon a huge wooden cylinder.
Within it was a smaller one, and in the centre, seated upon a swinging
platform, was the owner of the curious contrivance. He was a mild-eyed,
pleasant-spoken man, whom it was a pleasure to meet. He explained that
this was “The Amphibious Vehicle,” and that it would move equally well on
land or sea.
“You know,” said he, “what the prophet Ezekiel said about the ‘wheel in
the middle of a wheel’?”
“Yes,” I answered.
“Well, this is it.”
There was something convincing in this matter-of-fact statement. The
“wheel within a wheel” had been to me little more than a figure of speech,
but here it was made out of good pine lumber, with a plank in the middle
for the living creature to sit on. It was as if I had fallen through a trap door
into another age. Here was a literal-minded contemporary of Ezekiel,
who, having heard of the wheel within a wheel, had proceeded at once to
make one. I ascended into the precarious seat, and we conversed upon
the spiritual and temporal possibilities of the vehicle. I found that on the
scriptural argument he was clearly ahead of me, being able to quote
chapter and verse with precision, while my references were rather vague.
In the field of mechanics he was also my superior. I could not have made
the vehicle, having not yet emerged beyond the stone age. As we talked I
forgot that we were at the mouth of the Penobscot. We were on the “river
of Chebar,” and there was no knowing what might happen.

* * * * * *
The belated philosophers and inventors, who think the thoughts of the
ancient worthies after them, live peaceful lives. What matters it that they
are separated by a millennium or two from the society in which they were
fitted to shine? They are self-sufficing, and there are few who care to
contradict them. It is not so with one who is morally belated. There is
something pathetic in the condition of one who cherishes the ambition of
being a good man, but who has not informed himself of the present “state
of the art.”
Now and then an ethical revolution takes place. New ideals are
proclaimed, and in their light all things are judged. The public conscience
becomes sensitive in regard to courses of conduct which heretofore had
been unchallenged. Every such advance involves a waste in established
reputations. There are always excellent men who are not aware of what
has been going on. They keep on conforming scrupulously to the old
standards, being good in the familiar ways that were commended in their
youth. After a time they find themselves in an alien world, and in that
world they are no longer counted among the best people. The tides of
moral enthusiasm are all against them. The good man feels his solid
ground of goodness slipping away from under him. Time has played false
with his moral conventionalities. He is like a polar bear on a fast-
diminishing iceberg, growling at the Gulf Stream.
When a great evil has been recognized by the world, there is a revision of
all our judgments. A new principle of classification is introduced, by which
we differentiate the goats from the sheep. It is hard after that to revive the
old admirations. The temperance agitation of the last century has not
abolished drunkenness, but it has made the conception of a pious,
respectable drunkard seem grotesque. It has also reduced the business
of liquor-selling to a decidedly lower place in the esteem of the
community. When we read to-day of the horrors of the slave trade, we
reconstruct in our imagination the character of the slave trader,—and a
brutal wretch he is. But in his day the Guinea captain held his own with
the best. He was a good husband and father, a kind neighbor, a generous
benefactor. President Ezra Stiles of Yale College, in his “Literary Diary,”
describes such a beautiful character. It was when Dr. Stiles was yet a
parish minister in Newport that one of his parishioners died, of whom he
wrote: “God had blessed him with a good Estate and he and his Family
have been eminent for Hospitality to all and Charity to the poor and
afflicted. At his death he recommended Religion to his Children and told
them that the world was nothing. The only external blemish on his
Character was that he was a little addicted to the marvelous in stories of
what he had seen in his Voyages and Travels. But in his Dealings he was
punctual, upright, and honest, and (except as to the Flie in the Oynment,
the disposition to tell marvelous Stories of Dangers, Travels, &c.), in all
other Things he was of a sober and good moral character, respected and
beloved of all, so as to be almost without enemies. He was forward in all
the concerns of the Church and Congregation, consulting its Benefit and
peaceably falling in with the general sense without exciting quarrels,
parties, &c., and even when he differed from his Brethren he so differed
from them that they loved him amidst the differences. He was a
peaceable man and promoted Peace.”
It was in 1773 that this good man died in the odor of sanctity. It is quite
incidentally that we learn that “he was for many years a Guinea captain,
and had no doubt of the slave trade.” His pastor suggests that he might
have chosen another business than that of “buying and selling the human
species.” Still, in 1773, this did not constitute an offense serious enough
to be termed a fly in the ointment. In 1785, Dr. Stiles speaks of the slave
trade as “a most iniquitous trade in the souls of men.” Much may happen
in a dozen years in changing one’s ideas of moral values. In another
generation the civilized world was agreed that the slave trade was piracy.
After that there were no fine Christian characters among the slave
traders.
There is evidence that at the present time there is an awakening of the
social conscience that threatens as great a revolution as that which came
with the abolition of the slave trade. Business methods which have been
looked upon as consistent with high moral character are being
condemned as “the sum of all villainies.” The condemnation is not yet
universal, and there are still those who are not conscious that anything
has happened. The Christian monopolist, ruthlessly crushing out his
competitors and using every trick known to the trade, has no more doubts
as to the rightfulness of his proceedings than had the good Newport
captain in regard to the slave trade.
It is a good time to have his obituary written. His contemporaries
appreciate his excellent private virtues, and have been long accustomed
to look leniently on his public wrong-doing. The new generation, having
agreed to call his methods robbery, may find the obituary eulogies
amusing.
 AN HOUR WITH OUR PREJUDICES

W E may compare the human mind to a city. It has its streets, its
places of business and amusement, its citizens of every degree.
When one person is introduced to another it is as if the warder drew back
the bolts, and the gates were thrown open. If he comes well
recommended he is given the freedom of the city. In the exercise of this
freedom, however, the stranger should show due caution.
There is usually a new quarter. Here the streets are well lighted and
policed, the crowds are cosmopolitan, and the tourist who wanders about
looking at the shop windows is sure of a civil reply to his questions. There
is no danger of highway robbers, though of course one may be taken in
by confidence men. But if he be of an inquiring mind and a lover of the
picturesque, he is not satisfied with this. After all, the new quarters are
very much alike, and one tires after a while of shop windows. The visitor
longs to explore the old town, with its winding ways, with its overhanging
houses, and its mild suggestions of decay.
But in the mental city the lover of the picturesque must remember that he
carries his life in his hands. It is not safe to say to a casual acquaintance,
“Now I have a fair idea of that part of your mind which is like that of any
other decently educated person. I have seen all the spick and span show
places, and admired all the modern improvements. Where are your ruins?
I should like to poke around a while in the more dilapidated section of
your intellect.”
Ah, but that is the Forbidden City. It is inhabited, not by orderly citizens,
under the rule of Right Reason, but by a lawless crowd known as the
Prejudices. They are of all sorts and conditions. Some are of aristocratic
lineage. They come from a long line of hereditary chiefs, who, as their
henchmen have deserted them, have recreated into their crumbling
strongholds. Some are bold, roistering blades who will not stand a
question; dangerous fellows, these, to meet in the dark! The majority,
perhaps, are harmless folk, against whom the worst that can be said is
that they have a knack of living without visible means of support.
A knowledge of human nature, as distinguished from a knowledge of
moral philosophy, is a perception of the important part played by
instinctive likes and dislikes, by perverse antipathies, by odd ends of
thought, by conclusions which have got hopelessly detached from their
premises—if they ever had any. The formal philosopher, judging others by
himself, works on the assumption that man is naturally a reasoning
animal, whereas experience teaches that the craving for the reasonable is
an acquired taste.
Of course we all have reasons for our opinions,—plenty of them! But in
the majority of cases they stand not as antecedents, but as consequents.
There is a reversal of the rational order like that involved in Dr. Hale’s
pleasant conceit of the young people who adopted a grandmother. In
spite of what intellectual persons say, I do not see how we can get along
without prejudices. A prejudice is defined as “an opinion or decision
formed without due examination of the facts or arguments which are
necessary to a just and impartial determination.” Now, it takes a good deal
of time to make a due examination of facts and arguments, even in regard
to a small matter. In the meantime our minds would be sadly unfurnished.
If we are to make a fair show in the world, we must get our mental
furniture when we set up housekeeping, and pay for it on the installment
plan.
Instead of taking a pharisaic attitude toward our neighbor’s prejudices, it
is better to cultivate a wise tolerance, knowing that human intercourse is
dependent on the art of making allowances. This is consistent with perfect
honesty. There is always something to admire if the critic is sufficiently
discriminating. When you are shown a bit of picturesque dilapidation, it is
quite possible to enjoy it. Said the Hebrew sage, “I went by the field of the
slothful, and by the vineyard of the man void of understanding; and, lo, it
was all grown over with thorns, and nettles had covered the face thereof,
and the stone wall thereof was broken down. Then I saw, and considered
it well: I looked upon it, and received instruction.”
His point of view was that of a moralist. Had he also been a bit of an
artist, the sight of the old wall with its tangle of flowering briers would have
had still further interest.
When one’s intellectually slothful neighbor points with pride to portions of
his untilled fields, we must not be too hard upon him. We also have
patches of our own that are more picturesque than useful. Even if we
ourselves are diligent husbandmen, making ceaseless war on weeds and
vermin, there are times of relenting. Have you never felt a tenderness
when the ploughshare of criticism turned up a prejudice of your own? You
had no heart to harm the

Wee sleekit, cow’rin’, tim’rous beastie.

It could not give a good account of itself. It had been so long snugly
ensconced that it blinked helplessly in the garish light. Its

wee-bit housie, too, in ruin!

Its silly wa’s the win’s are strewin’!
And naething now to big a new ane.

You would have been very angry if any one had trampled upon it.
This is the peculiarity about a prejudice. It is very appealing to the person
who holds it. A man is seldom offended by an attack on his reasoned
judgments. They are supported by evidence and can shift for themselves.
Not so with a prejudice. It belongs not to the universal order; it is his very
own. All the chivalry of his nature is enlisted in its behalf. He is, perhaps,
its only defense against the facts of an unfriendly world.
We cannot get along without making allowances for these idiosyncrasies
of judgment. Conversation is impossible where each person insists on
going back, all the time, to first principles, and testing everything by an
absolute standard. With a person who is incapable of changing his point
of view we cannot converse; we can only listen and protest. We are in the
position of one who, conscious of the justice of his cause, attempts to
carry on a discussion over the telephone with “Central.” He only hears an
inhuman buzzing sound indicating that the line is busy. There is nothing to
do but to “hang up the ’phone.”
When a disputed question is introduced, one may determine the true
conversationalist by applying the method of Solomon. Let it be proposed
to divide the subject so that each may have his own. Your eager disputant
will be satisfied, your genial talker is aghast at the proposition, for he
realizes that it would kill the conversation. Instead of holding his own, he
awaits developments. He is in a mood which can be satisfied with
something less than a final judgment. It is not necessary that his friend’s
opinions should be just; it is sufficient that they are characteristic.
Whatever turn the talk may take, he preserves an easy temper. He is a
heresy-hunter,—not of the grim kind that goes hunting with a gun; he
carries only a camera. If he stirs up a strange doctrine he does not care to
destroy it. When he gets a snap-shot at human nature he says,—

Those things do best please me

That befall preposterously.

An English gentleman relates a conversation he had with Prince

Bismarck. The prince was inclined to take a pessimistic view of the
English people. He thought that there was a degeneration in the race,
which he attributed to the growing habit of drinking water. “Not that he
believed that there was any particular virtue per se inherent in alcoholic
drink; but he was sorry to hear that the old ‘three bottle men’ were dying
out and leaving no successors. He had a suspicion that it meant
shrinkage in those qualities of the English which had made them what
they were in the past, and for which he had always felt a sincere
admiration.”
It would have been very easy to drift into debate over this proposition. The
English gentleman, however, defended his countrymen more
diplomatically. “I replied that with regard to the water-drinking proclivities
of my countrymen there was a good deal of calumny connected with the
story. It is true that a certain section of English society has indeed taken to
water as a beverage. But to argue therefrom that the English people have
become addicted to water would be to draw premature conclusions from
insufficient data. In this way I was able to calm Prince Bismarck’s fears in
regard to what the future might bring forth, and our conversation reverted
to Royalty.”
Each nation has its own set of preconceptions. We must take them
altogether, or not at all. They are as compact and as natural a growth as
the concentric layers of an onion. Here is a sentence from Max Müller’s
“Autobiography,” thrown out quite incidentally. He has been telling how
strange it seemed, when first coming to Oxford, to find that the students
got along without dueling. Fighting with swords seemed to him the normal
method of developing manliness, though he adds that in the German
universities “pistol duels are generally preferred by theological students,
because they cannot easily get a living if the face is scarred all over.”
This remark must be taken as one would take a slice of the national
onion. One assumption fits into another. To an Englishman or an
American there is an incongruity that approaches the grotesque,—
because our prejudices are different. It all becomes a matter-of-fact
statement when we make the proper assumptions in regard to dueling in
general and theological duels in particular. Assuming that it is necessary
for theological students to fight duels, and that the congregations are
prejudiced against ministers whose faces have been slashed by swords,
what is left for the poor theologues but pistols? Their method may seem
more dangerous than that adopted by laymen, but Max Müller explains
that the danger is chiefly to the seconds.
Individual peculiarities must be taken into account in the same way.
Prince Bismarck, in dining with the Emperor, inquired the name of the
brand of champagne, which proved to be a cheap German article. “The
Emperor explained, ‘I drink it from motives of economy, as I have a large
family; then again I drink it from patriotic motives.’ Thereupon I said to the
Emperor, ‘With me, your Majesty, patriotism stops short in the region of
my stomach.’”
It is evident that here was a difference not to be arbitrated by reason. If
the Emperor could not understand the gastronomic limitations to the
Chancellor’s patriotism, neither could the Chancellor enter into the
Emperor’s anxieties, as he economized for the sake of his large family.
One cannot but wonder at the temerity of a person who plunges into
conversation with a stranger without any preliminary scouting or making
sure of a line of retreat. Ordinary prudence would suggest that the first
advances should be only in the nature of a reconnoissance in force. You
may have very decided prejudices of your own, but it is not certain that
they will fraternize with those of your new acquaintance. There is danger
of falling into an ambush. There are painful occasions when we remember
the wisdom of the Son of Sirach: “Many have fallen by the edge of the
sword, but not so many as have fallen by the tongue.” The mischief of it is
that the most kindly intent will not save us. The path of the lover of
mankind is beset by difficulties for which he is not prepared. There are so
many antagonisms that are unpredictable.
When Nehemiah came to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem he remarked
grimly, “When Sanballat the Horonite, and Tobiah the servant, the
Ammonite, heard of it, it grieved them exceedingly that there was come a
man to seek the welfare of the children of Israel;” and the trouble was that
a large number of the children of Israel themselves seem to have
resented the interference with their habitual misfortunes. The experience
of Nehemiah is that of most reformers. One would suppose that the
person who aims at the greatest good for the greatest number would be
greeted with instant applause. The difficulty is that the greatest good is
just what the greatest number will not tolerate. One does not need to
believe in human depravity to recognize the prejudice which most persons
have against anything which is proposed as good for them. The most
successful philanthropists are those who most skillfully conceal their
benevolent intent.
In Coleman’s “Life of Charles Reade” there is a paragraph which gives us
a glimpse of a prejudice that has resisted the efforts of the most learned
men to eradicate it. An incident is there recorded that took place when
Reade was a fellow in Magdalen College. “Just as I was about to
terminate my term of office (I hope with credit to myself and the ’Varsity),
an untoward incident occurred which embittered my relations for life with
two very distinguished men. Professor Goldwin Smith and his friend John
Conington, who belonged to us, had attempted to inaugurate a debating
society. A handful of unmannerly young cubs, resenting the attempt to
teach them political economy, ducked poor Conington under the college
pump.”
“Resenting the attempt to teach them political economy!”—What is the
source of that resentment? What psychologist has fathomed the abyss of
the dark prejudice which the natural man has against those who would
improve his mind? It is a feud which reaches back into hoar antiquity.
Doubtless the accumulated grievances of generations of schoolboys have
intensified the feud, but no amelioration of educational methods has put
an end to it. In the most successful teacher you may detect a nervous
strain like that which the trainer of wild beasts in the arena undergoes. His
is a perilous position, and every faculty must be on the alert to hold the
momentary ascendency. A single false motion, and the unmannerly young
cubs would be upon their victim.
Must we not confess that this irrational resentment against our intellectual
benefactors survives, in spite of all discipline, into mature life? We may
enlarge the area of our teachableness, but there are certain subjects in
regard to which we do not care to be set right. The polite conventionality
according to which a person is supposed to know his own business is an
evidence of this sensitiveness. Of course the assumption is not justified
by facts. A man’s own business is just the thing he is conscious of not
knowing, and he would give anything in a quiet way to find out. Yet when
a candid friend ventures to instruct him, the old irrational resentment
flashes out. What we call tact is the ability to find before it is too late what
it is that our friends do not desire to learn from us. It is the art of
withholding, on proper occasions, information which we are quite sure
would be good for them.
The prejudice against our intellectual superiors, which leads us to take
their well-meant endeavors in our behalf as of the nature of personal
insults, is matched by the equally irrational repulsion which many superior
people have for their inferiors. Nothing can be more illogical than the
attitude of these gifted ones who use their gifts as bludgeons with which
to belabor the rest of us. When we read the writings of men who have a
stimulating sense of their own genius, we are struck by their nervous
irritability whenever they mention “mediocrity.” The greater number of the
quarrels of the authors, which the elder Disraeli chronicled, arose from the
fact that the authors had the habit of accusing one another of this vice.
One would suppose mediocrity to be the sum of all villainies, and that the
mediocre man was continually plotting in the night watches against the
innocent man of genius; and yet what has the mediocre man done to
deserve this detestation? Poor fellow, he has no malice in him! His
mediocrity is only an afterthought. He has done his level best; his
misfortune is that several million of his fellowmen have done as well.
The superior man, especially if his eminence be accidental, is likely to get
a false notion of those who stand on the level below him. The biographer
of an English dignitary says that the subject of his memoir was not really
haughty, but “he was apt to be prejudiced against any one who seemed to
be afraid of him.” This is a not uncommon kind of prejudice; and in nine
cases out of ten it is unfounded. The great man should remember that
most of those whose manners seem unduly respectful mean nothing
personal.
As great Pompey passes through the streets of Rome, he may be
pardoned for thinking meanly of the people. They appear to be a
subservient lot, with no proper interests of their own, their happiness
dependent on his passing smile,—and he knows how little that is worth.
He sees them at a disadvantage. Let him leave his triumphal chariot, and,
in the guise of Third Citizen, fall into friendly chat with First Citizen and
Second Citizen, and his prejudices will be corrected. He will find that
these worthy men have a much more independent and self-respecting
point of view than he had thought possible. They are out for a holiday;