Name: Abhiyam Maurya

ID: MACLFS27_22

1.2.5 – FORENSIC CHEMICAL & GENERAL SCIENCE

EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES

An explosive substance is a solid or liquid substance (or mixture of substances) which is in itself capable
by chemical reaction of producing gas at such a temperature and pressure and at such a speed as to cause
damage to the surroundings. Pyrotechnic substances are included even when they do not evolve gases. A
pyrotechnic substance is a substance or mixture of substances designed to produce an effect by heat, light,
sound, gas or smoke or a combination of these as the result of non-detonative self-sustaining exothermic
chemical reactions. An explosive article is an article containing one or more explosive substances. A
pyrotechnic article is an article containing one or more pyrotechnic substances. Explosives are violent,
sudden. Its extremely dangerous to use because it is easily ignited by any spark.

Development of Explosive Substances over time

 In 1846 nitroglycerin was used as explosive material.

 Chlorate and perchlortaes
 Sprengel explosives oxygen explosives
 Liquid oxygen explosives (LOX)
 Nitrostarch nitamon
 Nitramex

The Explosive Acts in India

The production and use of explosives is regulated in India by two Explosive Acts: the Indian
Explosives Act 1884, and the Explosive Substances Act 1908, which regulate the manufacture,
possession, use, transport, import, sale, etc. of explosives. The definition of an explosive in the
Explosives Act, 1884 includes several explosives, and other substances such as fire works, which are
manufactured with a view to produce a practical effect by explosion. The Explosive substances Act,
1908 does not define an explosive substance as such but brings within the purview of the term
“explosive substances” materials other than conventional explosives, i.e., a machine, a grinder, a
 pestle or a mortar or any other substance used in connection with the manufacture of such an
explosives.
All explosive compounds cab be considered to be composed of two essential components ; namely

a) Fuel
b) Oxidizer
These two react together very rapidly liberating large amounts of energy. Majority of the
explosives generally contain C,H, O and N. Carbon and hydrogen provide the fuel for the oxygen
in the oxidizer.

Classification of Explosives:

Explosives can be classified in two;

a) Low Explosives
b) High Explosives

LOW EXPLOSIVES:

Low explosives decompose relatively slowly at rates that vary up to 1500 meters per second. Because of
their slow burning rates, they produce a propelling or throwing action that make them suitable as
propellants for ammunition or skyrockets. However they can result in violent explosions. If they are
confined to a relatively small container and initiated. As most of these chemicals are otherwise useful in
the manufacturing of household articles such as matchsticks, fireworks, fertilizers, etc., those with
malicious intentions can have access to these substances. This is the main reason for several instances of
explosions caused by these materials. Examples are Gunpowder, Smokeless powder, Potassium or
Sodium chlorate and sulphur mixtures.

HIGH EXPLOSIVES:

The sensitivity of these explosives is the basis of classifying high explosives into 2 groups called
initiating or primary high explosives and non-initiating or secondary high explosives.

Initiating or primary high explosives are ultra-sensitive to heat, shock or friction, and under normal
conditions will detonate violently instead of burning. For this reason they are used to detonate other
explosives, which causes chain reaction and are referred to as primers. They form ingredients of the
blasting cap. Examples are Lead azide, Lead styphnate, and Mercury fulminate.

IMPROVISED EXPLOSIVE DEVICE

They are often described as IED’s, a home- made explosive device. IED’s may be created using various
household chemicals or military components in the right combustible combinations.

The Definition originated from UK armed forces “ An explosive device, constructed using non-
commercial methods , usually in a domestic setting; or a device using ammunition that has been modified
to allow it to be initiated in a non- standard way and for a purpose not envisaged by the original
equipment manufacturer (OEM)”

The IED are may be created using various household chemicals or military components in the right
combustible combinations.

IED’s HOW MADE:

IED are made in following ways and with below mentioned components:

a) Power Sources:
The majority of IED contains an electric initiator and hence requires an electric power source.
Batteries are a common power source.
b) Initiators :
Improvised initiators casing low or highly sensitive high explosives can be easily made. A
modified flash blub, a percussion primer are examples of improvised initiators.
c) Detonators:
Ordinary detonators, Electric detonators are the two types which are beeing used. These are
metallic capsules of aluminum. Copper or brass filled with a small quantity of initiating explosive
such as mercury fulminate or lead azide and styphnate with or without other explosives. A
detonator which can be electrically operated is known as an electric detonator. It has two
insulated wires that carry electric current to the fuse fixed inside the detonator. These detonators
are electrically initiated whereas ordinary detonators use safety fuses.
 There are also special electric detonators known as delay detonators with much longer shells and
a mark at the bottom of the shell indicating the delay number. Delay detonators have also a tag
indicating the number and the type of delay.

d) Switches:
Arming switches and fusion switches are used as to make IED. The arming switch is a safety for
IED and works by disarming the fusing switch. When the arming switch is armed , the fusing
switch becomes functional , however the circuit is still closed. When the fusing switch is
activated , the circuit becomes open and will connect battery power to the initiator (blasting cap)
and thus detonation occurs.
e) Timer:
The timer delay mechanism is the simplest slow burning fuse. The most common and effective
method of delayed detonation in terrorist activities is use of mechanical watches and
wristwatches. A time delay IED mechanism or switch may be professionally manufactured either
separately or as part of the device, or it may be improvised from an ordinary household timer
such as a wind-up alarm clock, wristwatch, digital kitchen timer, or a cell phone. The most
common type of time initiated IED is the indiscriminate vehicle-borne IED (VBIED) which is
designed to cause mass casualties. Time IED attacks against commercial or government premises
may be conducted with hand delivered IEDs.

2. Definition of a poison

A poison is a substance capable of producing adverse effects on an individual under appropriate

conditions. The term “substance” is almost always synonymous with “chemical” and includes drugs,
vitamins, pesticides, pollutants, and proteins. Even radiation is a toxic substance. Though not usually
considered to be a “chemical,” most radiations are generated from radioisotopes, which are chemicals.
The term “adverse effects” above refers to the injury, such as structural damage to tissues. “Appropriate
conditions” refers to the dosage of the substance that is sufficient to cause these adverse effects. The dose
concept is important because according to it even a substance as innocuous water is poisonous if too
much is ingested. Whether a drug acts as a therapy or as a poison depends on the dose.
Toxicology is the science that embodies the embodies the knowledge of the sources, characters and
properties of poisons, the symptoms they produce , the nature of their fatal effects , the remedial measures
that should be taken to combat their actions or effects.

Poison Can be classified as:

1. Noxious Gases
2. Volatile Inorganic
3. Non Volatile Inorganic ; a) Anions b) cations
4. Non Volatile Organic Neutral Compound
5. Non Volatile Organic Acidic Compounds
6. Non Volatile Organic Alkaline Compounds
7. Miscellaneous Poisons

GASEOUS AND Volatile Poisons

Gaseous poisons are present in industrial environment.

CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)

Silence isn’t always golden, especially when it comes to carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning. CO is an
odorless, colorless gas and available in illuminating gas, automobile exhaust fumes, fire combustion
smoke, furnace gas, heavy auto traffic garages and refineries. It can cause sudden illness and death.
Carbon monoxide has an affinity for combining with haemoglobin more than 200 times greater than
oxygen. This causes sinister toxicity by preventing normal transportation and supply of oxygen to cells.
CO prevents the body from getting oxygen. Symptoms may include headaches, dizziness, nausea,
weakness, loss of muscle control, shortness of breath, chest tightness, visual changes, sleepiness,
fluttering of the heart, redness of the skin, or confusion. There also may be mild behavioral effects such as
slowed reaction time or altered driving skills. At high levels or during continued exposure, CO can cause
suffocation, resulting in loss of consciousness, brain damage, or death.

CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide is a physiologically important gas, produced by the body as a result of cellular
metabolism. It is widely used in the food industry in the carbonation of beverages, in fire extinguishers as
an 'inerting' agent and in the chemical industry. Its main mode of action is as an asphyxiant, although it
also exerts toxic effects at cellular level. At low concentrations, gaseous carbon dioxide appears to have
little toxicological effect. At higher concentrations it leads to an increased respiratory rate, tachycardia,
cardiac arrhythmias and impaired consciousness. Concentrations >10% may cause convulsions, coma and
death.

VOLATILE POISONS

TURPENTINE

This also one of vioaltile gas also known with names such as oils of turpentine, oil of pine. It is one of the
colourless oil with peculiar odour, though doesn’t mixes with water but mixes well with alcohol, ether
and chloroform. It enters into body through inhalation or skin. Death may occur with a few hours.

CYANIDE

It is one of the most dangerous poisons. A rapidly acting extreme and capable of causing death within
minutes .It has a bitter odour is not detected by anyone and seems to be genetically determined.
Hydrocyanic acid and the cyanides are true protoplasmic poisons, since they arrest the activity of all
forms of living matter by unhibitting tissue oxidation and suspending vital function. Hydrogen cyanide
vapours are the most rapidly acting, with symptoms occurring within seconds and death within minutes.
When cyanide salts are ingested, onset of toxicity is delayed somewhat due to slow absorption. The
severity of acute poisoning is determined by the dose and exposure time.

The smallest quantity about 50 mg is fatal provided it is of pure hydrochloride acid. The
minimum dose of pure potassium cyanide about 0.2 g to 0.5 g and of sodium cyanide is about 0.15g are
proved to be fatal within 5 to 10 minutes of use.
 3. CRIME

Definition of Crime:

There is no fixed and precise definition of crime. Definition of crime differs from nation to nation, what is
a crime in one nation might not be a crime in other. In legal terms crime means any act, which is
punishable as per the law of the country.

CRIME can be categorized into many categories

1. Organized crimes : Such type of crimes covers like trafficking of humans, could be for sexual
trade, organ trading, drug trading or poaching and hunting of animals.
2. White Collar Crimes: White-collar crimes are nonviolent offenses committed by business
professionals occupying high positions in organizations to gain financial benefits. The most
common white-collar crimes are embezzlement, fraud, and money laundering.
3. Crime Against Human Body and Property: Indian Penal code chapter XVI covers all crimes
against human body and property.
4. Inchoate Crimes: Inchoate crimes are offenses that are committed in furtherance of a crime. They
are also known as incomplete crimes because the criminal act is not completed. The most
common inchoate crimes are attempt, conspiracy, and solicitation.
Attempt is defined as the unlawful act of trying to commit a crime but failing to do so.
Conspiracy is the unlawful act of agreeing with another person to commit a crime. Solicitation is
the unlawful act of encouraging another person to commit a crime.
5. CYBER CRIMES :The cyber crime is one of the category of crime. Crime is as old as society.
Even in ancient times there were crimes prevalent and society had means to control, check and
maintain the mechanism of crime. Cyber crime on the other hand is new of its kind. Its origin is
as old as the origin of computers. This is a crime that involves computer and network. Any
criminal activity that uses a computer either as an instrumentality, target or a means for
perpetuating further crimes comes within the ambit of cyber crime. It can be better defined as an
unlawful acts wherein the computer is either a tool or target or both.

CYBER FORENSICS
Cyber forensics is the study and scientific examination and analysis of data created, stored, modified or
transmitted on computer storage media for the purpose of presentation in a court of law. It involves the
task of recovering data that the users might have deleted or hidden or even transmitted through suspected
media.

There are different branches of cyber forensics. They use different techniques to find the suspected
material. Some of the techniques that are used in different cyber forensics are as under:

1. MEMORY FORENSICS

Memory forensics is the art of analyzing a computer’s memory dump for the purpose of investigating
an incident or collecting evidence. This can be useful for a variety of purposes, such as determining the
root cause of a system crash, identifying malware infections, or recovering lost or deleted data. There
are two types of memory volatile and Non Volatile. Volatile memory is computer storage that only
maintains its data while non volatile has the capacity to hold saved data even if power is turned of. Eg.
Floppy disks, hard disks. The process of conducting memory forensics typically involves the following
steps:

 Acquire the memory dump: This involves creating a copy of the computer’s memory and storing it in
a file for analysis. This can be done using specialized software such as a memory dumper like Avml
for Linux or WinPMem for Windows.

 Analyze the memory dump: This involves using a memory forensics tool to extract and analyze the
information contained in the memory dump. This can be a time-consuming and complex process,
requiring a deep understanding of the operating system and computer architecture.

 Report the findings: This involves documenting the results of the analysis and presenting them in a
clear and concise manner.

2. MOBILE PHONE FORENSICS: A branch of digital forensics that helps to recover digital
evidences of investigative interest. The tools of extraction are, a) manual extraction Information
is extracted by touching mobile touch screen or keypad and the information so discovered is
photographically documented .b) Logical extraction By using bluetooth, USB cable. Both active
and deleted data can be recovered. This technique is more effective than manual extraction. c)
 Physical Extraction: In this method bit by bit copy of an entire physical store or internal memory
of the device is created and then analyzed. The two steps involved are Imaging process and Data
Extraction. Chip off and Micro Read are other two methods by which mobile forensics are
applied.
3. NETWORK FORENSIC: Network forensics can be described as capture, recording and analysis
of network packets in order to determine the source of network security attacks. The goals of
network forensics are as follows: (i) collect digital evidences in the form of network packets, (ii)
Analyze network traffic data with respect to the content as well the forms of data or information
being exchanged-PCAP analysis. (iii) Analyze network traffic data and identify signs of possible
network attacks, (iv) development of Intrusion Detection and Intrusion Prevention Systems.
4. EMAIL FORENSICS: Email is one of the most popular source of communication. They are
excellent source of evidence in number of crimes like defamation, phishing, email spoofing,
obscene emails. They are used as corroborative evidence in civil and criminal cases. Header
analysis, Server Investigation and Network Device Investigation are few techniques in email
forensics.
5. WEB FORENSICS: This type of forensics refers to analysis of websites and web pages or
URLs. Web forensics are used in cases of child pornography and cases involving website
defacement. Web forensics may involve examination of network devices like routers, firewalls
etc. in case of website defacement. One of the common tools being used in web forensics is FAW
(Forensic Acquisition of Websites)
6. CLOUD FORENSICS: Cloud Forensics is cross-discipline between Cloud computing and Digital
Forensics. It is an application within Digital Forensics which oversees the crime committed over
the cloud and investigates over it. Basic technique is similar to Network Forensics but there are
three main dimensions
a) Technical Dimension: This involves data collection , live forensics, evidence
b) Organizational Dimension: This dimension comes into being when two parties are
involved: the cloud consumer and the Cloud Service Provider.
c) Legal Dimension: This requires development of regulations and agreement to ensure that
the forensic activities do not breach laws and regulations in the jurisdictions where the
data resides.
Cloud forensics is a new branch of digital forensics and as Cloud computing is an
upcoming technology in its nascent stages. Recovery of deleted data from cloud is a grey
area in digital forensics. Ensuring the integrity of digital evidence and maintaining the
 Chain of Custody are other areas where the investigator ay face challenges in a cloud
environment.

4.POLYGRAPH /LIE DETECTOR TEST

Nemo tenetur seipsum provider”, no one is bound to accused against himself and thus the principle of
protection from self-incrimination was introduced. Article 20(3) of the Indian Constitution and section
161(2) of Code of Criminal Procedure given the protection to the accused person from self-incrimination.
The Polygraph Test doesn’t use any force. Article 20 (3) supports the principle of Presumption of
Innocence of the subjected person in any criminal case where the burden of proof lies on the prosecution.
Hence it could also be said that the use of the Lie Detector test would cause the Principle’s violation of
Self Incrimination guarded by Article 20(3).

FACTS ABOUT PLOYGRAPH TEST

A polygraph test is an examination that determines if a person is lying or telling the truth. More
specifically, it measures a person's physical response to questioning. The science of lie detection has its
roots in two sciences ; psychology and physiology. This is based on the principle of psychosomatic
interaction within an individual i.e. psychologically a change in the person’s consciously held feeling
produces a defense reaction in the form of physiological change in blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration
and electro-dermal responses, psychogalvanic skin reflex (skin resistance to electrical current) to frame an
opinion on is the person who is being tested is telling the truth or not. The biggest drawback of the test is
that the results are mere assumptions. Therefore, the result isn’t taken as evidence in most jurisdictions.
There is no Indian legislation which carries “Polygraph Test” and hence can’t be declared as valid. The
Polygraph machine presents time gauge and chosen psychological behaviour or electro psychological
behaviour.

When a person takes a polygraph test, four to six sensor are attached to him. A polygraph is a machine in
which the multiple ("poly") signals from the sensors are recorded on a single strip of moving paper
("graph"). The sensors usually record:

a) The person’s breathing rate.

b) The person’s pulse
c) The person’s blood pressure
 d) The person’s perspiration

Sometimes a polygraph will also record things like arm and leg movement.

When the polygraph test starts, the questioner asks three or four simple questions to establish the norms
for the person's signals. Then the real questions being tested by the polygraph are asked. Throughout
questioning, all of the person's signals are recorded on the moving paper.

Both during and after the test, a polygraph examiner can look at the graphs and can see whether the vital
signs changed significantly on any of the questions. In general, a significant change (such as a
faster heart rate, higher blood pressure, increased perspiration indicates that the person is lying.

When a well-trained examiner uses a polygraph, he or she can detect lying with high accuracy. However,
because the examiner's interpretation is subjective and because different people react differently to lying,
a polygraph test is not perfect and can be fooled.

SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF POLYGRAPH TEST

Indian Laws are pro accused. And no where it is written in law about this test but with modernization of
law and fields of law this is new outcome. This detector test is only used in Criminal investigation field of
law as a scientific aid.

STEPS INVOLVED IN POLYGRAH TEST EXAMINATION

The test is conducted in following phases:

1. Discussion with the investigating officer in detail and finalizing the issue for conducting the
polygraph examination. Subject to the information form is to be filled up by the investigating
officer.
2. Pre test interview: The pre test interview is an integral part of a polygraph test situation. It helps
to bring the subject into a proper psychological set, enables the expert to assess the holistic
personality of the subject and prepares him for the lie-detection test.

Stages of Polygraph Examination

There are three stages to polygraph test:

1. Pretest
 2. Chart Collection
3. Post-test
Pre Test
The most significant part of polygraph test is the pre-test. In most cases, the accused is anxious,
nervous, angry, suspicious and fearful. The aim of the pre-test is to cumulate enough information to
prepare the questions of the test.

When pre-test starts, the examiner tries to communicate with the examinee. In this part, the examiner
collects information. This information is related to past and present of the examinee. Because it is
necessary for the examiner to know the examinee and for the examinee to be tested justly. Besides, no test
is taken until a person is volunteer for the test. The volunteer should sign the forms of voluntary before
the per-test starts. If a person uses alcoholic drinks, drugs or special medicine, or is physically not ready
for testing, this person will be refused for testing.

On the other hand, the examinee should know the concept of polygraph test. Furthermore, the examinee
must have information about what he/she is going to experience and how physiological responses show
truth and lie. This will lead to have a better test experience. The examiner knows when psychological
changes occur and correspondingly the polygraph records those changes. This section is an interview
process and it’s not like an interrogation.

Chart Collection

The real polygraph examination is Chart Collection. In this section, the administer asks all the questions
at least two times. Usually, there are three charts which derived from the answering of questions. Also,
Stimulation test is used for observing examinee’s answerability.

Post Test

After completing the exam, the examinee may leave or wait for the results of the test. Actually, in Post-
test, the examiner analyzes the test. Moreover, the examiner evaluates each question separately. Often, in
order to evaluate the test, the examiner applies a computer algorithm and a numerical scoring system.
Then, the examiner decided if the examinee was telling the truth or lie and even the test was result-less.

After the test is done the report is prepared by the expert in a prescribed format and is handed over to the
Investigating officer and then that report is used for next purpose in the court of law.
5.IMPORTANCE OF EXPERT TESTIMONY

WHAT IS AN EXPERT TESTIMONY?

Expert testimony plays important role in forensic science. They have no real meaning until testified in
court. Expert testimony is covered under Indian Evidence Act. Generally, when a person is summoned to
court for giving testimony as a witness, he is expected to state only facts and not to give any opinion. It is
the job of the court to form an opinion in the case. Moreover, if a person is asked to give his testimony
then it is expected that the person must be factually related to the case not merely a third party. But there
is an exception to this rule. The experts are considered as witnesses although they are not actually related
to the case. The court requires these experts to give an opinion regarding the case to help the court in
having a wider perspective to give justice. The rationale behind the same is that it is not practical to
expect the Judges to have adequate knowledge of medical issues. Forming an opinion, as to any matter of
inquiry is essentially under the domain of the court. On some occasions court may not be in a position to
form judgment without the aid of an expert. The forensic experts, who assist the court, examine a wide
variety of physical evidence associated with crime in their laboratories. Under such situations, the rule is
relaxed and the conclusions drawn from a set of facts by especially skilled persons, called experts, are
admitted as evidence under provision of Section 45 of the Indian Evidence Act. Required experiments are
conducted, observations are made, data are collected, conclusions are drawn, and report is prepared and
submitted to the court. The report is based on well-established scientific principles and techniques well
accepted by scientific community. Under section 293 CrPC, an expert opinion is admissible in the Court,
even without his personal attendance. The Court can, however, order the expert for personal attendance if
the Court deems it fit.

Forensic Expert’s Role

The essence of the forensic expert's role in the judicial process is to assist the trier of fact in understanding
complex scientific and technical issues. This explanation may include rendering an expert opinion. The
forensic expert's role may include being involved at various stages of a case, including:

 Assignment
 Investigation

 Preliminary report

 Formal discovery

 Final report

 Pretrial preparation

 Trial

 Post-Trial

EXPERT WITNESSES An expert plays an important role and he should be proficient in his field. The
qualifications, education, training and experience determine the same.

1. Qualifications: Whether the witness is skilled and qualified enough to testify is what court has
to observe. The judge may consider the expert’s education, work experience , license,
certification, prior expert opinion if any and membership of professional associations to help
decide whether the person giving evidence is qualified expert or not.
2. Qualities of an Effective Expert
The expert must:

 Be personable, genuine and natural.  Demonstrate effective teaching ability.  Be prepared,

competent & believable.  Be persuasive, not advocative, about factual accuracy.

3. Experience: Both qualitative and quantitative experience is must for an expert. The experts are
aware of the latest developments and contribute to progress. The believability and credibility of
an expert witness are tested in the courtroom and in other legal proceedings. Direct examination
and cross examination are a true test of an individual’s knowledge of the material presented.
4. Report: Report is issued in standard pattern. The report should be concise and intelligible to
prove the conclusions arrived at.
5. Court: The court is the ultimate authority to evaluate and utilize the expert evidence . The
scrutiny of expert evidence by the court is necessary in the dissemination of justice.
 Tips for Testifying in Court

Expert witnesses must convince the judge or jury that their testimony is sound and truthful. They
must be highly knowledgeable, organized, alert, unflappable and ethical:

 Knowledgeable — Show that you are up to date, have command of the subject matter in your
field, and are knowledgeable about the Federal Rules of Evidence and any state or jurisdictional
laws relevant to the case. Know how to use such things as demonstrative evidence (an item not
from the crime scene that is used to illustrate a point).
 Organized — Be able to easily reference and locate key pieces of evidence. Reports should
always be updated to include results of retesting, further testing of previous evidence or testing of
new evidence.
 Alert — Answer questions promptly and intelligently. How you respond could affect your
credibility. Recognize the unauthorized appearance of evidence denied through motion in limine
(a pretrial motion that bans evidence from trial for various prejudicial, irrelevancy or
constitutional reasons).
 Unflappable — Do not appear combative or annoyed during questioning, especially during cross-
examination (questioning by the opposing attorney).
 Ethical — Know the ethical standards of conduct. Do not be persuaded into presenting false
testimony. Display objectivity, not advocacy.

CASE LAWS BASED ON EXPERT OPINION

1. The Supreme Court in Goutam Kundu v. State of West Bengal AIR 2295, SCR(3)
SCC (Supreme Court Cases). laid down guidelines governing the power of courts to
order blood tests. The court held that: i) courts in India cannot order blood test as matter
of course; ii) wherever applications are made for such prayers in order to have roving
inquiry, the prayer for blood test cannot be entertained. (iii) There must be a strong prima
facie case in that the husband must establish nonaccess in order to dispel the presumption
arising under section 112 of the Evidence Act. (iv) The court must carefully examine as
to what would be the consequence of ordering the blood test; whether it will have the
effect of branding a child as a bastard and the mother as an unchaste woman. (v) No one
can be compelled to give sample of blood for analysis.”
2. In the case of Rohit Shekhar v. Narayan Dutt Tiwari & Anr 12 SCC 554, SCC
(Supreme Court cases).wherein, the issue of paternity was concerned and the Delhi High Court
ordered the respondent to undergo a DNA test, as the petitioner was able to produce DNA
evidence which excluded the possibility that his legal father was his biological father and the
judgment of the High Court was upheld in the Apex Court. i. Now, if in case of any conflict
between evidence and the medical evidence, the court will have to go by the evidence which
inspires more confidence. In case of contradiction between medical evidence and ocular evidence,
medical evidence is not to be given primacy. ii. The evidence of an eye-witness not to be
discarded on strength of a medical opinion.