007E1130

I–V

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

B.A. English
First Semester

LITERARY FORMS
UNITS : I – V

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 B.A. ENGLISH
First Semester
LITERARY FORMS

Editorial Board

Chairman
Dr. N.Ramagopal
Dean
Faculty of Arts
Annamalai University

Members
Dr.R. Singaravel Dr. P.Vijayan
Director Director
Directorate of Distance Education Academic Affairs
Annamalai University Annamalai University
Internals
Dr. C. Santhosh Kumar Dr. J. Arul Anand
Professor and Head Professor & Coordinator
Department of English English Wing, D.D.E
Annamalai University Annamalai University

Dr. S. Florence Dr. R. Palanivel

Associate Professor Asst.Professor & Dy.Coordinator
Department of English English Wing, D.D.E
Annamalai University. Annamalai University

Externals
Dr. G. Rajasekaran Mr. R. Srinivasan
Professor & Wing Head (Rtd.) Assistant Professor
English Wing, DDE Department of English
Annamalai University Government Arts & Science College
C. Mutlur, Chidambaram
Lesson Writers
Dr. M. Kalaidasan Dr. K. Lawrence
Professor of English (Rtd.) Professor of English (Rtd.)
APSA College, Tiruppattur Department of English
Annamalai University

SLSM Prepared by
Dr. J. Arul Anand
Professor & Coordinator
English Wing, D.D.E
Annamalai University
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B.A. ENGLISH
First Semester
LITERARY FORMS

SYLLABUS

Unit –I
1. Nature and Elements of Literature
2. Nature and Elements of Poetry
3. The Classification of Poetry

Unit – II
1. Subjective Poetry
2. Objective Poetry
3. Dramatic Poetry

Unit – III
1. Origin and Development of Drama
2. Different Types of Drama
3. Divisions of a Dramatic Plot
4. The Drama and the Novel

Unit – IV
1. Elements of Fiction
2. Plot in the Novel
3. The Relation of Plot and Character
4. The Short Story

Unit – V
1. The Essay
2. Biography and Autobiography
3. Nature and Function of Literary Criticism
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B.A. ENGLISH
First Semester
LITERARY FORMS

CONTENTS

Unit Lesson Title Page

No No No
I 1.1 An Introduction to Literature 1
II 2.1 Poetry 21
III 3.1 Drama 45
4.1 Elements of Fiction 68
IV
4.2 The Short Story 77
5.1 The Essay 89
V 5.2 Biography and Autobiography 99
5.3 Nature and Function of Literary Criticism 113
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GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO LITERARY FORMS

The knowledge of the different forms of literature is essential to anyone willing

to undertake a fruitful journey into the world of literature. It is true that even a
layman can recognize a poem from other forms without much ado. But mere
recognition will yield nothing more than that. For a fruitful journey into the golden
realms, the student especially of literature, need to know something about the
forms.
It is with this intention of equipping our students with that knowledge that
this course on literary forms is designed. This course is divided into five units. The
first unit attempts to clarify certain basic points, on the nature of literature for the
benefit of students.
The second unit is devoted for the oldest form of literature – poetry. Besides
the regular classification of poetry, this unit offers sufficient insight into the nature
and the appreciation of poets and provides a detailed account of some select forms
of poetry.
Due attention is given to the study of Fiction and the Drama in third and
fourth units respectively. The fifth unit deals with the Essay, the Short Story and
Literary Criticism.
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UNIT – I
LESSON - 1
1.1. AN INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE
STRUCTURE
1.1.1 Objectives
1.1.2 Introduction
1.1.3 Content:
1.1.3.1 The Nature and Elements of Literature
1.1.3.2 The Nature and Elements of Poetry
1.1.3.3 The Classification of Poetry
1.1.4 Revision Points
1.1.5 Intext Questions
1.1.6 Summary
1.1.7 Terminal Exercise
1.1.8 Supplementary Materials
1.1.9 Assignments
1.1.10 Suggested Reading
1.1.11 Learning Activities
1.1.12 Key words
1.1.1 OBJECTIVES
The main aim of this unit is to familiarize students with the nature and the
various elements of literature. To stimulate their innate taste for the study of
literature is also its main concern. Poetry, drama, fiction are the major forms of
literature. This lesson aims to begin with the general ideas about Poetry, the oldest
form of literature.
1.1.2 INTRODUCTION
An Introduction to Literature and Literary Forms
Literature can be defined as an expression of human feelings, thoughts, and
ideas whose medium is language, oral and written. Literature is not only about
human ideas, thoughts, and feelings but also about experiences of the authors.
Literature can be medium for human to communicate what they feel, think,
experience to the readers. The nature of literature is quite an open one. It does
many things and accomplishes many purposes. One such end is that it helps to
articulate conditions within human beings that can find relation in the lives of
others. It seeks to relay such narratives so that bonds can be formed with
characters, predicaments, and ideas in the hopes of sensing more about our own
senses of self. Literature's nature can take on many forms in the accomplishment
of these purposes. Yet, the idea present is that within all literature there is some
level of articulation of a predicament that can be appreciated by many and help
more to understand more of themselves, their worlds and settings. Sometimes, the
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nature of literature can have a moral purpose, yet other times it might not.
However, its primary nature is to "simply connect" with others in its attempt to
detail more of ourselves and our world.
No doubt, literature is the expression of life. It is also the product of an
author’s personality. A careful observation of style of the author will inform the
reader of writer’s education, the influences that shaped him and mould his nature,
the makers of his personality, the books he lived with, the development of his
thoughts, his changing outlook upon the world and its problems, and, development
of his creative genius and art.
The quest to discover a definition for “literature” is a road that is much
travelled, though the point of arrival, if ever reached, is seldom satisfactory. Most
attempted definitions are broad and vague, and they inevitably change over time.
In fact, the only thing that is certain about defining literature is that the definition
will change. Concepts of what is literature change over time as well. What may be
considered ordinary and not worthy of comment in one time period may be
considered literary genius in another. Anyhow, Literature is a term used to describe
written or spoken material. Broadly speaking, "literature" is used to describe
anything from creative writing to more technical or scientific works, but the term is
most commonly used to refer to works of the creative imagination, including works
of poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction.
Literature represents a language of a people, culture and tradition. But,
literature is more important than just a historical or cultural artefact. Literature
introduces us to new worlds of experience. We learn about books and literature; we
enjoy the comedies and the tragedies of poems, stories, and plays; and we may even
grow and evolve through our literary journey with books. Ultimately, we may
discover meaning in literature by looking at what the author says and how he/she
says it. We may interpret the author's message. In academic circles, this decoding
of the text is often carried out through the use of literary theory, using a
mythological, sociological, psychological, historical, or other approach. Whatever
critical paradigm we use to discuss and analyze literature, there is still an artistic
quality to the works. Literature is important to us because it speaks to us, it is
universal, and it affects us. Even when it is ugly, literature is beautiful.
Literary form refers to the organization, arrangement, or framework of
a literary work; the manner or style of constructing, arranging, and coordinating
the parts of a composition for a pleasing or effective result. Every well-organized,
well-written work of literature has a form. The word form comes from the
Latin forma, meaning beauty. The ancients considered form to be beautiful in and
of itself; it imparted beauty to a work of art.
1.1.3 CONTENT:
1.1.3.1 The Nature and Elements of Literature
Literature is a progressive mark of Man’s civilization. It is an art that employs
the medium of language but it is not just to communicate meaning in order to
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advance knowledge. It most appropriately preserves the treasures of the mind and
soul. Yet the word literature commonly carries with it a clear suggestion of
delimitation. How is the boundary drawn between a book on cookery and Paradise
Lost or some other masterpiece? The border between the two is an area of
uncertainty. Charles Lamb, the Romantic prose writer, went to the extent of
excluding the works of Hume and Gibbon together with almanacs and directories.
On the other hand, Hallam included jurisprudence, theology and even medicine
under the general head of literature.
Literature is a work that is mainly based on two considerations. First of all
literature is comprised of those books by reason of their subject matter and mode of
treatment are of general human interest, and in the second place, the element of
form and the pleasure which that form gives are regarded as something essential.
Hence a piece of literature differs from a treatise on astronomy, philosophy etc.
These works appeal to particular sections of people in the society whereas literature
makes a universal appeal. Also, while the ideal of the books on different subjects is
to impart knowledge, the aim of literature is higher than this. It not only imparts.
Literature is of great value as an art. That is why, we do care for literature. It
has deep and lasting human significance. Impressions come to us from the outside
world through the windows of our senses. Man thinks, broods, from images and
forges the filiations between the outside world and inner world. His sensory
experience is heightened and he finds room for endless enrichment of experience
and extension of knowledge. Thus a great book of literature grows out of life. In
reading a book of this kind we are brought into fresh and close reactions with life.
Literature is a permanent record of what the author has seen and experienced in
life, what he has thought and felt about those experiences. It is this element that
gives it the most immediate and lasting interest for all of us. In short, literature is
an expression of life through the medium of language. It has no exclusion in respect
of origin, the time of composition or the language medium. It is a global heritage,
and every year adds to its opulence. The distinguishing character of literature in its
concerns with man’s inner life has passions of moral truth, a feeling for universe, a
grasp of solutions and an instinct for beautiful form.
Classification of literature is neither conventional nor arbitrary. The formal
divisions of literature could be translated into terms of life in order to understand
significantly the meaning they convey to us. Literature is the mirror of life and to
find out the sources of literature, we have to consider the impulses that go into the
making of various forms of literary expression. They are (i) our desire for self-
expression (ii) our interest in people and their doings (iii) our interest in the world of
reality in which we live, and in the world of imagination which we conjure into
existence, and (iv) our love of form as form. Above all, man has a strong impulse to
confide others what he thinks and hence literature directly expresses the thoughts
and feelings of the writer.
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Man is social animal so he can never keep himself his experiences, ideas,
observations, emotions and fancies. He is always under a stress to impart them to
others. The different forms of literature are only channel opened to him for the
discharge of this mixture of sociability. This impulse turns out as an imbued
expression with artistic creation. Also, these impulses explain not only the
evolution of the forms of literature, but our interest in these forms. We have a
natural imbued to listen with great interest what others have to say. We also
experience a delight in the artistic expression of the creative writer. Since the last of
the impulses is common to all, take into account the first three, which continually
merge into life. Since they merge into literature, the different forms are found to
overlap. We distinguish them on the basis of those impulses that predominate in
the essay or the novel or the drama. This distinction forms the basis of our
classification.
It is not enough if we consider these impulses that produce literature only. It is
equally important to consider the subjects they deal with. Since these subjects are
varied in nature, they do not fall into any systematic classification. Yet they are
arranged under five large groups as follows; (i) the personal experience of the
individual as individual, namely the outer and inner factors that contribute to the
sum total of one’s private life, (ii) the experiences of man as man, viz, the common
question of life and death, sin and destiny, god and man’s relation with him, the
hopes and aspirations of the human race, now and hereafter, (iii) the relationship of
the individual with his fellow or the social world, its activities and problems, (iv) the
external world, of nature and man’s relationship with it and (v) man’s own efforts to
create and express under various forms of literature and art. Looking literature
based on this classification, we can distinguish the art into five classes of
production, the literature of purely personal experiences, of the common life of
man; of the social world under all its different aspects, literature that treat of
nature, and lastly the literature which treats of literature and art.
These two ways of analysis in turn give a fairly comprehensive scheme of
classification. First of all, we have the literature of self-expression which includes
different kinds of lyric poetry, the poetry, the poetry of meditation and argument
and the elegy; the essay and treatise attempted from the personal point of view and
the literature of artistic literary criticism. Secondly we have the kind of literature in
which the writer goes out of himself into the world of external human life and
activity; it includes history and biography, the ballad and the epic, the romance in
verse and prose, the story in verse and prose, the novel and the drama. Thirdly we
have the description though not a very large or important division and mostly
subordinated to the interests of self expression or narrative, comprising of some
minor forms of literary art.
The various forms of literary expression fall into their places as natural results
of common human impulses working under the conditions of art. It follows the
great principle that a piece of literature appeals to us only when it recalls into
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activity the same powers of sympathy and imagination which went into its making
and this explains the interests these forms have for us.
In all these literary compositions, the presence of certain elements is noted
and these elements which are necessary for the creation of these compositions are
furnished by life itself. These elements constitute the raw material of any piece of
literature-poem, essay, drama and novel. Apart from these elements from outside,
there are certain elements contributed by the author himself in fashioning such
raw material into the concerned form of literary art.
These essential elements may be grouped under four divisions. First is the
intellectual element- the thought which the writer brings to bear upon his subject,
and which he expresses in his work. Secondly, there is the emotional element– the
feeling which the subject arouses in the author and which in turn the author tries
to stimulate in us. Thirdly, there is the element of Imagination, the faculty of strong
and intense vision by which he quickens a similar power of vision in ourselves.
These three elements combine to furnish the material for literature. The given
substance has to be properly moulded and fashioned in accordance with the
principles of order, symmetry, beauty and effectiveness. It requires a rhythm, a
grammatical structure, logical sequence, pattern of association and images. It
constitutes the fourth element, namely the technical elements or the element of
composition and style.
1.1.3.2 The Nature and Elements of Poetry
Poetry is a word of Greek origin. It comes from a verb with means “to make, to
create”. A poem is “something made or created”. The poet is the creator and
language is the material out of which he/she creates his/her work of art. The
precise origins of poetry are unknown. It is a very ancient art which was born as an
oral form and accompanied by simple music and dance. It expressed what people
regarded as meaningful and memorable in their lives: natural disaster, births and
deaths, brave actions, dangerous enemies, battles, etc. It was often part of religious
rites. Poets and listeners enjoyed playing with words, choosing and arranging them
to produce music and meaning.
Today poems exist in printed form, but the careful choice and arrangement of
words still account for the unique quality of poetry. Like other literary works poetry
is made up of words. But what is special about poetry? How is reading poetry
different from reading prose? A good start to answering the question is to consider
what poetry is concerned with: A poem is a self-contained text, which makes sense
as it stands. It differs from prose most obviously because it is written in lines whose
length is decided by the author, not the printer. How the poem looks on the page,
its visual lay-out, is as important as its sound quality. A poem makes intense use
of language, which results in a greater concentration of meaning than is commonly
found in prose.
Various critics and poets have tried to define poetry. Like literature, it is also
not that easy to come out with a satisfactory definition. In Johnson’s view, poetry is
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a metrical composition. In Coleridge’s view, poetry is the antithesis of science,

having for its immediate object pleasure, not truth. According to Mathew Arnold, it
is simply the most delightful utterance that human words can reach.
Critics and poets have defined poetry in different manner emphasizing certain
elements of poetry and no definition can be called foolproof. The essence of good
poetry is rhythmical language. Metres add to the beauty and rhythm of poetry.
Poetry is the criticism of life. It is imaginative and emotional, not rational. It is more
precise, compact and coherent than prose. The chief function of poetry is to give
pleasure.
The study of poetry takes into account the formal and other technical aspects
of poetry such as metre, rime, different forms of stanzas, and the poetic diction.
Metre refers to the ordered rhythm from regulated alternation of syllables. Rime is
regarded as an accessory to metrical composition. It adds to the beauty of poetry as
musical speech. It is the correspondence in sound between syllable and syllable. A
stanza is a group of lines forming within itself a unit of organization. Poetic diction
is inevitably figurative and allusive and the figures of speech and other subtle
suggestion that go into element of its texture are to be considered from the point of
view of their resources and aesthetic value.
Literature is an interpretation of life as life shapes itself in the mind of the
interpreter. The word poetical is used in current conversation to describe a person,
a look, a picture, an idea thrown out in talk. By poetical interpretation of life,
therefore, we mean a treatment of its facts, experiences, problems in which
emotional and imaginative elements predominate. It is one of the chief
characteristics of poetry, that whatever it touches in life, it relates to our feelings,
passions, while at the same time, by the exercise of imaginative power it both
transfigures existing realities and given to airy nothing, a local habitation and a
name. The full significance of poetry as an interpretation of life through imagination
and feeling will be made apparent when we come, presently, to deal with the
relations of poetry and science, and with the properties of poetic truth.
When we speak of imagination and feeling as predominating in poetry, we
mean to distinguish these as general and constant characteristic of the poetic
treatment of life. But we do not mean to say that their presence, even in the highest
degree, is itself sufficient to constitute because they may exist in what we should
agree to call poetic prose’s which is not least to be denominated prose because it
possesses these poetic attributes.
Poetry is a particular kind of art. It arises only when the poetic qualities of
imagination and feeling are embodied in a certain form of expression. That form is
regularly rhythmical language, or meter. Without this we may have the spirit of
poetry without its externals. With this we may have the externals of poetry without
its spirit.
The reason why verse is necessary to the form of poetry is that the perfection
of the poetical spirit demands it that circle of its enthusiasm, beauty, and power, is
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incomplete without it. The difference in question is not necessarily between a

‘poetical’ and a ‘prosaical’ subject, but between the forms in which, perhaps, the
same subject may be handled. So, poetry as regards its substance and spirit, is the
thesis of science, or matter of fact, as Wordsworth and Coleridge insisted, it is none
the less to be distinguished from prose, as regards its form, by the systematically
rhythmical character of its language.
Without discussing the abstract problem whether regularity of rhythm is
essential to a complete definition of poetry, and without considering whether we
may not have to recognize, here and there, exceptions to our rule, we may lay it
down as a principle that meter always has been and still is the most general and
constant feature of poetry on the side of form. This is which we have to accept as
the fundamental qualities of poetry conceived as a distinct kind of literary art.
Of the significance of rhythm in poetry much might be said, but the subject is
too large and too intricately entangled with questions of psychology to be dealt with
in detail. Even if the relation between rhythmical form and poetical substance and
feeling were only an accident one, the ordered measure of verse would still hold its
ground as an important accessory of poetry, because it adds greatly to the aesthetic
pleasure which is a chief function of poetry to afford.
Form as a part of the perfection of poetry in a much more important sense
than is implied if we rest in the assumption that it is nothing but a mere accessory.
It is rather the form which the poetic spirit seeks spontaneously to fashion for itself,
and as such, it ‘perfects’ poetry by providing it with its most natural and adequate
means of expression.
It was noted by Hegel that the use of verse in a given piece of literature serves
in itself to lift us into a world quite different from that of prose or everyday life. The
German philosopher was thinking only of the influence of verse upon the reader.
But that his remark has wider bearings is strikingly shown by the testimony
furnished by a great German poet to the effect produced upon the poet himself by
the substitution of the medium of verse for that of prose. Schiller writes to Goethe,
“Since I have begun to transform my prosaic language into a poetic rhythmical one,
I find myself under a totally different jurisdiction.” He helps us to realize the
intimacy of the connection between them by emphasizing the influence of poetic
form in stimulating the poetic spirit.
While verse is, of course, often used as a vehicle of purely prosaic thought, it
ought not to be so used. The offices of prose and verse are distinct, and their
distinction is not fortuitous nor arbitrary, but vital. Thus it is that in all true poetry
that union of substance and form, of which Schiller speaks, is so organic and
complete that it impresses with a conviction of its absolute inevitability.
Meter, like music, makes in itself a profound appeal to the feeling. It is a
powerful aid in emotionalisation of thought. It is no more an accessory or
conventional ornament of poetry, but a vital product of the poetic spirit.
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1.1.3.3 The Classification of Poetry

In subjective poetry, which is the poetry of introspection, the poet looks down
into his heart to write and even draws the outer world down into himself and steeps
it in its own emotions. This poetry is almost unlimited in range and variety, for it
may touch nearly all aspects of experience from those which are most narrowly
individual to those which involve the broadest interests of our common humanity.
The important divisions of subjective poetry are the ode, the elegy, the sonnet, and
the lyric.
Subjective Poetry
Ode
Ode is a lyric poem that addresses and often celebrates a person, place, thing,
or idea. Its stanza forms vary. The Greek or Pindaric ode was a public poem, usually
set to music that celebrated athletic victories. English odes were written in the
Pindaric tradition. Horatian odes were written in quatrains in a more philosophical,
contemplative manner. New English dictionary defines ‘Ode’ as “A rimed (rarely
unrimed) lyric, often in the form of an address, generally dignified or exalted in
subject, feeling, and style.” It may also be defined as “any strain of enthusiastic or
exalted lyric verse, directed to a fixed purpose, and dealing progressively with a
dignified theme”. From these two, it is understood that ode is not specifically
differentiated by any one constant feature; or combination of features, from other
kinds of lyric; the term is, in fact, an elastic and most ambiguous one. And there
has always been in consequence an extreme diversity of view among the critics as
to what poems shall and what shall not be included under it. It has often
something of the quality of a poetical oration.
It structure, it may be regular, like Spenser’s Epithalamion, Collin’s Ode to
Evening, Shelly’s West Wind and Keats Ode to a Nightingale and On a Grecian Urn or
irregular like Dryden’s Alexander’s Feast, and Wordsworth’s Ode on the Intimations
of Immortality. In some cases, a classic form is taken as a model: and we have
imitations, more or less close, of the ‘Horatian’ ode, so called, as in Johnson’s Ode
to Himself and Marvell’s Upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland. Choric odes of Pindar
have systematic disposition of parts like strophe, antistrophe and epode. Gray’s
Pindaric odes are probably the most successful examples in English of the latter
type.
Elegy
An elegy is a reflective poem that laments the loss of someone or something.
Of course, losing someone can refer not only to death but simply an absence. As a
result, elegies can be used to mourn the death of a person, the breakup with a
lover, or the end of an idealistic era. In Pastoral elegy, the poet imagines himself to
be a shepherd mourning the demise of another shepherd. The simplest form, an
elegy is a brief lyric of mourning, or direct utterance of personal bereavement and
sorrow (E.g. David’s Lament for Saul and Jonathan). It has grown into a memorial or
encomiastic poem, containing the poet’s tribute to some great men and often a
study of his life and character, with reminiscences and thoughts suggested by them
 9

(E.g. Spencer’s Astrophel and Arnold’s Rugby Chapel) often the philosophical and
speculative element becomes predominant in it. One particular type of elegy calls
for separate mention- the pastoral type, in which the poet expresses his sorrow
under the similitude of a shepherd mourning for a companion or through
conventional bucolic machinery. It is called pastoral elegy (E.g. Milton’s Lycidas
and Mathew Arnold’s Thyrsis).
Sonnet
Sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines, governed by certain prescribed rules in
general structure and in the disposition of rhymes. The name lyrical poetry is a
poetry composed to be sung to the accompaniment of lyre or harp and the essence
of lyric poetry is personality. Under the general head of subjective poetry, the
descriptive poem, the epistle and the satire could also be included. A sonnet has
come to be known generally as a poem containing fourteen lines of iambic
pentameter. Traditionally, sonnets have been classified into groups based on the
rhyme scheme. Italian form of sonnet is divided into major group of 8 lines (octave)
followed by a minor group of 6 lines (sestet), and in a common English form into 3
quatrains followed by a couplet. Sonnets also generally contain a volta, or turn of
thought.
Lyric
Lyric poems have a musical rhythm, and their topics often explore romantic
feelings or other strong emotions. A lyric poem can be identified by its musicality.
In ancient Greece and Rome, lyric poems were in fact sung to the strums of an
accompanying ‘lyre’.
Objective Poetry
In objective poetry the poet projects himself into the life without, and, seeking
there his motives and subjects, handles these with the least possible admixture of
his own individuality. Objective poetry includes the ballad, the epic, metrical
romance and dramatic poetry.
Ballad
The Ballad is a poem or song narrating a story in short stanzas. Traditional
ballads are typically of unknown authorship, having been passed on orally from
one generation to the next. An epic is a long poem, typically one derived from
ancient oral tradition, narrating the deeds and adventures of heroic or legendary
figures of the past history of a nation. Its action should be one, entire and great. Its
hero should be distinguished and of great national and cosmic importance. Ballad
is a form which appears to have arisen spontaneously in almost all literatures and
represents one of the earliest stages in the evolution of the poetic art. English
literature is particularly rich in ballads of the true traditional kind. Their themes
are commonly furnished by the more elementary aspect of life. Large space is given
to them to tales of adventure, fighting, and deeds of prowess and valour. In method
and style, they are characterised by straight forwardness and rapidity of narration,
and a certain child like naïveté; often crude, they are often, too astonishingly
 10

energetic. They seldom linger over description. Modern balled may be defined as a
literary development on the traditional form.
Epic
An epic is a long narrative poem in verse. It could be subdivided into primitive
epic and later epic, the former of these has been called ‘epic of growth.’ An epic may
be regarded as the final product of a long series of accretions and syntheses;
scattered ballads gradually clustering together about a common character into
balled-cycles and these at length being reduced approximate unity by the
intervention of conscious art.
Mock Epic is a kind of epic, in which the machinery and conventions of the
regular epic are employed in connection with trivial themes, and thus turned to the
purposes of parody or burlesque.
Metrical Romance
In the evolution of literature, this term has undergone considerable
enlargement of meaning, various different classes of composition have to be
included under it. First, there are, those poems which fall under the strictest
definition of romance, which originally signified as story told in one of the romance
languages, and dealing, as all such stories did, with chivalry, adventure and
enchantments and love. Then there are the English narratives of the same general
type, which as the word had already come to denote a certain kind of matter and
treatment, were called romances though not written in a romance tongue.
Dramatic Poetry
In all varieties of narrative poetry, the dramatic element commonly appears
more or less prominently in the shape of dialogue. Dramatic poetry may be
subdivided into several groups. The first species of dramatic poetry comprises the
Dramatic lyric. This is in spirit and method a subjective poem, but the subjective
element pertains, not to the poet himself but to some other person, into whose
moods and experiences he enters, and to whose thoughts and feelings he gives
vicarious expression.
The second type comprises of the Dramatic Story including the ballad, or the
short story in verse, like Tennyson’s First Quarrel and The Revenge and Arnold’s
Forsaken Merman and more extended narrative, like Browning’s A Forgiveness and
Rossetti’s A Last Confession.
The third type comprises the Dramatic Monologue or Soliloquy. It is often
difficult to distinguish this form dramatic lyric on the one hand, and on the other
hand, from the dramatic narrative. It is essentially study of character and hence
predominantly psychological and analytical. One problem involved in the study of
the dramatic monologue is too important to be passed over without a word. Though
its ideal aim is a faithful self portrayal, in practice, it is used as a medium of the
poet’s philosophy. The foregoing are the varieties of poetry which rests upon the
dramatic principle, though it does not employ the actual structure and machinery
of the regular stage.
 11

1.1.4 REVISION POINTS

1. Literature presents the treasures of the mind and the soul.
2. Unlike other books, literary works are of general human interest.
3. It grows out of life.
4. To teach and to delight are the dual functions of literature.
5. Classification of literature is neither conventional nor arbitrary.
6. Classification may fall under two schemes subjective and objective.
7. The four essential elements are: (1) Intellectual (2) Emotional (3) Imaginative
and, (4) Technical Elements.
8. It is difficult to define poetry. Different critics and poets have defined poetry
in different manner.
9. In Johnson’s view, poetry is a metrical composition. For Coleridge, it is an
anti-thesis of science.
10. Imagination and feeling are the predominant elements in poetry.
11. The perfection of the poetical spirit demands verse as the form of poetry.
12. Meter is always the most general and constant feature of poetry.
13. Rhythm adds greatly to the aesthetic pleasure which is a chief function of
poetry to afford.
14. Poetry can broadly be classified into two main divisions: subjective and
objective poetry.
15. The important divisions of subjective poetry are the ode, the elegy, the
sonnet, and the lyric.
16. Objective poetry includes the ballad, the epic, metrical romance and
dramatic poetry.
1.1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Define the term literature.
2. What are the essential elements that constitute literature?
3. Name the two functions of literature?
4. What is Arnold’s definition of literature?
5. What is poetry?
6. What are the classifications of poetry?
1.1.6 SUMMARY
Literature is a progressive mark of Man’s civilization. It preserves the treasures
of the mind and soul. Literature is the mirror of life and to find out the sources of
literature, we have to consider the impulses that go into the making of various
forms of literary expression. They are (i) our desire for self-expression (ii) our
interest in people and their doings (iii) our interest in the world of reality in which
we live, and in the world of imagination which we conjure into existence, and (iv)
our love of form as form. It is not enough if we consider these impulses that
produce literature only. It is equally important to consider the subjects they deal
with. We may arrange these subjects under five heads: i) the personal experience of
the individual as individual, (ii) the experiences of man as man, (iii) the relationship
of the individual with society, and (iv) man’s relationship with nature and (v) man’s
 12

quest for form. In all literary compositions, the presence of certain elements is
noted. These elements may be grouped under four divisions: (i) the intellectual
element, (ii) the emotional element, (iii) the element of Imagination, and (iv) the
technical elements.
Literature is basically an expression of life. It is like a mirror held by the writer
which necessarily reflects his own personality also. Systematic study of literature
involves chronological and comparative methods of studying writer’s works in their
order of production. This will help the readers to understand the mental, the
psychological and spiritual growth of the author.
Poetry is the oldest form of poetry. It is difficult to limit poetry to any
particular definition though writers and critics have tried to define poetry. Poetry is
both musical and metrical composition. It uses both aesthetic and rhythmic
qualities of language. Poetry can be considered to the aesthetic interpretation of life.
The two most predominant qualities of poetry are feelings and emotions and
imagination. Broadly speaking, poetry can be classified into two categories:
subjective and objective poetry. In subjective poetry, the poet expresses his own
feelings and thought and so the personal elements predominate. In objective
poetry, the poet goes out of himself and deals with the outside world. It is
impersonal in nature. The important divisions of subjective poetry are the ode, the
elegy, the sonnet, and the lyric. Objective poetry includes the ballad, the epic,
metrical romance and dramatic poetry.
1.1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What is literature?
2. What are the impulses behind the literature?
3. Consider poetry as a criticism of life?
4. Write a note on poetic diction.
5. Bring out the important characteristics of poetry.
1.1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1.1.8.1 The Study of Style as an Index of Personality
Literature is basically an expression of life and if it is so, the secret of its
interest lies in its essentially personal character. Mathew Arnold defines literature
as a criticism of life. But it may mean an interpretation of life as it shapes itself in
the mind f the writer. It is like a mirror held by the writer which necessarily reflects
his own personality also.
A masterpiece is the outcome of the writer’s brain and heart, who is an
individual. It is said that personal experience is the basic of all real literature. So a
great book owes its greatness to the greatness of the writer’s personality and his
genius is nothing but his originality of outlook upon the world, of insight and the
keenness of his vision. Milton defines a good book as “the precious life blood of a
master-spirit, embalmed and treasured up on purpose to a life beyond life”.
 13

In our study of literature, we go through a great book and then try to penetrate
deeply into its personal life. We carefully listen to the author’s voice and enter
sympathetically into his thought and feeling. We observe how this world of
experience impressed him and how it is interpreted through his personality.
Ultimately we see the man as he reveals himself through what had has written.
As students of literature, we must make a smooth and natural course from the
books to the authors. Then only we could realize the man’s genius in its wholeness
and variety. So we have to consider all his works in a totality in order to
understand the author’s perspective behind his writings. Such a study will help us
to observe the growth of his mind, changes of his temper and thought, the influence
of his experience upon him. All his works are to be taken as a corpus or an organic
whole.
Another method to studying literature is to approach the authors
chronologically, that is to study the writer’s works in the order of their production.
They emerge as a record of his inner life and craftsmanship; and we follow them in
the various phases of his experience, the stages of his growth in mind and spirit
and the changes undergone by his art in such a study, we continually compare and
contrast ourselves with the author. Then we step up to sharpen our impression of
his personality by comparing and contrasting him with others especially with his
contemporaries and with those who are in the same field dealing the same subjects.
For example a student of Shakespeare turns to his contemporaries like Marlowe,
Johnson, Beaumont and Fletcher and Webster and points out the features where
Shakespeare resembles them and where he differs from them. Thus he gains in his
realization of the essential qualities of Shakespeare’s genius and art. The same is
true with our study of any literary personality in his realization of the essential
qualities of Shakespeare’s genius and art. The same is true with our study of any
literary personality.
A judicious use of the author’s biography shall help us in the study of personal
life in literature. Once we become interest in the literature of the author, we are
tempted to learn more about the author himself. We become interested in knowing
his ambitions, struggles, successes and failures. Then we start to relate the works
of the author with his personal experiences. Also such biographies have their own
literary value and help us in enjoying the works of the authors. It is advisable to
read along with the works of an author to read his biography for enlightenment and
appreciation.
While the study of Dante will be incomplete without knowledge of his
biography, Johnson is skeptical about the relations between biography and
production. Hence there can be no hard and fast rule for the use of biography in
the study of literature.
It is necessary for the students of literature, Hudson insists, to cultivate a
spirit of sympathy with the writer. Literature contains the revelation of different
personalities, and we also have our own likes and dislikes to be reckoned with. We
 14

like some writers and with some others of feelings will be of positive repugnance.
Our spirit of sympathy with the man behind the masterpiece increases our
flexibility of mind, breath of outlook, catholicity of taste and judgment. Sometimes
we need patience to understand a writer whom we hate. We ought to overcome our
prejudices. Thus sympathy become a preliminary condition to realize the best in
literature and only through sympathy, we can get into touch with another living
soul.
Style or expression becomes of primary importance while we deal with
literature on the personal side. Literature consists of the esoteric element which is
meant for the specialist to deal with. Without going into the depth of these
elements, it is necessary for a student of literature to be familiar with the style of
every writer. Of course this style creates a broad interest in the reader who wishes
to see into the soul of author.
Sometimes when a specific passage is given to us without the indication of its
authorship, we try to guess the author through the writing. Most often it is not the
thought content that makes us to guess the authorship, but we feel that it is the
language of so and so. The individuality of the writer is expressed through the voice
of words, change of phrases, structure of sentences, their rhythm and cadence.
These aspects of his language distinguish him from other writers and the author
has taken great pain to express himself through this kind of style which becomes
his own.
But, the term style is used in broad sense. It is fundamentally a personal
quality. Pope has failed to recognize the organic character of style, since he calls it
“the dress of thought”. Carlyle rightly calls it as the skin of the writer. Yet there are
writers who consciously developed their own style through indication and the
strongest and most original men are frequently influences a lot by others. Their
style carries traces of such influences. Sincerity, according to Hudson, is the
foundation principle of all true style. One who has a thought of his own to express
will find an original way to express it, since an original thought will definitely find a
personal way to express itself. It would not allow the writer to shape it in the style
of some other writers. Imitation, on the other hand, will always reveal its sources
form where the writer has derived his inspiration. Even in imitating the works of
others, the author will show his originally at some point or others, because
whatever original at some point in the author, his inherent strength or his
weakness, will ultimately show through the imitation. George Puttenham, in his
work The Arte of English Poesie states, “For man is but his mind, and as his mind is
tempered and qualified, so are his speeches and language at large; and his inward
conceits be the metal of his mind, and his manner of utterance the very warp and
woof of his conceits”. Truth is so profound that “every spirit builds its own house”.
Newman in his book the Idea of a University says that literature is the
personal use or exercise of language. It is proved by the fact that every writer uses
it in a different way. Since a writer is a man of genius, he subjects language to his
 15

own purpose and moulds it according to his own peculiarities. Many ideas and
thoughts throng his mind and pass through him with the original impact of his
intellect a corresponding language, which ultimately becomes the faithful
expression of his personality. It acts on his inner world of thought as its very
shadow and so the style of that gifted mind can belong only to himself and none
else. As his thought and feeling are personal, language also becomes personal.
We can notice with interest an observation made by Newman. The difference
between an ordinary man and a man of genius is that the later could mould the
language according to his own peculiarities, to serve his purposes. Unlike the
common man who uses it as he finds the language. This point clearly shows that
the language undergoes a fresh impress in the hands of the writer and in turn
reflects his personality. Dr. Rutherford states that a writer uses the language
originally in proportion to his own originality of thought and purpose. It is true that
even though we know a language, it is sometimes difficult to enjoy perfectly some
great works in the language. This is so because the great writers put the common
language to an uncommon use which again reveals the relationship between their
personality and style.
A reader must recognize this individual quality in style and see what consists
of this individual quality. It helps us to see the connection between the character of
a writer’s genius and thought and the form of its expression. It also helps us to note
the intellectual, spiritual and artistic growth of the writer. All the factors, external
and internal have played a role in the development of the individual’s style and
these factors have no doubt contributed to the form and colour his style. All the
phases of his experience have registered themselves in it. It becomes an interesting
study to search for ourselves the changes undergone by the writer in his style, in
accordance to the changes that have come over his matter and thought. A
chronological study of Shakespeare’s style, during the twenty years of his dramatic
activity, is a notable illustration. Language to Shakespeare had been a dress upon
the thought in his early plays; in the middle plays there seems to be a perfect
balance and equality between the thought and its expression and in the latest plays
this balance is disturbed by the preponderance or excess of ideas over the means of
giving them utterance. Hence it is evident that matter and expression are longer
apart and style becomes a real index of the writer’s personality and it is a way in
which the writer expresses himself. Style is an organic part of the writer’s
personality and in turn becomes a part of his writings.
1.1.8.2 The Historical Study of Literature
We, the students of literature, make a smooth transition from books to their
authors. So also we can make a smooth transition from the individual writers to the
ages in which they lived and the geographical areas to which they belonged. A
historical study of literature involves in the history of the nation in which the
author lived.
 16

A greater writer is not an isolated face: he has his affiliations with the past as
well as the present. Through these affiliations, he leads us to his predecessors and
to his contemporaries. Ultimately, he makes us realize the presence of a national
literature as a developing organism having a continuous life of its own and at the
same time, evolving itself through its varying phases.
In our historical study of literature, we have to consider two factors: the
continuous life and the varying phases of that continuous life. A national literature
ordinarily means, a chronological account of writers in that language and the books
written by them, description of literary schools and traditions, critical analysis of
their merits and defects and fluctuation in fashions and tastes. Hence a national
literature is not a more miscellaneous collection of books written in that language
within a specified geographical location. It is a progressive revelation through the
ages of the nations mind and character.
An individual writer usually varies from the national type and this variation is
always an interesting aspect about that writer. No doubt his genius will partake of
the national characteristics and the spirit of the age. This spirit is a well defined
quality pervading the writings of all the authors of on age. For example, by the
Greek and Hebrew spirit, we mean the recognized substructure of racial character
common to all Greeks and Hebrews. In this sense alone, we talk of the Hebrew or
Hellenic views of life and compare and contrast these characteristics.
It is through the literature of a particular language that we come to know the
people, their strength and limitations and their contribution to the permanent
intellectual and spiritual possessions of the world. We travel like Ulysses to see
other nations at home. The study on literature in other languages is also a kind of
travel; it enables us to move freely among the mind of others race; it also gives us
the power to travel in time. Familiarity with other mind and other epochs is
possible only through our study of the literatures.
A nation’s literature unfolds that nation’s genius and character through one
form of expression. In fact, the literature of a nation becomes a supplement to its
history and a commentary upon it. While the history of nation deals with the
external aspects of the people’s civilization, that is, their outward manner of their
existence, there literature helps us to understand their mental and moral
characteristics and their achievement in the world of inner activity. We are also able
to follow the ebb and flow of the forces that fed their emotional energies and shaped
their intellectual and spiritual life.
The literature of an age is an expression of its characteristics spirit and ideals.
In spite of the difference between the writers, we are struck by certain common
qualities. Shelly calls it “a general resemblance under which their specific
distinctions are arranged”. Even though Shakespeare remains different form his
contemporary dramatists, all these Elizabethan playwrights shared some common
elementary characteristics that distinguish them as a group different from
 17

playwrights of other ages. Shakespeare is also a product and exponent of a

particular phase of civilization and culture.
In the same manner, if we analyze Pope and Tennyson we can point out the
glaring distinction between them as writers of different epochs. Their writings bear
the unmistakable impress of the impersonal forces which create a time spirit of the
ages of Anne and Victoria. For example “The Essay on Man” expresses the mood
and speculation of an epoch of facile and superficial optimism while “In Memoriam”
brings out the heart searching doubt and spiritual struggle of the Victorian era.
Also the deeper feeling of Tennyson for nature is one of the most marked
characteristics of the nineteenth century poetry, a product of the changing Time
spirit working uniformly in the mind of the writers and tending to bring them into a
substantial harmony with one another.
As there is a common racial character in the literary productions, there is also
a common time character in the literary productions of the people at any given
period. A nation's life has its moods of exultation and depression, epochs of strong
faith and atheism, dilution, unbelief and disregard for the sanctities of existence.
Only the manner of expression varies from writer to writer, but the dominant spirit
of the period will directly or indirectly reveal itself in his works. Renan’s words, “one
belongs to one’s century and race even when one reacts against one’s century and
race” are absolutely true.
More than the chronological divisions, we have in mind the differential
characteristics, namely, the distinctive qualities of theme, treatment, manner, spirit
and tone which mark the literature of a period, despite the individual differences.
The writers of an age stand apart as a group in contrast to the groups of other ages.
The study of literature of an epoch, hence, is done as a body of work expressing
common spirit under many diverse individual forms. It is done by looking at the
literature of the particular generation. We have to investigate the origin, growth and
decry of literary fashions and tastes, the formation of schools, the rise and fall of
critical standards and the ideals, the influence on a particular individual in
initiating fresh tendencies and giving a new direction to literatures and so on. Such
an investigation will account for the general coldness, an aridity of the literature of
Pope’s time and for the strong and often stormy passion that swept into the poetry
of the romantic age. The historian for literature may say that he has nothing to do
with all these problems; but business is to present the works as he finds them
within the field of literary activity. But the fact is that the domain of literature
cannot be isolated and in order to understand the literature and observe the life
which went into its creation.
Behind the literature of any period lie the combined forces-personal and
impersonal which made the life of that period. Literature is one of the many
channels in which the energy of an age discharges itself, particularly in its political
movements, religious thought, philosophical speculation and art, and then the
same energy overflows in other forms of expression. The study of English literature
 18

takes into account the history of English politics, society, manners and customs,
culture and learning, philosophy, and religion. These characteristics which make
up the sum total of the life of an epoch are not merely juxtaposed, but they are
interrelated and interdependent. Our aim is to correlate the literature of any age
with all the other important aspects of national activity of that period.
In analyzing these aspects, we must take into account the preceding is that
paved the way for the present period. The spirit and ideals of any nation are never
fixed, but they are always in a fluid form of transformation; the different and
conflicting tendencies are always to be found at work together. Hence we have to
follow the movements of literature in the connection with contemporaneous
movements and crosscurrents in other regions of life and thought. For example, the
Victorian England offers forces like the growth of democracy, humanitarianism, zeal
for reform, the progress of science, industrial revaluation and the struggle between
materials and idealism. Hence Victorian literature offers itself the varied product of
many different minds exhibiting fresh depths of interests and meaning of an
intense, complex and turbulent period of our history.
Hudson follows Taine’s formula, to some extent, in his attempt to interpret
literature. Taine’s formula is scientific since the interpretation is based on the race,
the milieu and the movement. By race, he means the hereditary temperament and
disposition of the people by milieu, their totality of their surroundings, their
climate, physical environment, political institutions, social conditions and the like
and by movement, the spirit of the period or the particular stage of national
development reached at any given time. But Taine’s formula fails, since he
conceives literature as a document in the history of a nation’s psychology,
subordinating the study of literature to the study of society. His approach to the
problem of their relationship forms a point of view and with a purpose is quite
different from our own.
To relate literature to the whole world of varied activity is not to destroy its
living interest, but to make it deeper and wider. No period of literary history is
wanting in life. Literature becomes a comprehensive record of the life of the
individual writer in his intricate relationship with the lives of men around him.
Much of the literature of the past appears dull and becomes vapid to us since
the thoughts, feelings, ideals and other aspects of a nation’s life change from time
to time. Only very great works in literature have escaped this tendency. In this
context, it becomes necessary to look at literature as a sociological study. Then
even the dullest book could bring back to life of the past age. The rich life blood of
humanity begins to flow through its long, dead pages. The form becomes interesting
and it starts to live again by virtue of the life that was once in it.
The comparative method of the study of literature becomes of great service in
the historical study of any literature. One, who passes from the literature of one
nation or epoch to another, is struck by the complete change in intellectual and
moral atmosphere especially to not carefully and to formulate the fundamental
 19

differences obscured by our paramount interest in individual authors. We could

note how the large, permanent themes love, hatred, jealousy, ambition, common
joys and sorrow, etc., are viewed by the different societies during different epochs
and how the writers have transformed them into works of art with marked changes
in temper, tone, emphasis and perspective. As an illustration, we can note the
changes in the plays from Shakespeare to the Restoration period.
Instead of confining our study to a single favourite author, we must consider
the origin or sources of his inspiration and measure, the range and significance of
this inspiration or influence. The genius, sometimes, is turned away from the
natural course of development through the influence of his age or genius in other
countries. English was influenced by France during the later 17th and early 18th
centuries and she was influenced by Germany during the second half of the 18th
century. In the latter case, the influence had been reciprocal. Even the English
Renaissance has its traces of the middle ages.
1.1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Literature as reflection of life.
2. The importance of style in the appreciation of literature.
3. Literature as a progressive mark of Man’s civilization.
4. The forms of Poetry
5. The importance of Style in literature.
1.1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Bangalore: Prism Books Pvt.
Ltd., 1993.
2. Beckson, Karl E and Ganz, Arthur F. A Reader’s Guide to Literary Terms, a
Dictionary. Chandigarh: Vishal Publishers, 1982.
3. Gupta A.N. and Gupta, Satish. A Dictionary of Literary Terms: Bareilly:
Prakash Book Dept. 1983.
4. Hudson, W.H. An Introduction of the Study of Literature. New Delhi: Atlantic
Publishers, 2006.
5. Iyengar, Srinivasa K.R. Introduction of the Study of English Literature.
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 2011.
6. Prasad, Birjagadish. A Background to the Study of English Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
7. Rees, R.J. English Literature: An Introduction to the study of Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
8. Upham, Alfred H. The Typical Forms of English Literature. New Delhi: AITBS
Publishers, 1999.
 20

1.1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Select any poem of your choice and rewrite it, changing the meaning but not
the structure.
2. Browse for the meaning and definition of the term literature.
3. Why do we study literature? Discuss with your friends about the need for
literature.
1.1.12 KEY WORDS
1. Genre: A category of artistic, musical, or literary composition characterized
by a particular style, form, or content.
2. Style: The mode of expressing thought in writing or speaking by selecting
and arranging words, considered with respect to clearness, effectiveness,
euphony, or the like, that is characteristic of a group, period, person,
personality etc.
3. Milieu: The physical or social setting in which people live or in which
something happens or develops.
4. Epoch: A particular period of time in history or a person's life.
5. Paradigm: A paradigm is a standard, perspective, or set of ideas.
A paradigm is a way of looking at something.
6. Subjective: Based on or influenced by personal feelings, tastes, or opinions.
7. Objective: Not influenced by personal feelings or opinions in considering and
representing facts.



 
 21

UNIT – II
2.1 POETRY
STRUCTURE
2.1.1 Objectives
2.1.2 Introduction
2.1.3 Content:
2.1.3.1 Ode, Elegy, Sonnet, and the Lyric.
2.1.3.2 Ballad, Epic, and Metrical Romances
2.1.3.3 The Dramatic Poetry
2.1.4 Revision Points
2.1.5 Intext Questions
2.1.6 Summary
2.1.7 Terminal Exercise
2.1.8 Supplementary Materials
2.1.9 Assignments
2.1.10 Suggested Reading
2.1.11 Learning Activities
2.1.12 Key words
2.1.1 OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to enable the students acquire an understanding of the
character of poetry as a genre of literature and to introduce them to the functions of
poetry in society. It also enables them to understand the elements, techniques/
devices, and forms of poetry.
2.1.2 INTRODUCTION
This lesson introduces students to the various forms of poetry. Poetry, as we
all know is the oldest form of literature. It may be considered to be as old as human
feelings and emotions, and as old as language itself. It is the form of literature that
uses the rhythmic as well as the aesthetic qualities of language. The recorded
origins of poetry can be traced back to even prehistoric times. This lesson on
poetry attempts to provide the basic knowledge required for the fresh students of
literature. Besides the basic forms of poetry, the lesson further endeavours to
familiarize students with the basic terminologies and practical elements of poetry
such as stanzas, couplets, quatrains, rhyme, rhythm, and metre.
2.1.3 CONTENT:
2.1.3.1 Ode
Definition
The word ‘ode’ in Greek means ‘song’. An ‘ode’ is a long lyric poem serious in
subject, dignified in style, elaborate in its stanzaic pattern expressing an exalted or
enthusiastic emotion. It was intended to be sung. It is often addressed to a person
or an abstraction.
Origin
The Greek poet, Pindar, was the originator of the ode. It was developed from
the choric song of the Greek drama and was brought to its perfection by Pindar in
 22

the sixth century B.C. His odes were a sort of choral songs, intended to be sung or
danced at a public occasion, such as the celebration of a victory in the Olympic
games.
Features
It is in the form of an address or invitation. It is exalted in subject-matter, and
elevated in tone and style. It is a serious and dignified composition.
It may be full of deep and sincere emotion, but its expression is expected to be
much more consciously elaborate, impressive and diffuse.
It is often addressed directly to the being or object it treats of. The opening
lines, sometimes, contain an apostrophe or appeal. Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind
begins, ‘O wild west wind’. Keats’s Ode on a Grecian Urn begins “Thou still
unravish’d bride of quietness’. Tennyson’s “To Virgil” begins “Roman Virgil, thou
that singest”, and so on.
Kinds of Odes
The Greek ode had two forms:
i) The Dorian or the Pindaric ode,
ii) The Lesbian or Horatian ode.
The Dorian Ode or the Pindaric Ode
The Dorian ode derives its name from the district and the dialect in which it
was born. It was choric and was sung to the accompaniment of a dance. Its
structure was borrowed from the movement of the dances. Pindar, the Greek poet
used it successfully and so it came to be known by his name as the Pindaric Ode.
The stanzas were arranged in groups of three viz; the strophe, anti-strophe and the
epode. The strophe was sung while the chorus or the dancers moved in one
direction from the right to the left. The anti-strophe was sung while the dancers
moved in another direction, i.e. from the left to the right. The epode was sung while
the dancers stood still. Examples are Thomas Gray’s Odes, The Progress of Poesy
and The Bard.
The Lesbian or Horatian Ode
The Lesbian ode was simpler in form than the Pindaric Ode. It was popularized
in Latin by two great Roman writers Horace and Catullus. The Horatian ode was
originally written on the matter, tone and form of the Roman Horace. In contrast to
the passion and visionary boldness of Pindaric Odes, Horatian odes are calm,
meditative and restrained. Examples are: Marvell’s Upon Cromwell’s Return from
Ireland and Keats’ ode To Autumn.
Subjects
Pindar’s odes were written to praise and glorify some one-in this instance, the
winners in Olympic Games. The earlier English Odes and many later ones were also
written to eulogise something: either a person (Dryden’s Anne Killigrew) or the arts
of music (Dryden’s Alexander’s Feast) or a time of day (Collin’s Ode to Evening) or
abstract concepts (Gray’s Hymn to Adversity and Wordsworth’s Ode to Duty).
Sometimes, it has for its theme, an important public action like a national jubilee
 23

(Marvell’s Upon Cromwell’s Return from Ireland) or the death of a distinguished

personage (Tennyson’s Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington). Romantic poets
perfected the personal ode of description and passionate meditation. This is
stimulated by an aspect of the outer scene and attempts to solve a private or a
general problem: (Wordsworth’s Intimations Ode and Coleridge’s Dejection: an Ode
and Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind).
The Ode in English Literature
Except for a few attempts in the Pindaric or the Horatian ode form, the English
Ode has pursued a course of its own as regards subject-matter, style treatment and
out-look, not strictly bound by classical traditions. It is either regular consisting of
a series of exactly similar stanzas, like the Odes of Shelley and Keats, or Irregular
when each stanza follows a different arrangement, as in Wordsworth’s Immortality
Ode and several of the odes of Tennyson and Robert Bridges.
2.1.3.2 The Elegy
Definition
An elegy means a poem of lament at the passing away of an individual or a
way of life. The former theme is illustrated in Tennyson’s In Memoriam on the death
of Arthur Hallam and in W.H. Auden’s In Memory of W.B. Yeats. The latter theme is
illustrated in Gray’s Elegy written in the Country Churchyard.
Origin
The elegy originated in ancient Greece. It covered a wide a wide range of
subjects both gay and the grave. It was known by its form and not by its subject-
matter. It was written in the elegiac measure couplet composed of a dactylic
hexameter followed by a dactylic pentameter. In modern usage, it is the theme that
matters, not the metre. The classical elegiac measure is not used in English verse.
Pastoral Elegy
An important species of the elegy is the pastoral elegy. This poetic form
originated by the Sicilian Greek poet, Theocritus, was continued by the Roman
Virgil, was developed in various European countries during the Renaissance and
remained current in English pastoral elegies are Milton’s Lycidas, Shelley’s
Adonais, and Arnold’s Thyrsis.
Conventions of a Pastoral Elegy
1. The poet imagines himself to be a shepherd mourning the demise of
another shepherd. In Lycidas, Milton puts on the guise of a shepherd and
Edward King appears as the shepherd’s friend.
2. The poem contains a glorious description of their life against the pastoral
background. In Lycidas, Milton describes the lives of Edward King and
himself at the university as the lives on two shepherds working on the
same farm and feeling the same flock.
3. All nature joins in mourning the shepherd’s death. The poet introduces a
procession of mourners.
 24

4. It is customary for the poet to address some god or goddess and blame him
or her for the death of the person who is mourned. In Lycidas, Milton
addresses the nymphs of the sea and reproaches them for not saving
Lycidas from drowning.
5. The sad note often changes towards the close to one of resignation or even
joy as the poet reconciles himself to the inevitable or expresses his faith in
immortality and future union. Lycidas closes on note of optimism.
6. Though the poem is occasioned by the death of an individual, it is an idle
pretext for the poet to communicate his powerful predilections and
prejudices. Milton laments the degradation of poetry and religion in
Lycidas, an elegy on the death of Milton’s friend, Edward King. Tennyson
philosophizes on the puzzles of life and destiny in the poem In Memoriam,
an elegy on the death of his friend, Arthur Hallam.
Some of the pastoral conventions tend to be reflected in Walt Whitman’s great
elegy on Lincoln, When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloomed.
Elegy in the modern context does not necessarily mean a song of lamentation
over the death of an individual. To be precise, it is a reflection on death and allied
problems.
2.1.3.3 The Sonnet
Before we discuss sonnet in detail, one poem that caught our attention was
that of Scorn not the Sonnet by William Wordsworth. This poem is rather interesting
and brings up other poets before his time. It also talks about the form and the
meaning of a sonnet. He talks of the sonnet as a delicate work of art. Wordsworth
describes each part of the sonnet by talking of another poet. He describes how one
of the other poets helped in shaping the form of sonnet writing.

Scorn not the Sonnet; Critic, you have frowned,

Mindless of its just honours; with this key
Shakespeare unlocked his heart; the melody
Of this small lute gave ease to Petrarch's wound;
A thousand times this pipe did Tasso sound;
With it Camöens soothed an exile's grief;
The Sonnet glittered a gay myrtle leaf
Amid the cypress with which Dante crowned
His visionary brow: a glow-worm lamp,
It cheered mild Spenser, called from Faery-land
To struggle through dark ways; and, when a damp
Fell round the path of Milton, in his hand
The Thing became a trumpet; whence he blew
Soul-animating strains—alas, too few!
 25

Definition
A sonnet is a lyric. It is a form of subjective poetry. It is a fourteen line stanza
in English Iambic Pentameter and complicated rhyme scheme. Conventionally, it is
divided into parts, the Octave or the first eight lines and the Sestet or the last six
lines. Originally, it was a poem to be sung or recited to music. It is derived from the
Italian ‘sonneto’ meaning ‘a little sound or strain’. It expresses one feeling, one idea,
and one emotion. It is of extraneous growth. The personality of each writer, for
example, Petrarch, Shakespeare, Spenser, has given it a distinctive stamp.
Origin
The sonnet was born in Italy: It owes its origin to Dante. He wrote sonnets in
praise of his beloved, Peatrice. It was chosen and perfected by Petrarch. He
immortalized his lady, Laura, in his sonnets. It became an ideal medium for the
expression of love. Wyatt first employed this from in England, and it was developed
by Surrey. In the sonnets of Wyatt, the fire of love burned with a glow. The sonnets
of Surrey were also grounded in love for Elizabeth Fitzgerald.
Kinds of Sonnet
A sonnet is a short poem of 14 lines. It expresses one single thought or feeling.
It is of two kinds: 1. The Italian sonnet and 2. The English sonnet.
The Italian Sonnet or the Petrarchan Sonnet
Structure: In the Petrarchan sonnet, the Octave is divided into two quatrains
(four line group). The sestet is divided into two tercets (three line group). At the end
of the octave there is a pause or caesura, indicated by the punctuation or often
emphasized by a space. It is followed by a volta or turn of thought. The turn implies
that thought is given a new application or summarized or possibly disputed in the
sestet. Yet, this break is not invariably found in the Italian sonnet or in Milton.
Rhyme scheme: The octave has two rhymes (a & b) arranged, according to the
following scheme: abba, abba. The sestet sometimes has three rhymes and
sometimes two rhymes. They are different from those employed in the octave and
arranged in various ways as follows: cde, cde, or cdc, dcd, or cde, dce.
Sonneteers: Petrarch’s sonnets were first imitated in England, both in form
and in primary subject-matter – a doting lover’s hopes and pains – by Sir Thomas
Wyatt. The Petrarchan model was later used by Milton, Wordsworth and other
sonneteers in English by introducing a new pair of rhymes in the second half of the
octave.
The English Sonnet or the Shakespearean Sonnet
The Earl of Surrey and other English experiment in the sixteenth century also
developed a new form called the English sonnet.
Structure and Rhyme: The Shakespearean sonnet is divided into four parts.
It falls into three quatrains and a concluding couplet. The rhyme scheme is abab,
cdcd, efef, gg. It has no pause or no turn of thought at the end of the eighth line. It
works right up to the final couplet, where the highest peak of the poet’s thought is
reached. This form was splendidly used by Shakespeare. It is now called after
Shakespeare, its practitioner and not after Surrey, its real originator.
 26

The Spenserian Variety

Spenser evolved a new variety. The Quatrains in the Shakespearean sonnet are
all unconnected with one another. They have each their own rhymes and cannot,
therefore, be said to be related structurally, though they are united by the subject
matter. In the Spenserian variety, each of the quatrains is linked to the other by an
admixture of the rhymes in the following manner: abab, bebe, cdcd, ee. The
couplet, however, stands alone as in Shakespearean sonnets. In other words there
is little difference between the Spenserian sonnet and the Shakespearean sonnet.
There is no set range of subjects for the sonnet. Shakespeare limited his theme
to love. Donne shifted from secular love to a variety of religious themes in his Holy
Sonnets. Milton expanded the range to other matters of serious contemplation. The
Sonnet is thus considered by many to be ‘a pearly shell’, ‘a precious jewel’ “a little
picture painted wall”.
2.1.3.4 The Lyric
Definition
The lyric comes from the Greek word ‘Lurikos’ meaning ‘singing to the lyre’. A
lyric is a poem to be sung to the accompaniment of lyre.
Features
A lyric is a short subjective poem, an outburst of the author’s inner most
thought and feeling. It is very often simple and direct in thought. It deals with a
single emotion and a single thought. It is musical. It is made musical by the
arrangement of vowels and consonants in such an artistic way as to give music of
its own. It appeals more to the heart than to the intellect. Its appeal to the intellect
is through the heart.
Structure
A lyric is a well-unit poem. It is a highly accomplished piece from the point of
view to technique. It can be divided into three distinct parts. They correspond to the
three moods through which the poet passes when inspired by some emotion.
The first part states the poet’s emotion. It sets the poet’s imagination work. It
generally consists of the first few lines. The second part consists of the thoughts
suggested by the emotion. It forms the bulk of the poem. The third part marks the
poet’s return to the initial mood because, by this time, the emotion which had
stirred his mind and heart has found a release in fitting words and images. It
usually comprises the last stanza.
Subject Matter
The speakers may simply express his state of mind in an ordered form (as in
Burns’ O My Love’s Like a Red, Red Rose). Or he may gallantly elaborate a
compliment to his lady (as in Ben Jonson’s Drink to Me Only with These Eyes),or he
may deploy an argument to persuade his mistress to take advantage of opportunity
and fleeting youth (as in Marvell’s To His Coy Mistress) or he expresses a sustained
process of observation and meditation in which he analyses and tries to resolve an
 27

emotional problem (as in Wordsworth’s Immortality Ode) or he may justify the

choice of a way of life (as in Arnold’s Dover Beach).
2.1.3.5 The Ballad
Definition
‘Ballad’ etymologically means ‘a dancing play’. The word ‘ballad’ is derived from
the French word ‘ballad’ which means ‘to dance’. Originally, it meant a song to
which one could dance. It is a kind of narrative poem, impersonal in nature and
dramatic in technique. It is a short story in verse.
Origin
Originally, it was sung from village to village to the accompaniment of a harp
or a fiddle by a strolling player or bands of singers who earned a living in this way.
The minstrel usually sang in the chimney corner of the farmhouse or on the village
green where a group of eager listeners would assemble to be entertained. In the
days before printing was invented, it was handed down by oral tradition, each
successive generation making its own contribution to suit contemporary or local
condition. It is useless to search for the original version or chronology or
authorship of popular ballads, e.g. Chevy Chase. In the literary ballad, it is
consciously created by the poet in imitation of the folk ballad, e.g. Coleridge’s Rime
of the Ancient Mariner.
Subject-Matter
Its subjects are deeds rather than thoughts, for example, a memorable feud, a
thrilling adventure, a family disaster, love, war and the life. “Love and courtship,
though not usually marriage, are the universal and basic theme and the sorrows of
young girls betrayed by lovers provide inspirations or many of the most moving”.
(James Receives). Its most popular subjects are sex and violence. Another favourite
subject in the old ballads is the supernatural.
Characteristics
A ballad is usually short and fairly long. It was originally intended to be sung.
It was composed anonymously or transmitted orally. One characteristic of the folk
songs is their adaptability and variety. There is no correct version. It begins often
abruptly. It employs simple language. It is often the direct expression of love,
sorrow, admiration or joy. It tells the story tersely through dialogue and described
action. It makes use of refrains.
Musicality
A ballad is meant to be sung, so we must remember that when we read the
mere words of a ballad, we are experiencing only part of its total effect. It is only
when word and music are united, a ballad can really be taken in as a whole. It is
worth trying to obtain a performance of “The Demon Lover” on a gramophone
record in order to see how much is added by music.
Abruptness
The poem opens suddenly without any attempt at a systematic introduction.
Sometimes it begins with questions and answers, as in The Ship of the Fiend.
 28

O where have you been, my long-lost love

This long seven years and more?
O ‘I’m come again to seek your love
And the vows that you did swear.
Anonymity
A ballad is anonymous. Its authorship is unknown we cannot say who
originally wrote. It is impersonal in treatment with nothing to show the writer’s
identity or personality. It is as though the tale told itself. The singers of one
generation handed ballads down to the singers of the next generation and so on
over the years and the centuries.
Incremental Repetition
It applies to the use of refrains but more to the repetition of stanzas with
increments either addition of changes in key-words to show advancement of the
story. The following stanzas are from The Douglas Tragedy.
O they rode on, and on they rode,
And all by the light of the moon
Until they came to the wan water,
And there they lighted down.
O they rode on, and on they road,
And all by the light of the moon,
Until they came to his mother’s hall,
And there they lighted down.
The refrains are intended as imitations of an instrumental accompaniment
chorused by the audience to the sound of a fiddle while the soloist took breath.
Ballad Measure
It uses the ballad stanza. It is a quatrain in which the first and the third lines
are four-foot iambic (a short syllable followed by a long). The second and the fourth
lines are three-foot iambic.
There lived / a wife / at U / she’s Well a 4 feet
A weal / thy wife / was she b 3 feet
She had / three stout / add stal / wart sons, c 4 feet
And sent / them o’er / the sea b 3 feet
Diction
About genuine folk-songs, there is a simplicity, directness and naturalness
often lacking in all kinds of poetry. It means use of homely similes, popular
metaphors and stock phrases: merry men, milk-white hand, yellow hair, red or
blood-red wine, gentle Knight, bonny bridge, daughter dear, pretty babe etc. the
diction is simple, homely and racy. It appeals directly to the common man or
woman in us.
 29

Thus, in theme, the ballad is universal. In language it is simple. In form, it is

oral culture retained not in books but in the minds and hearts of ordinary people.
In style, it is vigorous, vibrant, and melodious.
2.1.3.6 The Epic
Definition
The word “Epic” comes from the Greek word epikos which means a narrative
poem. An epic is an extended or a long narrative poem on a great or serious or
heroic subject. It is related in an elevated or exalted style. It narrates the story of
series of events concerning heroic action by one or more individuals, usually over a
long period of time. In short, an epic is a poem on a grand scale, usually in good
many separate books concerned with the exploits of some great national hero,
historical or legendary.
Origin
The classic examples of the epic in European literature are The Iliad and The
Odyssey by the ancient Greek poet, Homer. They have served as models to all later
day epic poets. Each of these great works is a long tale in verse with famous heroes
for its principal characters, and it weaves together into an artistic form the many
legends of their exploits which were handed down from generation to generation by
word of mouth in song and story.
The Essentials of an Epic
i) Its action should be one, entire and great.
ii) Its hero should be distinguished. The hero is of great national and cosmic
importance. In Homer’s Iliad, he is the Greek warrior, Achilles. Vigil’s
Aeneid is the son of the goddess, Aphrodite. In Paradise Lost Adam
represents the entire human race.
iii) The Epic should easily arise from the main fable, that is, there should be
no part detachable without the loss of the whole.
The Convention of an Epic
An Epic follows certain conventions.
1. Preposition Statement of Theme
The Epic poet begins by stating the subject matter or the theme of his Epic.
The statement of the theme is technically called the ‘proposition’. The subject
matter of Paradise Lost is the Fall of man brought about by God. He serves as an
example -
Of man’s first disobedience, and the fruit.
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste.
Brought Death into the world.
2. Invocation: Prayer to the Muse
The Epic poet calls upon a muse or a guiding spirit to inspire him in his
composition of the Epic. The prayer to the muse is technically called an
“Invocation”. In Paradise Lost Milton calls upon the Holy spirit to help him in the
writing of Paradise Lost.
 30

3. In Medias res: Action in the Middle

The Epic poet starts the story in the fallen angels in hell, gathering their forces
and determining revenge.
4. Roll-call of Major Character
The major characters are catalogues and described many of them having
dignified set of speeches which reveal their characters. We have Milton’s description
of the procession of the fallen angels in Paradise Lost, Book I and of the debate in
pandemonium in Paradise Lost Book II.
5. Episodes
An Epic contains a number of thrilling episodes, such as the mustering of
troops, duels, wanderings, ordeals, and the like. In this respect they are all modeled
upon Homer and Virgil. Milton describes the war in Heaven and the journey of
Satan through chaos to discover the newly created world. Virgil talks of Achilles
feats in the Trojan War.
6. Supernatural Machinery
The action of the Epic is often controlled by supernatural agents-the classical
god and goddesses in Homer and Virgil, and Jehovah, Christ and the angles in
Paradise Lost. While the supernatural may hover in the background and intervene
now and then, it is Man who occupies the center of the epic stage. The epic is about
Man and is addressed to men, and the epic poet’s concern is with Man’s destiny.
7. Style
An Epic is meant for a few and not for all. It is narrated in a style for removed
from ordinary speech. It employs certain conventional poetic devices such as
Homeric Epithets and Homeric Similes. Milton’s “grand Style” includes his Latinate
diction and stylized syntax, his sonorous lists of names and wide-ranging allusions
and his imitation of Homer epic similes and epithets. The Hexameter of Homer and
Virgil, the anushtup of Valmiki and Vyasa, the Terza Rima of Dante, the symphonic
blank verse of Milton, the crystalline iambic pentameter of Savitri, all play no mean
part in charging these great epics with life and movement.
8. Length
The epic is divided into books, usually twelve in number. Milton’s Paradise Lost
has twelve books while that Iliad and the Odyssey have twenty-four books each.
Byron satirizes the epic apparatus in the following stanza from Don Juan:

My poem’s epic, and is meant to be

Divided in twelve books; each book containing,
With love, and war, a heavy gale at sea,
A list of ships, and captains, and kings reigning,
New characters; the episodes are three:
A panoramic view of hell’s in training
After the style of Virgil and of Homer,
So that my name of Epic’s no misnomer.
 31

2.1.3.7 The Metrical Romances

In the evolution of literature, this term has undergone considerable
enlargement of meaning, various different classes of composition have to be
included under it. First, there are, those poems which fall under the strictest
definition of romance, which originally signified as story told in one of the romance
languages, and dealing, as all such stories did, with chivalry, adventure and
enchantments and love. Then there are the English narratives of the same general
type, which as the word had already come to denote a certain kind of matter and
treatment, were called romances though not written in a romance tongue
2.1.3.8 Dramatic Poetry
In all varieties of narrative poetry, the dramatic element commonly appears
more or less prominently in the shape of dialogue. Dramatic poetry may be
subdivided into several groups. The first species of dramatic poetry comprises the
Dramatic lyric. This is in spirit and method a subjective poem, but the subjective
element pertains, not to the poet himself but to some other person, into whose
moods and experiences he enters, and to whose thoughts and feelings he gives
vicarious expression.
The second species comprises of the Dramatic Story including the balled, or the
short story in verse, like Tennyson’s First Quarrel and The Revenge and Arnold’s
Forsaken Merman and more extended narrative, like Browning’s A Forgiveness and
Rossetti’s A Last Confession. The third species comprises the Dramatic Monologue
or Soliloquy. It is often difficult to distinguish this form dramatic lyric on the one
hand, and on the other hand, from the dramatic narrative. It is essentially study of
character and hence predominantly psychological and analytical. One problem
involved in the study of the dramatic monologue is too important to be passed over
without a word. Though its ideal aim is a faithful self portrayal, in practice, it is
used as a medium of the poet’s philosophy. The foregoing are the varieties of poetry
which rests upon the dramatic principle, though it does not employ the actual
structure and machinery of the regular stage play.
2.1.4 REVISION POINTS
1. An ‘ode’ is a long lyric poem serious in subject, dignified in style, expressing
an exalted or enthusiastic emotion.
2. The Greek poet, Pindar, was the originator of the ode.
3. It is in the form of an address or invitation.
4. The Greek ode had two forms: i) The Dorian or the Pindaric ode, and ii) The
Lesbian or Horatian ode.
5. An elegy means a poem of lament at the passing away of an individual or a
way of life.
6. The elegy originated in ancient Greece. It covered a wide a wide range of
subjects both gay and the grave.
 32

7. Pastoral Elegy: The poet imagines himself to be a shepherd mourning the

demise of another shepherd.
8. The sonnet was born in Italy: It owes its origin to Dante, but it was chosen
and perfected by Petrarch. He
9. Wyatt first employed this from in England, and it was developed by Surrey.
10. A sonnet is a short poem of 14 lines. It is of two kinds: the Italian sonnet
and the English sonnet.
11. In the Petrarchan sonnet, the Octave is divided into two quatrains (four line
group). The sestet is divided into two tercets (three line group). At the end of
the octave there is a pause or caesura.
12. The Shakespearean sonnet is divided into four parts. It falls into three
quatrains and a concluding couplet.
13. In the Spenserian variety, each of the quatrains is linked to the other by an
admixture of the rhymes in the following manner: abab, bebe, cdcd, ee.
14. A lyric is a poem to be sung to the accompaniment of lyre.
15. A lyric is a short subjective poem, an outburst of the author’s inner most
thought and feeling.
16. It can be divided into three distinct parts. The poet’s emotion, the thoughts
suggested by the emotion and the poet’s return to the initial mood are the
three distinct parts of lyric.
17. Ballad is a short story in verse. It is a kind of narrative poem, impersonal in
nature and dramatic in technique.
18. Its subjects are deeds rather than thoughts, for example, a memorable feud,
a thrilling adventure, a family disaster, love, war and the life.
19. It was originally intended to be sung.
20. It was composed anonymously or transmitted orally.
21. The poem opens suddenly without any attempt at a systematic introduction.
22. An epic is a long narrative poem on a great or serious or heroic subject.
23. Its action should be one, entire and great.
24. Its hero should be distinguished and of great national and cosmic
importance.
25. The Epic should easily arise from the main fable, that is, there should be no
part detachable without the loss of the whole.
26. An Epic follows certain conventions. They are i. Statement of theme, ii.
Prayer to the Muse to inspire the poet, iii. Beginning from the middle of the
story, iv. Roll-call of all major characters, v. Presenting a number of thrilling
episodes, vi. Supernatural machinery etc.
 33

2.1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS

1. What are the features of an ode?
2. What do you mean by elegy? What are the conventions of a pastoral elegy?
3. Describe the formal characteristics of a Petrarchan and a Shakespearean
sonnet.
4. Define the term Ballad. Distinguish between the traditional and the literary
ballad.
5. Explain with examples the features of an epic.
6. Explain the term Dramatic Poetry.
2.1.6 SUMMARY
Broadly speaking, poetry can be classified into two categories: subjective and
objective poetry. In subjective poetry, the poet expresses his own feelings and
thought and so the personal elements predominate. In objective poetry, the poet
goes out of himself and deals with the outside world. It is impersonal in nature. The
important divisions of subjective poetry are the ode, the elegy, the sonnet, and the
lyric. Objective poetry includes the ballad, the epic, metrical romance and dramatic
poetry.
Ode is a lyric poem that addresses and often celebrates a person, place, thing,
or idea. Its stanza forms vary. The Greek or Pindaric ode was a public poem, usually
set to music that celebrated athletic victories. English odes were written in the
Pindaric tradition. Horatian odes were written in quatrains in a more philosophical,
contemplative manner. An elegy is a reflective poem that laments the loss of
someone or something. Of course, losing someone can refer not only to death but
simply an absence. As a result, elegies can be used to mourn the death of a person,
the breakup with a lover, or the end of an idealistic era. In Pastoral elegy, the poet
imagines himself to be a shepherd mourning the demise of another shepherd. A
sonnet has come to be known generally as a poem containing fourteen lines of
iambic pentameter. Traditionally, sonnets have been classified into groups based on
the rhyme scheme. Italian form of sonnet is divided into major group of 8 lines
(octave) followed by a minor group of 6 lines (sestet), and in a common English form
into three quatrains followed by a couplet. Sonnets also generally contain a volta, or
turn of thought. Lyric poems have a musical rhythm, and their topics often explore
romantic feelings or other strong emotions. A lyric poem can be identified by its
musicality. In ancient Greece and Rome, lyric poems were in fact sung to the
strums of an accompanying ‘lyre’.
The Ballad is a poem or song narrating a story in short stanzas. Traditional
ballads are typically of unknown authorship, having been passed on orally from
one generation to the next. An epic is a long poem, typically one derived from
ancient oral tradition, narrating the deeds and adventures of heroic or legendary
figures of the past history of a nation. Its action should be one, entire and great. Its
hero should be distinguished and of great national and cosmic importance.
The study of poetry takes into account the formal and other technical aspects
of poetry such as metre, rime, different forms of stanzas, and the poetic diction.
 34

Metre refers to the ordered rhythm from regulated alternation of syllables. Rime is
regarded as an accessory to metrical composition. It adds to the beauty of poetry as
musical speech. It is the correspondence in sound between syllable and syllable. A
stanza is a group of lines forming within itself a unit of organization. Poetic diction
is inevitably figurative and allusive and the figures of speech and other subtle
suggestion that go into element of its texture are to be considered from the point of
view of their resources and aesthetic value.
2.1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Write a note on poetic diction.
2. Name four important elegies in English and their authors.
3. Who introduced ‘Pindaric ode’ in English and is it so called?
4. Define pastoral elegy.
5. Write a short note on lyric.
2.1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
2.1.8.1 The Study and the Appreciation of Poetry
The study of poetry and its appreciations takes into account the formal and
other technical aspects of poetry. We have already noted that there is a vital
connection between poetic feeling and rhythmical expression.
(a) Metre
By metre, we mean the ordered rhythm which results from a regulated
alternation of syllables of different characters or values. In Greek and Latin this
difference depended on “quality” or the length of time taken in pronunciation; and
the metrical ‘foot’ or group of syllables forming the basis of the line or verse was
composed of long and short syllables arranged according to a certain scheme.
The iambic foot is made up of a short syllable followed by a long one: the
dactylic of a long syllable followed by two short ones; the spondaic, of two long
syllables; and so on. In English poetry, the basis of a metre is not quantity but
accent. Ordered rhythm arises from a regulated alternation of syllables which are
stressed or heavy, and unstressed, or light. In an English foot, one stressed syllable
may be combined with one or two unstressed syllables and hence we have feet of
two or three syllables. In each case the character of the foot is determined by the
relative position of the accent.
There are two measures in the case of the disyllabic foot, namely, iambic
(unaccented syllable precedes the accented) and trochaic (unaccented syllable
follows the accented). In the case of trisyllables, the following measures are used,
the anapaestic in which two unaccented syllables precede the accented as in
‘colonnade’, the dactylic in which the accented syllable precedes the two
unaccented as in ‘merciful, and the amphibrachic in which the accented syllable
comes in between the two unaccented as in ‘internal’. There are also other feet
recognized by the English metrists apart from the variations of the five chief
measures given above.
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Hudson takes into account only those combinations that are applicable to
classic metre, since these combinations are employed by English writers. The
accented and unaccented syllables of the English variety are considered as
equivalent to the long and short syllables.
The feet form the basis of lines or verses which are classified as diameter,
trimester, tetrameter, pentameter, heptameter and octameter in accordance with
the number of feet they have. For example, Tennyson’s In Memoriam is composed of
iambic tetrameter and the English blank verse is of iambic pentameter. The closing
lines of the Spenserian stanzas are composed of iambic hexameter.
These theoretical systems are of course, subject to continual variation and
much of the modern English poetry is characterised by great metrical irregularity.
One of the simplest and most frequent common phenomena is the substitution of
another kind of foot and even no less than a person like Dr. Johnson allows such
variation in long composition. The entire character of an iambic line may be
changed by an additional number of unaccented or light syllables which in one case
gives a ‘dactylic’ and in another an ‘anapaestic’ movement such as intermixtures
started with Coleridge. Sometimes the unaccented syllable may be dropped from a
dissyllabic foot and its place is either substituted by a pause or dwelling of the voice
on the accented word as in Tennyson’s Break, Break, Break, On the cold grey
stones, O Sea” The interchange of these kinds of foot in trisyllabic verse is also
seen.
The subject of versification is bound by the theory of metrical variation, which
is fascinating as well as difficult. The five principal measures of metre have a
special fitness for particular purposes. The trisyllables are undoubtedly lighter and
more rapid in movement than disyllables. It is also possible to distinguish the
difference in aesthetic character and effect within the two groups. Critics describe
the ‘iambic’ measure as smooth, dignified and stately, while the ‘trochaic’ is
energetic and abrupt, the ‘anapaestic’ swift and forcible. Likewise while the
‘dactylic’ is airy and graceful, the ‘amphibrachic’ is swinging and free.
Every form of metre has a much wider range of power than what is suggested
by mere abstract statements. Iambic measure is the standard verse of English
poetry and it is successfully used for all kind of subjects; trisyllable metres are
often effective as vehicles for solemn meditation and feelings of tenderness and
sorrow. In our study of a poet, we must consider the measure used by him
successfully and frequently and connect it to his characteristic temper and genius.
Metre is an essential concomitant of poetry.
(b) Rime
Rime is regarded as an accessory to metrical composition. It is so common in
English verse that its importance can be hardly overstated. It adds to the beauty of
poetry as musical speech. Since it marks distinctly the close of lines and stanzas, it
helps to emphasize rhythm.
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Rime is the correspondence in sound between syllable and syllable, that is,
identity in vowel and consonant sounds in see, me, ark, and mark. Sometimes there
is difference in the consonant or consonants preceding the vowel as in ray, stray;
similarity of accent as in ringing, singing; beautiful, dutiful. But words like singer
ringing, dutiful, beautiful do not rime with one another. Rimes may be single or
masculine as in sing, ring; double or feminine as in ringing, singing, triple as in
unfortunate, importunate.
These different kinds of rime may be employed by a poet at his own discretion
in very many ways. A poem may be completely in single rimes, or in double or in
triple, or different kinds may be introduced in regular alternation; or the alternation
may be occasional and arbitrary. A large proportion of double or triple rimes adds
lightness and rapidity to verse and hence we cannot expect them in markedly
serious or melancholic pessimist. But there is no hard and fast rule for the use of
rime Mrs. Browning’s Cowper’s Grave is entirely in double rimes and the rime
scheme serves to deepen the subdued elegiac tone. Double and triple rimes are
ingenious and far-fetched work and produce a grotesque effect and adopted for the
purpose of a burlesque.
(c) Stanza
A stanza is a group of lines forming by itself a unit of organisation. In many
cases, the stanzas are irregular in length and structure as in Wordsworth’s Ode on
the Intimations of Immortality and Tennyson’s Maud. Generally a poem is built up of
sections that are identical in form. Regular stanzas are commonly defined by the
number of lines and the disposition of rimes that bind these lines together. Since
we have numerous stanza forms, we need not tabulate them all. The following are
some best known examples and their rime schemes are given in brackets; the
couplet (a a) as in Pope’s Essays on Man and Keats’ Endymion, the triplet ( a a a) as
in Tennyson’s Two Voices, the quatrain as in Keats’ La Bella Dame Sans Merci, but
the six line stanza in various forms; the eight line stanza ( ab ab cc) as in Byron’s
Don Juan; the nine line stanza (ab ab bc bc c) as in Spenser’s “The Faery Queene”
and commonly known as the Spenserian stanza. For further classification of
stanzas, the relative length of the lines is also taken into consideration. Hence not
only the rime schemes but also the peculiar arrangement of metres gives its special
characteristic which varies from poet to poet.
Stanzas may be used with a sense of their traditional significance or
significance of literary association. The poet chooses the grab that is suitable to his
purpose. For example, Keats chooses the Italian form for his Isabella and the
Spenserian variety for Eve of St. Agnes. The problem of the aesthetic qualities of
different stanzas and their applicability to particular purposes are interesting
points for investigation. So also we take an interest in the poet’s choice of metres.
Rossetti’s frequent use of intricate and curious structures, heavily weighted with
rimes, in an index of his exotic character of his genius and fastidious element in his
art. Long fellow’s experiment with many a metrical form found in the various
 37

literatures of Europe exhibit, though his power of absorption, has lack of

originality.
The use of different types of stanzas during different periods in the history of
literature is yet another important aspect in the study of poetry. The predominance
of the Spenserian stanza form 1725 to 1775 is an illustration of the awakening
interest in Spenser and his works. The iambic pentameter or the heroic couplet
dominated the Augustan age, since the poets of this period favoured it for its
epigrammatic terseness and force for using it in their satires. The rise of the
romantic form is an indication of a general quest for greater freedom and more
variety. Blank verse is another principal form of unrimed verse used in the modern
age and this form is very popular. There are some other forms which have not
established themselves in English poetry.
(d) Poetic Diction
Poetic diction is an interesting problem that deserves our attention since it
makes specific differences between prose and poetry, especially the mysterious
power of words and combinations of words through associations or sounds. Since
the diction of poetry is inevitably figurative and allusive, the figures of speech and
other subtle suggestion that go into element of its texture are to be considered from
the point of view of their resources and aesthetic value. Mention has to be made
here about some details of poetic style such as the varied use of consonants and
vowels in order to produce special effects as in the case of an accomplished
master’s “apt alliteration’s artful aid.”
So far we have laid down some technical aspects for guidance in the study of
poetry. We may, for instance, take up the works of a single poet. Our business will
be to analyse the content of his writings and investigate the salient features of his
art, to examine his literary ancestry and affiliations. We try to trace the derivative
elements in his thought and style and to consider his relations with the spirit and
movement of his time. We can pass on to another poet and we can compare and
contrast his works point by point. Otherwise, we can study a great body of poetry
like the English poetry, following its ebb and flow from epoch to epoch, the rise and
decline of the different schools, traditions and methods. We can also note a
significant change in subject-matter, spirit and try to find its significance and
explanation in the large tendencies of life and thought in the world outside.
Sometimes we may devote our attention to the history of one great poetic from such
as the epic or elegy through its course of evolution and transformation in different
literatures at different times. Or else, we can select a special theme like the
treatment of nature in poetry and study how it branches out in various directions
and connects itself at many points.
In the earlier paragraph, some ways of reading poetry systematically are
mentioned. If we adopt these methods, it makes out study of poetry more
interesting and more profitable. The most important point in the study of poetry
that is worth nothing is to read poetry for sheer enjoyment. It should be read for its
 38

own sake as a thing of beauty fraught with its infinite meaning for those who feel
and have a heart to understand it. To attain this ability, we have to cultivate our
faculty of poetic appreciation since it becomes more important than our acquisition
of scholarship.
Appreciation of poetry is a personal experience and it varies from one
individual to another. Rules and counsels prove little service in this regard. A lover
of poetry may transmit something of his enthusiasm to others, but in the end each
reader must be left to himself. There is one practical piece of advice. In our reading
of poetry we should remember that the poet appeals to the poet in us. So our real
enjoyment depends upon our own keenness of imaginative apprehension and
emotional response. In other words, the reader has to size the true secret and virtue
of a poem. This could be achieved only through the exercise on our part of those
powers that went into the making of the poem itself.
Hudson condemns people who do not possess a poetic sense. They can never
appreciate the beauty and meaning of poetry just as a person without a musical ear
cannot appreciate the beauty and meaning of music. This poetic sense can be
cultivated if it exists even in its rudimentary form since it is latent in the majority of
the people. The best way of cultivation can be achieved through the daily exercise of
a sympathetic contact with the poetry of great masters. Gradually we learn to
appreciate and enjoy a poem. In the case of appreciation of poetry, the means and
the end are one and the same.
Prof. Butcher points out that “the art of printing has made dull our literary
perceptions.” Words, in his opinion, have a dual role that they should be seen and
heard. We miss much of the charm of a poem. It is the eye alone has to do the job
for the ear also. Words are half alive on the printed page without their vocal force.
The music of verse, when repeated only to the inward ear, comes as a faint echo.
Butcher brings home the fact that throughout the Greek period and even during
the days of the Roman Empire, the custom was to read both prose and verse not
silently but aloud and in company. Silently reading was then a curious departure
from the common practice. In Augustine’s “confessions” we read, “his eye scanned
the pages but his voice and tongue were silent.” Hence it is clear that poetry is
‘musical speech’.
Poetry owes much of its beauty, its magic, its peculiar power of stirring the
feeling and arousing the imagination to its verbal felicity and its varied melodies of
metre and rime and its full significance can be appreciated only when it addresses
us through the ear. Therefore we should practice to read poetry aloud.
2.1.8.2 Some Famous English Sonnet Sequences:
Though of Italian origin, the form sonnet found its best exponents in England.
The credit for bringing this poetic form of Italian origin is generally attributed to
Wyatt and Surrey. Besides their contribution to the English sonnet tradition, there
are some captivating contributions. Normally, sonnets appear in sequences and
some of the best sonnet sequences in English are given here.
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Amoretti is a sonnet cycle by the Poet’s Poet, Edmund Spenser. In 1594

Spenser married Elizabeth Boyle, an Anglo-Irish girl whom he loved and in whose
honor he wrote Amoretti, a brilliant sonnet sequence consisting of 89 sonnets.
These sonnets, written in the Petrarchan tradition, charmingly and so poetically
memorialize Spenser’s courtship and chronicle the progress of his love for his
beloved. Amoretti is not well appreciated and recognized mainly because this
sequence is overshadowed by the poet’s other more famous works.
Astrophel and Stella is a sonnet sequence containing 108 sonnets wherein
Sidney wrote, as some critics have suggested, about his love for Penelope Devereux.
This sonnet sequence was probably composed in the 1580s. The name Astrophel
can be divided into aster and phil. the word ‘aster’ in Greek means ‘star’, and the
word ‘phil’ means ‘lover’. Hence, Astrophel means ‘a lover of star’. The word ‘stella’
means ‘star’. In this sonnet sequence, Sidney is the lover of star and Penelope is
the star.
William Shakespeare (1564-1616) wrote 154 Sonnets between 1592 and 1597 or
1598 when the sonnet craze was at its zenith in England. Though the Sonnets were
circulated in manuscript they saw the publication, of course, unauthorized by Thomas
Thorpe, a publisher, in 1609. Critics believe that this unauthorized publication may
have changed the original sequence of the poet. Some even doubt that the edition may
have included some poems not written by Shakespeare. It is also believed that Thomas
Thorpe had got the manuscripts from one Mr. W.H. whose identity is still to be
established. Critics are of the opinion that this W.H. was the possessor of the
manuscripts. There is also a belief that this W.H. was the person of inspiration to the
poet. Most of the sonnets are addressed to a young man of exceptional charm and
generosity, probably the Earl of Southampton. A total of 126 sonnets are addressed
to this man and 26 are addressed to a woman who is referred to as the Dark Lady
by critics. Perhaps this lady was dark in complexion or dark in her psyche, for she
shifted her affections from the poet to the Earl. She was Mary Fitton who might
have been a maid in a house of honour and who was Shakespeare’s mistress for
some time. The last two sonnets speak loftily about the nature of Love. There is an
opinion among critics that Shakespeare addressed some of his sonnets to one of his
contemporary dramatists. But nothing has been decisively proven and one has to
read these sonnets which are embroiled in controversy.
2.1.8.3 Some Famous English Odes
Ode is of Greek origin. English poets belonging to the Romantic Age
contributed some of the most popular and widely read English odes. Keats and
Shelley are in the forefront as poets of English odes. Here are some of the famous
odes written during the Romantic Age.
William Wordsworth’s “Ode: Intimations of Immortality” is undoubtedly one of
the best odes written in the English language. Critics hailed the poem as “the Great
Ode”. This ode, completed in 1804 and published in 1807, is an irregualar Pindaric
ode in 11 stanzas. The poem can be clearly divided into three stages. In the first
one (the first four stanzas), Wordsworth discusses death, and the loss of youth and
 40

innocence. The second one (the next four stanzas), describes how age forces man
to move away from the sight of the divine. The final one expresses the hope that the
memory of the divine allow us to sympathise with other human beings.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s “Dejection: An Ode” needs a mention here. It is
poem written actually to Sara Hutchinson. Coleridge discusses his love for her in
this ode in its original form. The published editions are without his personal feeling
for the lady who was not his wife. This ode can be read as an expression of
Coleridge’s dejection caused by his inability to compose poetry.
Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Keats are unquestionably the most popular
names in the history of English Literature. These two names are mostly loved and
remembered for their immortal odes. Shelley did not achieve fame during his life
time as a poet. All recognitions for him came only after his death and his influence
on the subsequent generations are very much evident in the works of poets like
Robert Browning, Swinburne, Hardy, and Yeats. “Ode to the West Wind” and “To a
Skylark” are his memorable odes.
John Keats, perhaps, the best of the lot, is solely remembered and even
revered for his odes. He is an English poet very prominent in the second generation
of Romantic poets. He died of tuberculosis at the age of 25 but continues to live as
the poet of the best odes ever written in the English language. “Ode to a
Nightingale”, “Ode on a Grecian Urn”, “Ode to Autumn” are some of this best known
odes.
2.1.8.4 Some Famous English Elegies
An Elegy, as you may have learned by this time, is a song of lamentation.
They are songs expressing deep sorrow caused by the death of some near and dear
ones. The history of English poetry is not bereft of elegies of highest order. The
most popular one was written by none other than John Milton. He wrote “Lycidas”
wherein he mourns the death of Edward King, a fellow poet. Lycidas is a pastoral
elegy. “Adonais” is an elegy on the death of John Keats by Shelley. The poem was
composed in the spring of 1821. Immediately after hearing the sad and sudden
death of John Keats, Shelley composed this elegy in 495 lines in 55 stanzas. “ Elegy
Written in a Country Churchyard” by Gray, “Thyrsis” by Arnold, “In Memorium” by
Tennyson, “In Memory of W.B. Yeats by Auden are some of the most memorable
elegies written in the English language. “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard
Bloom’d” by Walt Whitman needs a special mention here. The poem mourns the
death of the American President Abraham Lincoln.
2.1.8.5 Some Famous English Ballads and Epics
We all love to listen to stories and the story is in the form of a song, it lingers
on in our minds for long. Ballads are such tales in verse. Coleridge’s “The Rime of
the Ancient Mariner” is perhaps the longest of English ballads of art. It was first
published in the first edition of Lyrical Ballads in 1798. The poem recounts the
experiences of a sailor who has returned from a long sea voyage. Keats’ “La Belle
 41

Dame Sans Merci”, composed in the early spring of 1819, the ballad expresses his
love for his neighbor Fanny Brawne.
Epic is the most difficult form of poetry. No mortal hands could ever pen this
long narrative in verse. “Beowulf” is the first English Epic. It is an Old English epic
poem written in the tradition of Germanic heroic legend. The epic consists of 3,182
alliterative lines. Beowulf is a heroic poem and it celebrates the exploits of the hero
who represents the aristocratic virtues, which were the ideals of the society that we
call the Heroic Age. Beowulf consists of two main parts. In the first part, Beowulf,
the nephew of King Hygelac of the Geats, makes a visit, along with his fourteen
warrior-companions, to the court of the aging King Hrothgar of Denmark, in order
to slay the man-eating monster Grendel who has been paying a regular visit to the
king’s great hall of Heorot to prey on his warriors. Beowulf defeats and mortally
wounds the monster in a fight in the great hall of Heorot. Grendel’s mother sets
out furiously to avenge the death of her son. But she has to beat a retreat; Beowulf
follows her to her abode under a lake and slays her after a desperate struggle. The
victorious warrior returns along with his companions to his country, after receiving
sumptuous presents and honours.
In the second part, we are told that Beowulf has been a King of the Geats for
half a century. A dragon ravages the lands by slaughtering men as a mark of
revenge for having been disturbed while guarding a hoard of treasure. Beowulf, in
spite of his age, confronts the dragon in a fight. Although he succeeds in slaying the
dragon in a duel, he receives deadly wounds to which he succumbs later. An
account of the funeral of Beowulf, how his body is cremated on an elaborate funeral
pyre amidst the lamentations of his warriors, closes the epic.
Edmund Spenser (1552) attempted an epic in The Faeirie Queene. In his letter
addressed to his friend Sir Walter Raleigh, Spenser expounds his intention of
writing an epic in twenty-four books. His idea was that in each book, a single
knight of the court of the Fairie Queene should represent a single virtue (Spenser
states in his letter, “the first of the knight of the Redcross, in whom I express
Holiness; the second Sir Guyon, in whom I set forth Temperance, the third is
Britomart, a lady knight, in whom I picture Chastity” etc). In each book Prince
Arthur representing the virtue of Magnificence would appear and so the whole epic
should substantiate Magnanimity or Great Heartedness which is the supreme
unifying virtue of all other virtues.
The next important English Epic is Paradise Lost by John Milton. In English
literature, Milton’s Paradise Lost is the supreme masterpiece of such epic poetry. (A
few other poems in English literature have the credit of being named so with
varying degrees of justice). He wrote the poem to justify the ways of God to Man.
The story of the poem is rendered in twelve books, each book comprising lines
about a thousand.
Book I: The story begins with the middle plot of the sequence. Satan and his
followers have been defeated in their war against God and hurled into the burning
 42

lake of sulphur in Hell. They recover consciousness and build their House of
Parliament named ‘Pandemonium’ in order to hold debate on renewing the war
against God.
Book II: Satan opens the debate in Pandemonium. His lieutenants, Moloch,
Belial, and Mammon celebrate the occasion. Beelzebub, knowing the pulse of
Satan, suggests that the New World created for Man could be destroyed as a mark
of revenge. But who should undertake the task of ruining? Well, but who could
indulge in it except Satan? With the sigh of relief in every fallen angel, Satan leaves
Hell (after having befriended the watchers of the Hell-gate, Sin, his daughter and
wife and Death, his son) for the New World through Chaos. Meanwhile, the fallen
angels enjoy their time as they please.
Book III: God foresees the imminent danger to Man by Satan and tells His son
that Man needs a Redeemer and His son readily offers himself as ransom for Man.
Book IV: Satan enters the Garden of Eden, overhears the dialogue between
Adam and Eve, and understands of the forbidden fruit. Satan is detected by the
sentinels, Gabriel and Uriel, and so he flies to escape.
Book V: Raphael, the guardian angel, makes a visit to Man and warns him of a
danger by Satan.
Book VI: Raphael relates further, how, Satan, being an Archangel, wanted to
usurp God and occupy his throne and so, a vain war was engaged against God and
the result of it is what we have been seeing from Book I onwards. A warning is
again made to Adam and Eve against the possible attempt of Satan to seduce Man.
Book VII: The creation of the New World and Adam and Eve is described.
Book VIII: Adam enquires about the Heavenly bodies and Raphael answers as
far as he could perceive. Adam recounts of God’s warning against the Tree of
Knowledge, the eating of the fruit of which would result in the eater’s death.
Raphael leaves Adam once again warning him.
Book IX: Inspite of all the warning, they fail and so fall
Book X: The Son of God comes down to Eden and pronounces the infliction of
the punishment on Man. Meanwhile, Satan returns to Hell and boasts of his
success before his followers. But, by the time, they are all reduced to reptiles. Sin
and Death hasten to earth. But they are warned of their ultimate overthrow by the
good offices of the Son of God. Adam and Eve repent.
Book XI: The Son intercedes the Father on behalf of Man. Michael is sent to
reveal Man ‘their future and Redemption’. Michael takes Man “to a high mountain
and unrolls before him a vision of the world’s history till the Flood.”
Book XII: Michael traces the history of Israel after the Flood, till the coming of
Christ, with the subsequent progress of Christianity, ending with renewed promise
of redemption. Michael leads Adam and Eve to the gates of Eden; and they go forth
sad, yet consoled with the hope of Salvation at the end.
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2.1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Subjective Poetry
2. Epic
3. Metrical Romances
4. Prepare a list of the different stanza forms, if possible with suitable example.
5. How is In Memoriam related to Adonais? Discuss.
2.1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Bangalore: Prism Books Pvt.
Ltd., 1993.
2. Beckson, Karl E and Ganz, Arthur F. A Reader’s Guide to Literary Terms, a
Dictionary. Chandigarh: Vishal Publishers, 1982.
3. Gupta A.N. and Gupta, Satish. A Dictionary of Literary Terms: Bareilly:
Prakash Book Dept. 1983.
4. Hudson, W.H. An Introduction of the Study of Literature. New Delhi: Atlantic
Publishers, 2006.
5. Iyengar, Srinivasa K.R. Introduction of the Study of English Literature.
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 2011.
6. Monfries, Helen. An Introduction to Critical Appreciation for Foreign Learners:
An Anthology of Prose Passages and Verse. Chennai: Macmillan, 1970.
7. Prasad, Birjagadish. A Background to the Study of English Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
8. Rees, R.J. English Literature: An Introduction to the study of Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
9. Upham, Alfred H. The Typical Forms of English Literature. New Delhi: AITBS
Publishers, 1999.
2.1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Read sonnets to find out the rhyme scheme
2. Try to the difference between simile and epic simile
3. What is the connection between chorus and odes?
2.1.12 KEY WORDS
1. Lyric: (of poetry) having the form and musical quality of a song, and
especially the character of a songlike outpouring of the poet's own thoughts
and feelings.
2. Ode: A lyric poem, typically one in the form of an address to a particular
subject, written in varied or irregular metre.
3. Elegy: An elegy is a sad poem, usually written to praise and express sorrow
for someone who is dead.
4. Ballad: A short story in verse, often of folk origin and intended to be sung ,
consisting of simple stanzas usually having refrain.
 44

5. Epic: A long narrative poem, typically one derived from ancient oral tradition,
narrating the deeds and adventures of heroic or legendary figures or the past
history of a nation.
6. Metrical Romance: A metrical romance recounts the quest undertaken by a
single knight in order to gain a lady’s favor. It tells a story that ends happily,
whether love is involved or not. It deals with the themes of chivalry, knight-
errantry, adventure and love.
7. Dramatic Monologue: A poem in the form of a speech or narrative by an
imagined person, in which the speaker inadvertently reveals aspects of their
character while describing a particular situation or series of events.
8. Metre: A rhythm of accented and unaccented syllables which are organized
into patterns, called feet.
9. Rime: A rhyme is a repetition of similar sounding words occurring at the end
of lines in poems or songs.
10. Poetic Diction: It is the term used to refer to the linguistic style, the
vocabulary, and the metaphors used in the writing of poetry.
11. Pindar: An ancient Greek lyric poet (522 – 443 BC) from Thebes.
12. Lesbian: Refers to the islands called Lesbos.
13. Petrarch: A poet and scholar whose humanist philosophy set the stage for
the renaissance.
14. Lyre: A string instrument known for its use in Greek classical antiquity and
later periods. It is similar in appearance to a small harp but with distinct
differences.
15. Quatrains: A stanza of four lines, especially one having alternate rhymes.


 45

UNIT – III
LESSON - 1
3.1 DRAMA
STRUCTURE
3.1.1 Objectives
3.1.2 Introduction
3.1.3 Content: The Study of the Drama
3.1.3.1 Origin and Development of Drama
3.1.3.2 Different Types of Drama
3.1.3.3 Divisions of a Dramatic Plot
3.1.3.4 The Drama and the Novel
3.1.4 Revision Points
3.1.5 Intext Questions
3.1.6 Summary
3.1.7 Terminal Exercise
3.1.8 Supplementary Materials
3.1.9 Assignments
3.1.10 Suggested Readings
3.1.11 Learning Activities
3.1.12 Key words
3.1.1. OBJECTIVES
The aim of this unit is to develop students’ knowledge and understanding of
drama. The origin of drama can be traced to religious services of the churches.
This unit aims to provide the necessary details about drama so as to help them
read and understand the prescribed dramas in the following semesters.
3.1.2 INTRODUCTION
Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and
performance. It is one of the literary genres, which is an imitation of some action.
Drama is also a type of a play written for theaters, televisions, radios and films. In
simple words, a drama is a composition in verse or prose presenting a story in
pantomime or dialogue, containing conflict of characters, particularly the ones who
perform in front of audience on the stage. The person who writes drama for stage
directions is known as a dramatist or playwright.
Drama is one of the best literary forms through which dramatists can directly
speak to their readers or audience as well as they can receive instant feedback of
audience. A few dramatists use their characters as a vehicle to convey their
thoughts, values such as poets do with personas, and novelists do with narrators.
Since drama uses spoken words and dialogues, thus language of characters plays a
vital role, as it may give clues to their feelings, personalities, backgrounds, and
change in feelings, etc. In drama the characters live out a story without any
comments of the author, providing the audience a direct presentation of characters’
life experiences. Let us study the literary genre, the Drama in detail.
 46

3.1.3 CONTENT:
3.1.3.1 The Origin and Development of Drama
The history of drama in England is a development from the miracle play to
morality, from morality to interlude and from interlude to the common tragedy and
comedy. In the growth of drama, there were many overlappings and there were
different types of entertainment. Even during the great days of Shakespeare, people
had not missed the miracle plays and enjoyed their simple forms and language.
It is to be noted that the records from which the history of drama, could be
constructed, remains incomplete. So also, the history of acting and especially that
of the stage, costume and actors is not adequate. A complete story is based on
theory and speculation.
The history of English drama has its origins in the medieval drama. In the very
early period, there had been a reaction among the Christians to Roman plays, for
the Christians objected to it by quoting: "The woman shall not wear that which
pertaineth upto a man, neither shall a man put on a woman's garment; For all that
do' so are abomination unto the Lord God's" (Deuternomy, xxii. 5). This argument
was alive till the days of Milton. The second objection of the Christians was to the
excess of the late Roman stage. The theatre could hold 2,800 people and it was a
place of spectacle and the actor was a slave or a freeman. The productions were
also farce in character. The Elizabethans could remember one dramatist, namely
Seneca whose plays were not meant for performance on the stage but remained for
an in-depth study. By the sixth century, the stage ceased to exist with the
incursions of the barbarians and the strong hold of the Christians.
During the Dark Ages, that is from the sixth century to the tenth century, the
stage existed in a submerged state. The actor remained without a stage or a drama.
This is evident from the poetry of Chaucer and Langland who refer to travelling
players, as "Jonglers" and "Joculators." In fact they were condemned as social
outcasts. These travelling players were of different types. One such group was the
German tribes who had a professional taleteller called "Scop." There is a reference
to these "scops" in Beowulf, an old English poem. That poem itself is told as a
Scop's tale. Another poem of the period Widsith (The Far Traveller) tells the life of a
scop. The Christians looked down upon a scop as a pagan. Hence sometimes his
tales were modified with a Christian emphasis.
"Mime" was another less dignified drama. It entered England through the Latin
influence and it brought with it an array of performers in the form of dancers,
tumblers and jokers. The church could not tolerate their performances and by the
13th century passed many laws restricting their activities. For two centuries, from
the twelfth to the fourteenth, the "minstrels" occupied an important role in the
English social life. Some of these minstrels resided at the court or in some great
houses and some others were strollers. They composed songs on war and they
either praised or abused personalities. The church, which condemned them earlier,
 47

began to recognise their abilities and sometimes used them to serve its purposes. It
is doubtful whether their activities resembled any theatrical production.
Another kind of drama of a folk nature during the thirteenth century was also
subjected to attacks. Such celebrations were only seasonal and of a communal
nature. Indeed they reflected a common urge to commemorate the different seasons
and the harvest time.
The desire for a dramatic expression was not only confined to the countryside
but it came to the surface in the form of making or dancing or burlesque among the
lower orders of the clergy. Sir E.K. Chambers, the great historian remarks that "it
was largely an ebullition of the natural lout beneath the cassock." One such
popular performance was, the Boy Bishop in which the choirboys performed the
functions of the church dignitaries.
Such activities only establish the fact that the play instinct remained in spite
of the absence of drama. Later in middle Ages, the drama re-established itself only
from these activities and conditions. In this context, it is to be noted that the
church which was responsible for the suppression of drama during the Dark Ages
instituted this art form at the beginning of the Middle Ages. The Mass in the
church, especially on certain occasions on those days added some special features
with the dramatic significance. The crucial scenes in The Bible with reference to the
Birth and Resurrection of Jesus were enacted on the altar. Two groups of voices
questioned and answered a practice that is common even at the present time.
These kind of verbal presentations were made elaborate later with the addition
of a ritual or a dumb show. These plays were realistic and measures were later
taken to present a dramatic presentation of the events, particularly at Christmas or
at Easter time.
Once established, these performances had an effect on the history of the
drama. By the middle of the fourteenth century, they were established and by the
middle of the fifteenth century they became secularised. The liturgical plays were
extended to other time apart from Christmas and Easter, till the cycle of the Biblical
story was completed. For example, the story of creation was performed and with
each such liturgical exposure, the drama grew up. As a result, the element of
devotion decreased and the element of dramatic significance increased.
First of all, the dramatic significance manifested itself in the change of place in
presentation. From the choir it shifted to the nave and from there it came out of the
church but within its premises. The crowds were unseemly for the holy precincts
and so the plays moved to the market place where they were performed
simultaneously around the city. The clerical authorities too were not intimately
associated with the drama. Once the plays reached the market place, they had to
compete with the other entertainments and its character increased in secularity.
The civil corporation organised the plays. It exercised censorship on the choice
and mode of presentation. The play was produced by the craft guilds at their cost
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and the members of the guild contributed towards the cost of production. Only a
few or the many cycles existed, notably those of Chester, York, Towneley (Wakefield)
and commentary. The cycle of plays at York is interesting as it was complete but
they did not possess the features of the "Towneley" plays, the work plays are only
an elaboration of the Biblical narratives without dramatic features. 'Towneley' had
five plays of striking characteristic features in addition to those performed at work.
They are Noah with his children, the First Shepherd's play, the Second Shepherd's
play the play of King Herod, and the play of Christ before Cayphass. A close vivid
description of a realistic nature as it can be found in the description of Noah's ship
is their special mention. The dialogue is also natural, human and of contemporary
nature. Yet the dramatist dealt solemnly the dialogue between God and Noah. The
most successful Second Shepherd's Play is noted for its realistic account of the
woes of shepherds and the virulent attack on women. These plays are known as the
'miracle' plays.
In addition to the miracle plays, another kind of a series of plays was
developed during the same period. They were known as 'Morality plays' in which the
characters represented abstract qualities. Though this appeared to be a dull
method for drama, the abstract qualities were given very lively human features. One
of the earliest of these Moralities is the "Castle of Perseverance". The dialogue is
found in an elaborate rhyming stanza and the play gives an account of a man's life
from birth to his appearance at the Seat of Judgement.
The most famous English Morality play is “Everyman” written about 1500 A.D.
and it was so popular that many reprints were made in the sixteenth century. Its
theme is much less prolix than that of the "Castle of Perseverance" and it has a fine
quality of directness and pathos in its verse. The theme given is the same human
quality as it is found in "Pilgrim's Progress". Both the works are allegories and both
have the quality of human adventure. Though the characters in "Everyman" are
abstract figures, they have more variety than the individual persons derived from
biblical narrative. They are far more contemporary indeed.
"Everyman" represents the audience of its period and in this manner it is
realistic. The strength of the play lies in the skilful development of the different
scenes. The story is allegorical in nature and it described an ordinary journey. At
every stage of the journey, the abstract is made concrete by lively figures and
human situations.
Some morality plays like "Mankynd" of the late fifteenth century had comic
elements. Even the tone of this play is different from that of "Everyman".
Mankynd is attacked by three rascals, Nowte, Neygyse and Now-days but he is
befriended by Mercy. The three rascals are real and contemporary figures and they
have the coarseness of comic characters. The specialty of this play is that it has a
vivid quality in its language.
The morality play is also used for a political theme as it happens in the case of
John Skelton's "Magnyfycence". The dramatist satirizes Wolsey through the figure
 49

of Magnificence. Hope shows how Fancy comes to Magnificence who is led to

destruction. But later he is reduced by the teaching of wishes.
Apart from the miracle and morality plays, there developed an "Interlude"
known for its dramatic value. "Kvckescomers" was produced at the beginning of the
sixteenth century. The title is the name of one of the characters in the play. The
play has little dramatic strength and follows the morality play. Its theme is more
humanistic than didactic. The plot depicts the conversion of Freewill and
Imagination through the agency of Pity, Perseverance and Contemplation. The
interlude had its development in a community of writers and dramatists like
Sir. Thomas More, John Rastell, John Heywood and others.
In the play 'Calisto and Melebea', whose authorship is attributed to John
Rastell, the English writer, has failed to employ the Spanish story to the full and he
has such a firm note on the moral conclusion that he achieves very little by way of
plot. Another interlude names "Four Elements" is in the form of a dialogue or
discussion. Its purpose is to instruct humanity in the nature of four elements,
earth, water, air and fire.
John Heywood who wrote after 1520 is the most considerable figure in the
history of the Interlude. In fact he had been the centre of the More Circle. He
developed arguments and disputations among characters adding the comic
elements also. "The Play of the weather" is an example for this kind of work.
Another play, "The Four P.S," is a new and merry interlude but it has a
monotonous movement. It strength lies in the vigour of the dialogue. The
discussion centres on the topic of which of the four men can tell the biggest lie. The
purpose of the play is comedy and not didactism. The two interludes "John the
Husband Tyb his wife and Sir Johri the Priest" and "Merry Play Between the
Pardoner and the Friar, the Curate and Neighbour Paratte" have a more ample
dramatic interest. Another memorable interlude which showed dramatic
development was "Thersytes", a play designed for children. It is a comic study of
cowardice and in some ways follows the mood exploited by Ibsen.
It is impossible to trace a regular development from the Interludes to the more
elaborate drama. The plays of Plauteus and Terence, the comedy of Italy and those
of Seneca on tragedy are the new influences. These influences disturbed the regular
native development of the drama. The new forms were more ambitious than the old
but they did not replace them. The York Miracle plays were performed late in the
sixteenth century and some of the cycles continued to the seventeenth century. The
break in comedy is much less definite than in tragedy. The native tradition in
comedy had been strong and vital, but in tragedy there had been no native models.
It is to be noted that this made a sudden and spectacular step forward somewhere
between 1510 and 1580.
The influence of Senaca on tragedy was outstanding. He was known to the
English dramatists as the author of ten tragedies. He had studied Greek drama,
especially the tragedies of Euripides. Seneca retained the chorus of the Greek
 50

drama and placed it at the end of the acts. Hence the chorus did not interfere in the
play. He retained something of the pattern of the Greek drama. Also, the themes
employed were nominally the themes of the Greek drama, but he substituted the
awe and terror with only an element of horror. Personal revenge was substituted for
Fate or Will in the Greek conception of tragedy. Later this substitution of Personal
revenge was adopted in Elizabethan tragedy. Seneca also introduced the 'Ghost' as
a member of the 'dramatic personae'.
Seneca was far more accessible to the Elizabethan dramatists than any other
Greek dramatist. He gave all the forms of the Greek drama, the unities, the chorus
and the values behind the themes. His indulgence in horror delighted the
Elizabethan audience who was familiar with death and violence in the domestic and
the political scenes. The important influence on English tragedy was Latin and not
Greek.
The influence of the Senecan plays was mainly seen after 1560. In 1561-62
Gorboduc a Senecan translation by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville was acted
before the Queen at Whitehall. From 1580 onwards, the Senecan influence was on
the increase, and by 1581 all the ten tragedies of Seneca were translated. The
period witnessed a revival of influence by the performance of some of the plays at
the universities. There were, of course, learned limitations of these plays. In a
decade's time, efficient dramatists captured the Senecan tradition for the popular
stage, and the outstanding example is that of Thomas Kyd's 'The Spanish Tragedy'
(1587-1589). Seneca could influence Marlon and Shakespeare and later the
influence was revived by Ben Johnson.
The English Chronicle play showed a parallel development with Senecan
tragedy. The Scenecan tragedy was European while 'the Chronicle' play was
fundamentally English. Some of the elements, which went to its making, were the
medieval pageants and the plays of the Lives of Saints, such as the one known to
have existed on the life of St. George. There were also some local traditions for the
dramatic rendering of historical events.
The Chronicle play relied for its source on the English Chronicles, dealing with
some period of English history. In the hands of Shakespeare, it gained its
importance and identity with tragedy. The Elizabethan audience even considered
the great Shakespearean tragedies 'King Lear' and 'Macbeth' as chronicle plays.
'Gorboduc' links the Senecan tragedy with the native chronicle play for it takes the
English story from Geoffrey and develops on the Senecan pattern. Shakespeare
developed Richard III easily from history into the pattern of tragedy. 'The
Misfortunes of Arthur' (1588) was another attempt to apply the Senecan form to the
English theme.
The chronicle play answered one element for a popular presentation of history.
The demand was real since it could be seen in the popularity of a collection of
historical poems as 'The Mirror for Magistrates' and later in the poems of Daniel
and Drayton.
 51

The Famous Victories of Henry V (1588) enjoyed considerable popularity. There

was no attempt to plan it on the pattern of a tragedy. History was dramatically
presented through a number of incidents taken from the reigns of Henry IV and
Henry V. Shakespeare who was aware of the earlier piece, amply included the
historical material in the I and II Parts. In Holinshed's "The Troublesome Reigns of
King John" (1588-1590), the chronicle matter is handled with an eye on dramatic
propriety. Shakespeare converts the Protestant spirit to a national atmosphere.
The years around the Armada marked the great period of the popularity of the
chronicle as well as historical plays. "The True Chronicle of King Lier" (1594) has a
rough effectiveness and holds a proud place as the predecessor of Shakespeare's
most profound tragedy. Similarly, "The True Tragedies of Richard III" is a source for
the development of Shakespeare's "Richard III". Marlowe could discipline the
chronicle of "Edward II" successfully into a tragedy. The play could give the events
of twenty years in a digested form. Further, it concentrates on a weak man as a
cultural protagonist, a type found again, with ample modifications in Shakespeare's
"Richard II". It was indeed Shakespeare's attachment to the chronicle play that he
discovered such original forms as "Henry IV" and "Henry V" and it was through the
same type that he discovered his major way into tragedy.
Alongside the developments in tragedy and chronicle play during the sixteenth
century, there were also changes in comedy. It has a strong native tradition and
developed successfully in a different way without foreign influence. The study of two
Latin authors, Ploutus and Terence gave to English comedy a sense of pattern,
which it did not possess earlier. This Latin influence was partly due to a number of
schoolmasters who read Latin plays.
The first comedy, on classical models was Ralph Roister Doister (1553-1554),
by a school master named Nicholas Udalph who was master first at Eton and later
at Westminister. The plot is simple, wherein Ralph falls in love owing to his own
pride and stupidity. A comic character Mathew is employed to further the course of
this love and he is developed into a major character in the course of the play.
Another comedy Gammer Gurton's Needle (about1553) is described as a right pithy,
pleasant and merry comedy. The author has learned something from Latin drama
but he is native and original in character, scene and plot.
He develops a farcial comedy around the loss of a needle. The play has a
crudity but the pictures of rural life are genuine. George Gascoigne worked the first
prose comedy in English Supposes (1566) and it gained a new liberty of form for the
comic drama.
The early and medieval drama was performed by the guilds and it was the
work of the amateurs. It had a producer who appeared to be a professional. Such
performances continued long after the establishment of the professional theatre.
During the medieval period, the choirboys were associated with the burlesque
ceremony of the Boy-Bishop and they were also used for the serious roles in
liturgical plays. By the sixteenth century, the choirboys were engaged in the
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performance of regular plays. The children of St. Paul's and of the Royal Chapel
were organised into what amounted to regular professional companies. Later school
children also gave performances. There were regular companies of children who
acted at times in competition with the male professional companies of adults. There
were echoes of rivalry between the boy companies and the adult companies in
Elizabethan theatre. It is noted in "Hamlet".
In the early seventeenth century, the boy companies were involved in the great
quarrel of the actors and they acted a number of Ben Jonson's plays. Ben Jonson's
satire called forth Dekkar's reply. Jonson's list of dramatis personae includes
Salathel Pavy, the boy player, on whose death he wrote charming lyric.
Throughout the Elizabethan period, the professional theatre was attacked by
the Puritans. The theatre existed between the open hotility of the city authorities
with a Puritan bias and the genuine, vigorous support of the aristocracy and the
court. The Puritans were not much concerned with drama at the Universities and
the Inns of Court or with the performances of the Court itself. They opposed the
growth of a professional theatre, on the fact that plays were performed on the
Sabbath and again the theatre was a centre of immorality.
When Elizabeth attained the throne, an Act against vagabonds was
promulgated. It was against any man without a craft. An actor was a vagabond
unless he was retained by a man of quality. So the Elizabethan dramatic companies
carried the name of some nobleman such as "the Earl of Leicester's men” in order to
give a legal existence to the actors. Though it protected the actors, it did not protect
the theatre or plays.
The control on plays lay with the Justice of Peace in the country and with the
municipality in London. The central authority under Henry VIII intervened to
suppress sedition and ecclesiastical hereby. But Queen Elizabeth was prepared to
hand over the powers to the municipalities. These offices were goaded by the
Puritans and Preachers who were not to license plays but to suppress their staging.
The main excuse given was the fear of plague.
As a result, it became impossible to perform the plays in the city of London.
The players naturally moved to the suburbs and that is why the first theatre was
built outside the city walls. Still the Puritans persisted in their attack. They wished
for strict rules to suppress the plays in the city and tried to enforce the suburban
magistrates to stop plays. At length, through the influence of the noblemen, the
Master of the Revels was given a general censorship of plays in 1581. In spite of
this measure, the corporation and the Puritans continued their attack.
Under these conditions, the drama of Shakespeare and his predecessors
developed. It is amazing to note that Shakespeare's company, known as "Lord
Chamberlain's Men”, continued to develop against all odds. In 1590, it had no
theatres of its own but plays were performed either in hired theatres or in the
London Inns. It then acquired a public theatre at the Globe and a private theatre at
Blackfriars, nearer to the court at Westminister. The Globe was rebuilt in 1599 and
 53

Shakespeare was a part in it. The company's private theatre was completely
enclosed and its stage permitted elaborate scenic effects.
Queen Elizabeth was only twenty-five when she came to the throne. She
enjoyed plays and pageantry at other people's expense. Special performances were
held usually between November and February in the banqueting room of the
palaces. Later, under the reign of Charles I, conditions developed. It was a great
achievement when the players had no legal and had no centre on their own and
were struggling hard against the Puritans.
3.1.3.2 Different Types of Drama
It is customary for the historian and critic to distinguish sharply between two
antithetical types of drama: the classic and the romantic. This broad division is,
however, insufficient. The classic type must be sub-divided into the ancient, true
classic, and the neo-classic, or pseudo-classic, while a separate place must be
made for the drama of our own time.
Greek drama originated in rustic festivals, which in early Attica were
periodically held in honour of the nature-god, Dionysius-the one from the serious,
the other from the frolicsome side of such liberations. After branching out into the
dithyrambic (satiric) processionary dance and the choral stationary dance
(associated respectively with the festival of Dionysius and the worship of Appollo),
the two forms coalesced in course of time and became Attic Tragedy in the hands of
Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, with the stress on choral element.
Comedy in Athens passed through three stages: Old comedy, or the comedy of
political and personal satire: Middle comedy which marked the new transition from
this to the comedy of social life and manners: New comedy, in which this change
was completed of Greek tragedy, larger and more representative body of work has
come down to us, for we possess thirty two plays of the three great tragic poets –
Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides.
The primary importance of the Greek tragedy is the stress on choral element.
No one characteristic of the Attic drama is more curious than this. In every play
such a chorus, or body of persons, forming, as it were multiple individuality,
moving singing and dancing together and continually interrupting the dialogue and
the progress of the action with their odes and interludes.
The Chorus belongs to Greek tragedy because it is the term form which it
springs. From the very beginning of real tragedy with Aeschylus, the tendency of
artistic evolution is consistently toward the sub-ordination of the choral element to
that of the individual actors. In Sophocles, the use of chorus reaches perfection. In
Aeschylus, about one half of a play is occupied with choral odes and in Euripides
only from a quarter to a ninth part. Along with this decrease in the prominence of
the chorus goes its gradual detachment from the action. The history of chorus in
Greek tragedy is a history of gradual decay. Arnold explains, that it was to combine,
to harmonize, to deepen for the spectator the feelings excited in him by the sight of
what was passing on the stage.
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While in Greek drama the ‘tragic’ and ‘comic’ are released in the contrasted yet
complementary form of Tragedy and Comedy, in Sanskrit drama the ‘elements’ were
usually though not invariably mixed in diverse proportions, rather as in
Elizabethan drama. In Sanskrit drama, there are ordinarily on tragedies as such.
Happy conclusion was the general rule and hence the virtuous were rewarded and
the vicious punished in the end.
Following the movement of dramatic history, we pass from Greece to Rome,
which at the time of its literary awakening under Hellenic impulses began to
fashion both comedies and tragedies on the lines which the Greeks had laid down.
Comedy possessed twenty plays of Plautus and six Terence, while tragedy
possessed ten dramas of Seneca. Both the comedies and tragedies have great
historical importance.
The drama of modern Europe arose out of the rich symbolic liturgy of the
mediaeval church through the gradual dramatization of important events
commemorated in the chief services of the calendar. This liturgical drama, in
course of time, evolved into a fully developed and widely popular religious play-the
Mystery or Miracle Play, the subject matter of which was derived mainly from the
Bible, but its part also from tradition and the lives of saints. Mr. Symonds
described the religious drama in England as the Dame school of our dramatic
genius.
Another kind of didactic drama arose and flourished in the morality or
allegorical play. The real beginnings of modern and tragedy are closely connected
with that particular phase of the Renaissance which we call the classic revival.
Fired by enthusiasm for everything belonging to the newly discovered world of
pagan antiquity, men turned back to that world for inspiration and example in
drama as in all other forms of literacy art.
In comedy, the native and popular elements were too strong in England to
permit mere academic imitation, Tragedy, on the other hand, was at the outset,
purely academic.
Here, the historical importance becomes manifest. Now, in Senecan tragedy,
while in matter it tended to a free use of the violent, the horrible and the
supernatural if presented the structural principle of the classic drama in an
exaggerated form, action being entirely eliminated and one stately speeches full of
rhetoric and declamation taking the place of dramatic dialogue.
In Italy and France, while the Senecan type was modified in various
particulars, it was still taken as a foundation and neo-classism was firmly
established. It ideals backed by the enormous power of the Academy, ruling
supreme in the latter country, till the time of Dumes and Victor Hugo and England,
after a few abortive experiments and despite the efforts and influence of humanists
like Sidney, Seneca and neo-classism were abandoned were abandoned, and an
independent type of drama-the romantic came into existence.
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In Spain the national genius was too strong to accept the classic yoke, and a
rich romantic drama arose in defiance of all attempts of scholars and critics to
regulate it by fine and rule. The Spanish romantic drama of the seventeenth
century-best known to us in the works of its two chief masters, Lope delvega and
Calderon –deserves the attention of the students of its immerse fertility and
ingenuity in the matter of plot.
Romantic tragedy is commonly aristocratic in character. The tragic –hero is
often set in a world of commonplace men and things. In Romantic comedies, the
framework of the story is important. It deals with that which was once actual, but
is now remote, Classical comedy, on the other hand, deals with what is always true
and therefore with what is perennially actual.
Classic drama deals with the great legends of a remote mythical age; its chief
characters had been majestic heroes who belonged to a world of tradition all
together a part from and far above that of ordinary humanity and experience.
The romantic tragedy combines the idealistic with the realistic. In realistic
drama, the unites of time and place are now very commonly preserved within each
act. The product of our own age of eclecticism and experiment in every department
of art, the modern drama exhibits so many varieties that no summary statement of
its characteristics would be possible. Even the prepositions of the romantic stage
have been abandoned and under the co-operating influences of the democratic
spirit and realism, the Domestic Drama showed the aim of which is to hold the
mirror up to ordinary human life, has established itself as the most complete
representative of modern art. Drama thus has assumed different forms during
different periods in different countries.
3.1.3.3 The Natural Divisions of a Dramatic Plot
Every dramatic story arises out of some conflict-some clash of opposed
individuals, or passions, or interests. In the most elementary and still the most
popular type of story, such a conflict takes a purely personal form. The collision is
between good and evil embodied respectively in the hero and the villain of the piece.
Some kind of confect is the datum and the very back bone of a dramatic story with
the opening of this conflict, the real plot begins. With its conclusion the real plot
ends.
The complications that arise from the initial clash of opposed will continue to
increase until a point is reached at which a decisive turn is taken in favour of one
side or the other. Through every plot, the dramatic line could be traced. It beings
with some initial incident or incidents, Exposition (protasis) in which the conflict
originates. Secondly, the Rising action, Growth or complication (Epitacsis)
comprising the part of the play in which the conflict continues to increase in
intensity while the outcome remains uncertain. Thirdly, the Climax, Crisis or
Turning Point (peripeteia), at which one of the contending forces obtains such
controlling power. Fourthly, the Falling Action, Resolution or Denouement
(Catabasis) comprising the part of the play in which the stages in the movements of
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events towards this success are marked out. Fifthly, the Conclusion or Catastrophe
in which the conflict is brought to an end.

Though the real plot of the play begins with the beginning of a conflict, such
conflict arises out of and therefore presupposes a certain existing condition of
things and certain relations among the characters who are to come in to collision.
The plot of a play may be symbolized in a ‘Pyramidal Structure’.
In this diagram, ‘a’ stands for the exposition, ‘b’ for the initial stage, ‘c’, for the
growth of the action to its crisis, ‘d’ for the crisis or turning point: ‘e’ for the
resolution and ‘f’ for the catastrophe. This particular figure will evidently: serve only
to represent a play in which the crisis come almost exactly in the middle of the plot,
which is thus divided into two practically equal parts. Julius Caesar is the best
example for this.
In King Lear, the real crisis of the main plot is in the very first scene. And in
Othello, it does not occur till in the first scene of the fourth act. The following
diagramsindicates approximately the plot movement in these two instances as
follows:

The ‘Pyramidal diagram’ helps to bring out the great divisions of a dramatic
story vividly before our minds.
The purpose of the ‘introduction’ or ‘exposition’ is to put the spectator in
possession of all such information as is necessary for the proper understanding of
the play, he is about to witness. The opening scene or the scenes of any drama
must be largely occupied with explanatory matter. The management of this
explanatory matter is one of the severest tests of a playwrights skill. Be his story
ever so simple, the difficulties will be involved in it. Among the expedients which
have been adopted to overcome of this difficulty, the least dramatic is the set
speech of some particular character. The tedious narrative of Prospero in the
second scene of the Tempest is a case in point.
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Good exposition will take the form of dialogue which seems in the
circumstances to be natural and appropriate, which is put into the mouths of
characters, which are made at once interesting to us in such fine dramatic
openings, as for example, those of Othello and The Alchemist, the business of the
play starts with the rise of the curtain. It is possible for the dramatist to attain ideal
perfection in this portion of his work.
Yet the ideal should none the less be kept in view as a standard for judgement.
Exposition should be clear. It should be as brief as the nature of the material will
permit. It should be dramatic. It should if possible, be vitally connected with the
first movements of the plot. And it should be so disguised, that while, analysis will
never fail to reveal its mechanism, the impression left upon the spectator shall be
one of absolute naturalness and spontaneity.
‘Incident’ is to define the starting point. It must be interpreted broadly enough
to cover mental processes as well as external events. The initial incident leads to
the real business of the play, the first portion of which comprises the complication,
or rise of the action to its crisis. Every scene should occupy a definite place in the
evolution of the dramatic organism, either by marking a fresh stage in the
development, or by adding to our knowledge of the characters.
Every dramatic story, soon or latter, reaches a stage in its development at
which the balance begins to incline decisively to one or the other side, this is called
the ‘turning point’ or the ‘crisis’ of the action. The great law of the crisis is that it
shall be natural and logical outcome of all that has gone before.
Many modern playwrights seem to postpone the crisis as long as possible
whereas the older stage was to place it somewhere about the middle of the action,
generally a little beyond exposition or complication. In Shakespeare’s plays it is
commonly to be sought towards the close of the third and or quite early in the
fourth act. In Macbeth, it occurs in Act III, Scene (i), where with the escape of
Fleance and the appearance of Banquo’s ghost, begins the tragic reversal of
Macbeth’s fortune. In Othello, it occurs in Act IV, Scene (i), where the Moor is finally
convinced of his wife’s infidelity. In Julius Caesar, it occurs it Act II Scene (i), the
scene of Caesar’s death.
The crisis of the action leads to the other portion, in which the dramatic
conflict is to be brought to its conclusion. The conduct of this denouement will
depend upon the answer to the question – whether the play is to have a happy or
unhappy ending. In comedy, it will take the form of the gradual withdrawal of the
obstacles, the clearing away of the difficulties and misunderstandings by which the
wishes of the hero and the heroine have been thwarted and their good fortune
jeopardized. In tragedy, its essence will consist in the removal of those resisting
elements which have helped the power of evil in check, and in the consequent
setting free of that power to work out its own will.
The problem of the dramatist will always be, how to keep the interest alive
after the spectators have become aware that the resolution has begun, and that the
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current of events has been definitely set in towards a certain catastrophe. An

expedient frequently adopted to sustain interest in the second part of the play is
worthy of particular attention. It is to delay catastrophe by the interposition of
events which interrupt the progress of the falling action and thus serve temporarily
to revive uncertainty suspense. In comedy it is done by the employment of various
unexpected obstacles and in tragedy by suggestions that a way of escape for the
hero and the heroine may yet open up and the gate awaits them to be averted.
Tennyson once castigated that in modern plays, nothing is concluded in the
conclusion. It is necessary that a catastrophe in which all the lines of the story are
gathered together and no loose threads are left.
3.1.3.4 The Drama and the Novel
The drama and the novel have many things in common. They are made of
common elements such as the plot, the characters, dialogues, setting and
interpretation of life. Though, major elements of the drama and the novel are the
same, both the dramatist and the novelist work under different conditions.
Referring to drama in the sense of a theatrical play, drama takes on a different
dimension from the others.
Playwriting differs from the short story and novel in that its structure
separates the dialogue to each specific character. It also includes stage directions
and other specific notes that are meant for the actor/reader but are not verbally
communicated on stage. A short story is a more condensed style of writing,
usually--but not always--depicting a story line that takes place over a limited time
period. Short stories can also be dramatic. Dramatic elements can occur in most
literary styles- novels, short stories, plays and even poetry. Dramatic elements
usually involve some form of action and conflict.
The essential difference between fiction and drama as genres was first
articulated in Plato's Republic and then fleshed out in Aristotle's Poetics. Drama
uses imitation by means of direct mimesis - actors in stage pretend to be characters
-- whereas fiction and epic imitate their objects by means of a mixture of exposition
or narration in the voice of a person talking about the action and direct imitation.
As the novel and the drama are compounded of the same elements, a great
deal of what would be said about the former would be found equally applicable to
the latter. Manifestly, the drama and prose fiction are compounded of the same raw
materials.
The drama is not pure literature. It is a compound art, in which the literary
element is organically bound up with the elements of stage setting and historic
interpretation. The novel is independent of these secondary arts, it is, as Marion
Crawford once phrased it, a “pocket theatre” containing within itself not only plot
and actors, but also costume, scenery, and all the other accessories of a dramatic
representation. It is also that every novel must necessarily present a certain view of
life and of some of the problems of life.
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Plot character, dialogue, time and place of action, style and a stated or implied
philosophy of life are the chief elements entering into the composition of any work
of prose fiction, small or great, good or bad.
The basis of true greatness in a novel is to be sought in the greatness, of
substantial value, of its raw materials, that is the element of plot, what-ever aspects
of life, the novelist may choose to write about, he should write of them with the
grasp and thoroughness which can be secured only by familiarity with his material.
What he is not familiar with, he should leave alone.
Knowledge of life may be obtained in various ways beside direct personal
experience, it may, in particular, be obtained through books and through
conversation with other people who have touched the world at points where we
have not touched it ourselves. A writer of real creative genius, with that power of
absorbing and utilizing all kinds of materials derived from all kinds of sources, and
that sheer power of realistic imagination which habitually goes with this, may thus
attain substantial fidelity even when he is handling scenes and incidents which
have never come within the range of his own experience and observation.
The plot of a novel may be simple or compound, that is, it may be composed of
one story only, or of two or more stories in combination and the law of unity
requires that in a compound plot the parts should be wrought together into a single
whole. Thus, in dealing with plot-structure we may distinguish roughly between
two kinds of novel-the novel of loose plot and the novel of organic plot.
The conditions of the novel commonly permit the use of two opposed methods
of characterization – the direct or analytical and the indirect or dramatic, Speaking
generally, however, the very form of the novel as a compound of narrative and
dialogue, practically involves a combination of the non-dramatic and the dramatic
in the handling of character.
A broad and intimate knowledge of human nature at large, a keen insight into
the working of its common motives and passions, creative power and dramatic
sympathy, will together often suffice to give substantial reality and the
unmistakable touch of truth to characters.
We can distinguish roughly between two classes of novels-those in which the
interest of character is uppermost, while action is used simply or mainly with
reference to this and those in which the interest of plot is uppermost and
characters are used simply or mainly to carry on the action.
Dialogue well managed is one of the most delightful elements of a novel. Good
dialogue greatly brightens a narrative and its judicious and timely use is to be
regarded as evidence of a writer’s technical skill. Beyond having an organic
connection with action, dialogue should be natural, appropriate and dramatic.
The setting of the novel includes the entire milieu of a story- the manners,
customs, way of life, which enter into its composition as well as its natural
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background or environment. We may therefore distinguish two kinds of setting –the

social and the material.
Every novel no matter how trivial it may be, is said to rest upon a certain view
of the world, to incorporate or connote various general principles and thus to
present a tough general philosophy of life.
The novelist’s course is the same as the dramatist’s in interrupting the
philosophy of life. They both interpret life by representation. But while the
dramatist is confined to this indirect method, the novelist is able, if he chooses, to
supplement it by direct personal commentary and explanation.
Though the elements of the novel and drama are identical, the novelist and the
dramatist work under very dissimilar conditions and for this reason, they have to
manipulate their materials in dissimilar ways.
The modern novel is written to be read; the drama is designed for
representation by actors whom the narrative and the dialogue are distributed. The
novel relates and reports while the drama imitates by action and speech.
The novel is self-contained; that is to provide within its own compass
everything that the writer deemed necessary for the comprehension and enjoyment
of his work. The drama on the other hand, is not in this sense self-contained. It
implies everywhere the co-operation of elements outside itself and for the moment
these elements lacking. Thus, the drama depends much on stage setting.
The novelist enjoys almost absolute freedom as to the length of his work, and
therefore as to the amount of material that may go into its composition. At both
points the dramatist is subject to be serve restrictions. A novel designed to be read
through at a single sitting. The only requirement it has to meet, is that its interest
shall be so sustained as to prompt a return to it what the occasion offers. A play on
the other hand, is intended in Aristotle phrase for “ a single hearing” and as the
physical endurances of the spectator is limited and as, when the limit is once
reached even the most engrossing scenes will fail to arrest the flagging of attention.
Relative brevity is a first practical law of dramatic being. A dramatist then, to begin
with, is compelled to work within a much more confined space than the novelist.
Hence the significance of Aristotle’s warning to the playwright that he should not
attempt to “construct a tragedy upon an epic plan.”
In securing brevity, the dramatist is greatly helped; it is true by the secondary
arts of the stage; since much that the novelist has to explain he may leave to
historic interpretation, while stage setting practically relieves him from the
necessity of verbal description. Yet the problem of the clear and effective disposition
of his material within the narrow limits he has to accept, is one which always tax
his constructive skill.
The one advantage which prose fiction possesses in comparison with the
drama is that the author himself may from time to time appear in the capacity of
expositor and critic; and when he avails himself of this privilege he may justly
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maintain that as he is writing a novel and not by those of the drama that he is
bound.
Further comparison of these two cognate forms of art suggests another
important point. The immense scope of the novel, its freedom of movement and its
indifference to considerations of time and place, combine with the advantage just
mentioned to give it a special power of dealing with character in the making.
As in the handling of plot, so again in characterization a first condition of
dramatic art is brevity. In defiance of an over-long novel, it is sometimes urged that
the exposition of motive, the full portrayal of character, demand and justify
prolixity. But the dramatist has to deal with motive and character within the
narrowly circumscribed area of a comparatively few scenes, in which at the same
time he has to be more or less concerned with the progress of his story.
More even than in the novel every word of dialogue must be made to tell, each
feature must be elaborated in strict relevancy to the whole, and all mere
supererogatory talk must be avoided.
Dramatic dialogue is an essential adjunct to action, or even an integral part of
it; the story moving beneath the talk and being, stage by stage, elucidated to it.
We may regard dramatic dialogue as a means of characterization under two
heads: taking first, the utterance of a given person in his conversation in his
conversation with others, and then the remarks made about him by other persons
in the play.
A certain character in a play seems to stand a little apart from the rest and to
speak, as it were, with somewhat greater authority. Such a character is sometimes
described as the ‘chorus’ of the drama in which he appears, because to a limited
extent he fulfills the interpretative function of the chorus in Greek tragedy.
Dialogue, soliloquy and aside are the dramatist’s substitute for direct analysis and
commentary of the novel.
In a good play, as in a good novel plot really rests upon character. Every
dramatic story arises out of some conflict-some clash of opposed individuals or
passion, or interests. In the most elementary and still most popular type of story,
such conflict takes a purely personal form; the collision is between good and evil as
embodied respectively in the hero and the villain of the piece. But it may of course
assume various other shapes.
Through every plot we may trace more or less clearly what is sometime called
‘the dramatic line.’ We have to begin with, some initial incident or incidents in
which conflict originates: secondly, the rising action, growth or complication
compromising that part of the play in which the conflict continues to increase in
intensity while the outcome remains uncertain; thirdly, the climax, crisis or turning
point, at which one of the contending forces obtains such controlling power that
hence forth its ultimate success is assured; fourthly the falling action, Resolution or
Denouement, comprising that part of the play in which the stages in the movement
 62

of events towards this success are marked out; and fifthly, the conclusion or
catastrophe in which the conflict is brought to a close. It must be remembered,
however, that in a Shakespearean or other five-act drama the mechanical divisions
do not actually correspond with the natural divisions.

c e

a
f
The plot of a play may be symbolized as a pyramidal structure.
In this diagram, ‘a’ stands for the exposition; ‘b; for the initial incident; ‘c’ for
the growth of the action to its crisis; ‘d’ for the crisis or turning point; ‘e’ for the
resolution; and ‘f’ for the catastrophe.
It is usual to distinguish between the two chief kinds of ‘drama-comedy and
tragedy-by reference to the nature of the catastrophe; the one having a happy, the
other an unhappy ending. There are many plays, however in which as in the
tragicomedy of our older stage and in modern melodramas the interest of the plot is
largely tragic, though at the fates smile on most of the good characters.
The principles of parallelism and contrast are elements in the composition of a
plot. It is customary for the historian and critic to distinguish sharply between two
antithetical types of drama- the classic and the romantic. This broad division is,
however, insufficient. The classic type must be sub-divided into the ancient or true
classic, and neo-classic, or pseudo-classic, while a separate place must be made for
the drama of our own time.
The two great types of modern drama are the neo-classic and the romantic.
The latter is represented for us chiefly by the works of our Elizabethan and Stuart
playwrights, with Shakespeare at their head. The finest examples of the former type
are furnished by the writings of the great French masters of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries namely Cornille, Racine and Voltaire.
In the first place, neo-classic tragedy followed the classic model in the general
nature of its subjects and in the way in which these subjects were treated.
Romantic tragedy is indeed commonly aristocratic in character; as its very
name implies, it too is generally concerned with matters remote from the interests
of ordinary life and with the struggles and misfortunes of more or less illustrious
people. But in its treatment of its subjects, it repudiates entirely the neo-classic
method.
The fundamental principle of unity of tone in the neo-classic drama leads, in
the second place, to an important result in the complete separation in it as in the
ancient drama, of tragedy and comedy. Whereas the free use of tragedy and comedy
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in the same play is one of the most striking and familiar features in the work of
Romantic dramatists.
A third fundamental contrast between the two types of dramatic construction
is to be found in their opposed attitudes towards the unities of times, place and
action. Neo-classicism adhered to these in tragedy, at least in theory. Romantic
drama ignored the first two, while it adopted the third.
In theory, the drama is entirely objective: the novel permits the continual
intrusion of the personality of the writer. Thus the novelist may interpret life both
indirectly by his exhibition of it, and directly by his comments, upon it. The
dramatist is supposedly limited to the former indirect method. The drama on the
contrary, may be regarded as an impersonal representation of life. The drama is
indeed the most completely objective form
3.2.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Drama is not pure literature. It depends on non-literary elements like action,
setting, stage, costume, for its success.
2. Greek drama originated in rustic festivals.
3. Modern drama has a religious origin.
4. The classic and the romantic and the two broad types of drama.
5. Conflict is at the core of dramatic plot.
6. Exposition, Complication, Climax, Denouement and the Solution or
catastrophe are the five stages in a dramatic plot.
7. Drama and prose fiction are compounded of the same raw materials.
8. Characterization in drama is very fundamental.
9. Brevity and concentration are hallmarks of good characterization.
3.1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Is drama a pure literary art?
2. What is the structure of drama?
3. What is tragedy? Define its types.
4. What is Comedy? Define its types.
5. Write on Miracle plays.
3.1.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have tried to explain the meaning of drama. We have also tried
to distinguish it from other forms of literature. By now you must have been familiar
with the basic elements of drama which make drama unique. You have seen also
that the term drama is used at three different levels now. It is a performance, it is a
composition to be read or performed and it is a branch of literature.
Drama in England is of religious origin. The history of English drama has its
origins in the medieval drama. The history of drama in England is a development
from the miracle play to morality, from morality to interlude and from interlude to
the common tragedy and comedy. "Mime" entered England through the Latin
influence and it brought with it an array of performers in the form of dancers,
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tumblers and jokers.The most famous English Morality play is “Everyman” written
about 1500 A.D. and it was so popular that many reprints were made in the
sixteenth century. "Everyman" represents the audience of its period and in this
manner it is realistic.
Drama can be distinguished sharply between two antithetical types of drama:
the classic and the romantic. This broad division is, however, insufficient. The
classic type must be sub-divided into the ancient, true classic, and the neo-classic,
or pseudo-classic, while a separate place must be made for the drama of our own
time. The drama of modern Europe arose out of the rich symbolic liturgy of the
mediaeval church. This liturgical drama was developed into popular religious play-
the Mystery or Miracle Play. Another kind of didactic drama arose and flourished in
the morality or allegorical play. The real beginnings of Comedy and Tragedy are
closely connected with that particular phase of the Renaissance.
The dramatic design is composed of the following parts: (i) Exposition, (ii)
Rising Action, (iii) Climax or Crisis, (iv) Denouement and (v) Catastrophe or
Conclusion. Firstly, Exposition in which the conflict originates. Secondly, the Rising
Action in which the conflict continues to increase in intensity while the outcome
remains uncertain. Thirdly, the Climax, Crisis or Turning Point), at which one of the
contending forces obtains such controlling power. Fourthly, the Falling Action or
Denouement comprising the part of the play in which the stages in the movements
of events towards this success are marked out. Fifthly, the Conclusion or
Catastrophe in which the conflict is brought to an end.
The novel and the drama are compounded of the same elements. The drama is
a compound art, in which the literary element is organically bound up with the
elements of stage setting and historic interpretation. The novel is independent of
these secondary arts. The novel is meant to be read while the drama is for stage
production. The characters in the novel are developed through narration. The
dramatists develop his characters through their speeches and the comments of
other characters. The novel can be enjoyed fully just by reading. Full enjoyment of
the play can be attained only when it is performed on the stage.
3.1.7. TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What are the different types of drama?
2. Define Farce and Melodrama.
3. Examine the significance of characterization in drama.
4. Examine the connection between drama and religion
5. Write on Pre-Shakespearean drama
3.1.8. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Characterization in the Drama
It is carelessly assumed that characterization in a play is of minor importance.
But characterization is the really fundamental and lasting element in the greatness
of any dramatic work. Unless the story, incident and situation in a drama are
related to character, it will be unintellectual. They should indeed be another phase
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of the development of character. If a mere story of a mere succession of incidents do

not embody and display character and human nature, it would give something in
raw melodrama.
In characterization, a first condition of dramatic art is brevity. The dramatist
has to deal with motive and character within a narrowly circumscribed area of
comparatively few scenes, in which, at the same time, he has to be more or less
concerned with the progress of his story. Macbeth is often referred to as a
wonderful example of condensed treatment of action and the condensed treatment
of character. Shakespeare has endowed them with the reality and the mystery of
life. In the first act, a marvelously complete exhibition of the potentialities of both of
them for good and evil-Macbeth’s physical courage, his prowess on the battle field,
the confidence of others in him, the evil already fermenting in his mind, his
imaginative and superstitious temperament –are depicted. Lady Macbeth’s strength
and moral courage, her influence over her husband’s more sensitive and less
resolute nature are made clear in broad outline.
The more important condition of characterization in the drama than that of
mere brevity is its necessary impersonality. The novelist can himself mingle freely
with characters of his story. But the dramatist is compelled to stand apart. The
artistic imperfection of the novel; its wide range, its looseness of structure, its
eminently personal quality give it an enormous superiority in the field of
characterization.
Concentration is a necessary condition of dramatic characterization. Every
word of the dialogue must be made to tell, each feature must be elaborated in strict
relevancy to the whole, and all mere supererogatory talk must be avoided. The great
creators of character in the drama sometimes seem to become absorbed in the
development of character for its own sake, with a result of over-characterization.
For instance, the character of Hamlet exhibits this tendency.
We commonly overlook the significance of plot as a means of
characterization. In a good play, plot really rests upon character. Through the very
movement of the story the larger intellectual and moral qualities of persons who
take part in it are necessarily impressed upon us. The evolution of the story reveals
their dispositions, motives, and passions.
Plot can show nothing more than man in action, thus disclosing such broad
characteristics only. It is necessary that it should be bold in outlines and full of
movement, that its critical situation should be well defined. For all details of
characterization and for exhibition of passions, motives, feelings in their growth;
entanglements and conflicts, we must refer to the action itself, to the dialogue
which accompanies it. This must be true where the plot concerns itself rather with
the play of the forces behind action than in the external events.
Dialogue becomes an essential complement to action, or even an integral part
of it. The principle function of the dialogue is in direct connection with
characterization. Even in the hands of the novelist, dialogue will often be used to fill
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the place and to do the work of analysis and commentary. In the drama, it is not
simply an aid to analysis and commentary; it is a substitute for them.
The dramatic dialogue could be recorded as a means of characterization under
two heads, the utterances of a given person in his conversation with others and the
remarks made about him by the other persons in the play. The utterances of any
person in a play will furnish a continued running commentary upon his conduct
and character. Much that a person tells us about himself may have to be told, as it
were unconsciously and by implication. But, now and then it may be necessary that
some character should at first throw us more or less completely off our guard as to
his aims and motives, and reveal these only gradually, or as is far more likely to
happen, in some sudden turn of the action like Euphrasia in Beaumont and
Fletcher’s Philaster.
The direct self-portrayal through a person’s own speech must always
constitute the principal means of characterization by dialogue and it may be greatly
reinforced by what other people say about him either to his face or among
themselves. In considering this direct evidence, it is obvious that we must keep
steadily in mind its essentially dramatic quality. Each utterance must therefore be
tested by reference to the character of the particular speaker his own situation and
relation to the action, his sympathy and antipathy.
The exception to the general statement that dialogue is the dramatist’s only
substitute for the direct analysis of the drama is the device known as ‘soliloquy’. It
also includes the minor sub-division of the same form, ‘aside’. It is the dramatist’s
means of taking us down into the hidden recess of a person’s nature and of
revealing those springs of conduct which ordinary dialogue provides with no
adequate opportunity to disclose.
When a man in soliloquy reasons with and weighs all his designs, we ought
not to imagine that this man either talks to us or to himself he is only thinking and
thinking aloud such a matter as were an inexcusable folly in him. The soliloquy is
often more or less successfully disguised by being turned into a speech addressed
to some listener who is brought forward for this purpose.
3.1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Write an assignment on the essentials of a drama.
2. Write an essay on “The Drama as a Criticism of Life.”
3. Miracle and Mystery Plays.
4. Dramatic Plot.
3.1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Bangalore: Prism Books Pvt.
Ltd., 1993.
2. Beckson, Karl E and Ganz, Arthur F. A Reader’s Guide to Literary Terms, a
Dictionary. Chandigarh: Vishal Publishers, 1982.
 67

3. Gupta A.N. and Gupta, Satish. A Dictionary of Literary Terms: Bareilly:

Prakash Book Dept. 1983.
4. Hudson, W.H. An Introduction of the Study of Literature. New Delhi: Atlantic
Publishers, 2006.
5. Iyengar, Srinivasa K.R. Introduction of the Study of English Literature.
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 2011.
6. Prasad, Birjagadish. A Background to the Study of English Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
7. Rees, R.J. English Literature: An Introduction to the study of Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
8. Upham, Alfred H. The Typical Forms of English Literature. New Delhi: AITBS
Publishers, 1999.
3.1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Draw a pyramid diagram to show the five stages of dramatic plot.
2. Choose any one of the dramas prescribed for your study and find out the
major dramatic devices employed by the dramatists.
3.1.12 KEYWORDS
1. Plot: The orderly arrangement of events.
2. Chorus: In Greek drama, a group of singers appears on stage at the
beginning of the play or during the course of the play to inform about the
nature and the course of the play to the audience. This group is called
chorus.
3. Exposition: The opening part of the play in which the conflict originates.
4. Complication: The second stage during which the conflict gets complicated.
5. Climax: Refers to the third stage in drama when the complication reaches a
higher point.
6. Denouement: Refers to the falling action after the climax.
7. Catastrophe: The last stage when the conflict is brought to an end.

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UNIT – IV
LESSON - 1

4.1 FICTION
STRUCTURE
4.1.1 Objectives
4.1.2 Introduction
4.1.3 Content:
4.1.3.1 Elements of Fiction
4.1.3.2 Plot in the Novel
4.1.3.3 The Relation of Plot and Character
4.1.4 Revision Points
4.1.5 Intext Questions
4.1.6 Summary
4.1.7 Terminal Exercise
4.1.8 Supplementary Materials
4.1.9 Assignments
4.1.10 Suggested Reading
4.1.11 Learning Activities
4.1.12 Key words
4.1.1 OBJECTIVES
Guiding students towards a better appreciation of the ‘pocket theatre’ is the
main objective of this unit. In order to achieve this end, this unit attempts to
familiarize students to the various elements of fiction.
4.1.2 INTRODUCTION
Fiction can be as short as a few lines or as long as a novel. It can be fantastic,
or it can be realistic. But whatever its shape or size, the same essential parts are at
work to make it a story. The key elements of fiction are beginnings and endings,
character, setting, plot and theme, transitions, and structure. In this Unit you will
be introduced to the various elements that make up a fictional narrative; the events
that make up a story and how they are arranged (the plot); the perspectives from
which stories can be narrated; the art of characterisation; the importance of setting,
both in terms of time and place, and the actual language and style which writers
adopt to tell their narratives.
4.1.3 CONTENT:
The Study Prose Fiction
Novels are exciting verbal machines which transport their readers in space and
time. They challenge us to meet the unfamiliar. They offer us a share in the
pleasure of making because the designs they consist of are not simply there to be
seen; they have to be understood, constructed, recreated by the reader out of the
materials and according to the patterns which the fabric of their language contains
– or conceals. When we become expert readers, we may begin to see some flaws in
the workmanship or in the coherence of the design itself. But as beginning students
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our first task is to become aware of the pattern of meanings which can be discerned
in the novel we are studying. It is only with practice and experiences that we shall
begin to see that the flood of books we call novels have features in common which
allow us to group them together. Each novel has its own pattern, but as our
experience widens we may begin to identify patterns running through the history of
the form as a whole. These patterns cannot be assembled into a grand design, but
the forms of fiction, the ways in which stories have been told, have their own
history. An understanding of that historical pattern, haphazard and fragmentary as
it may be, does give us some insight into the forms of life which literate societies
have evolved in history, some awareness of their predominant interests, and of the
myths and guiding principles which have sustained them.
4.1.3.1 The Elements of Fiction
The novel, as Marion Crawford phrased it, is a “pocket theatre” containing
within itself not only plot and actors, but also costume, scenery, and all other
accessories of dramatic representation. It is the loosest of literary art.
Plot, characters, dialogue, time and place of action style, and a stated or
implied philosophy of life, are the chief elements entering into the composition of
any work or prose fiction, small or great, good or bad.
The plot is made up of raw material, which should have a universal
applicability. A fiction should provide amusement for the leisure hour and a
welcome relief from the strain of practical affairs.
The basis of true greatness in a novel is to be sought in the greatness or
substantial value, of the raw material and the mastery of handling it. The elements
of individual power and technical skill should be supported by an ample knowledge
of life. There must be the quality of ‘authenticity’.
The novelist should confine himself to his own personal first-hand intercourse
with the world. Knowledge of life may be obtained in various ways besides his own
direct personal experience: it may, in particular, be obtained through books and
through conversation with other people. A writer of real; creative genius, with that
power of absorbing and utilizing all kinds of material derived from all kinds of
sources, and that sheer power of realistic imagination which habitually goes with
this, may thus attain substantial fidelity even when he is handling scenes and
incidents which have never come within the range of his own experience and
observation.
In dealing with plot-structure, we may distinguish roughly between two kinds
of novel-the novel of loose plot and the novel of organic plot. The plot of a novel may
be simple or compound. The novelist has three methods in telling the story the
direct or epic, the autobiographical and the documentary.
Whether the novelist keeps close the common experience or boldly experiments
with the fantastic and the abnormal, his men and women shall move through his
pages like being and like living being remain in our memory after his book is laid
aside and its detail perhaps forgotten.
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A novelist’s success in characterization necessarily depends in part upon his

faculty for graphic descriptions. The novelist should help us by his description to a
vivid realization of the appearance and behaviour of his people. There are two
opposed characterization the direct or analytical, and the indirect or dramatic. The
need of fidelity to personal observation and experience in the plot and manner of a
novel is of course no less applicable to its characterization.
Dialogue, well managed is one of the most delightful elements of a novel and
an evidence of a writer’s technical skill. It is through dialogue that we get most
intimately into touch with people, and in which the written narrative most nearly
approaches the vividness and actually of the acted drama. Its principle function is
its direct connection with character. It is of immense value in the exhibition of
passions, motives, and feelings of the reaction of the speakers to the events in
which they are taking part, and of their influence upon with the action; dialogue
should be natural, appropriate, and dramatic.
4.1.3.2 Plot in the Novel
The plot in a dramatic or narrative work is the structure of its actions as these
are ordered and rendered toward achieving emotional and artistic effects. There are
varieties of plot forms. For example, some plots are designed to achieve tragic
effects, and others to achieve the effects of comedy, romance, or satire.
The element of plot is the nature of the raw material out of which it is made.
Deduced from the fundamental conception of literature as an interpretation of life,
the plot must have a universal applicability, for it is the certain mark of a great
novel, as of all great literature, that, wide as may be the range of its accessory
topics, it is primarily engaged with the things which make life strenuous, intense,
and morally significant. This does not mean that greatness in fiction depends in the
least upon the external importance of its incidents and characters. Nor does it
mean that it is to the tragic phases of experience only that a great novel must be
confined, for the comedy of life is often as full of large and permanent human
interest as its tragedy. A novel is really great only when it lays its foundations broad
and deep in the things which most constantly and seriously appeal to us in the
struggle and fortunes of our common humanity.
One function of fiction is to provide amusement for the leisure hour and a
welcome relief from the strain of practical affairs. The basis of true greatness in a
novel is to be sought in the greatness or substantial value, of its raw material. The
greatness of subject matter will not by itself ensure the greatness of a novel.
Mastery of handling is requisite in order that all the varied possibilities of a given
theme may be brought out to the full. This includes the two contributory elements
of individual power and technical skill, which should be supported by an ample
knowledge of life.
Whatever aspects of life the novelist may choose to write about, he should
write of them with the grasp and thoroughness of familiarity, that is confine himself
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to his own personal first-hand intercourse with the world, and never allow himself
to stray beyond it. There should mostly be the principle of fidelity.
It is often said that everyman might produce at least one interesting novel if
he would only write faithfully of what he has known and felt for himself.
Knowledge of life may be obtained in various ways beside direct personal
experience. It may, in particular, be obtained through book and through
conversation with other people who have touched the world at points where we
have not touched it ourselves. A writer of real creative genius, with that power of
absorbing and utilizing all kinds of material derived from all kinds of sources, and
that sheer power of realistic imagination which habitually goes with this may thus
attain substantial fidelity even when he is handling scenes and incidents which
have never come within the range of his own experience and observation. For
example, the historical novelist is evidently compelled to rely upon indirect
information for the specific characteristics of any period he undertakes to describe.
In dealing with plot-structure we may distinguish roughly between two kinds
of novel- the novel of loose plot and the novel of organic plot. In the former case, the
story is composed of a number of detached incidents, having little necessary or
logical connection among themselves: the unity of the narrative depends not on the
machinery of the action, but upon the person of the hero, who as the central figure
or nucleus, binds the otherwise scattered elements together, for example “Robinson
course.” On the contrary, in the latter type of novel, the separate incidents are no
longer treated episodically: they are connected as integral components of a defined
plot pattern, for example. “Tom Jones”. Even in novels of the organic kinds there is
often a great deal of purely episodically material.
The two drawbacks to which a highly organized plot is specially liable are that
it may be so mechanically put together that its very cleverness may impress up with
an uneasy sense of laborious artifice, or it may lack plausibility in details.
As truth is stranger than fiction, a fiction should not be as strange as fact. Two
tests of any plot are thus suggested. It should seem to move naturally, and be free
from any appearance of artifice; and the means used in working it out should be
such as we are willing to accept in the circumstances, as at last credible.
A novel, to be a work of art, needs unity and unity in a novel involves the
imposition of the logic of ‘plot’ on the material of the ‘story’. Logic is necessary, but
too much contrivance too can spoil the plot. The spinal column of the plot should
be the principle of causality, and not a pattern of accidents.
A special aspect of the principle of unity which the plot-structure requires is
that in a compound plot the parts should be wrought together in to a single whole.
It should also be noted that where several independent elements enter into a plot, it
is often the practice of the novel is to make them balance on illustrate one another.
A series of events arranged in chronological order should be the ground –plan of
every novel.
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As a plot progress, it arouses expectations in the audience or reader about

the future course of events. The interplay of suspense and surprise is a prime
source of the magnetic power and vitality of a non-going plot.
The novelist has three methods in telling a story – the direct, or epic, the
autobiographical and the documentary. In the first and most usual way, the
novelist is a historian narrating from outside; in the second, he writes in the first
person, identifying himself with one of his characters and this produces an
imaginary autobiographies, in the third, the action is unfolded by means of letters.
Occasionally, the methods may be blended, as in “Bleak-House”. It is evident that
each of these ways has its special advantages and disadvantages.
4.1.3.3 The Relations of Plot and Character
A novel, to be a work of art, needs unity: and unity in a novel involves the
impositions of the logic of ‘plot’ on the material of the ‘story’. On the other hand, the
imposition of causality is possible only in relation to the invented characters and
situations. Plot and character are therefore interdependent critical concepts as
Henry James has said, what is character but the determination of incident? What is
incident but the illustration of character?
Plot and characterization in practice are always united. In common, we
distinguish roughly between two classes of novels-those in which the interest of
character is upper-most while action is used simply or mainly with reference to
this, and those in which the interest of plot is upper-most and characters are used
simply or mainly to carry on the action.
Among the relative value of incident and character in fiction, characterization
is more important from which it follows that novels which have the principal stress
on character rank higher as a class than those which depend mainly on incident. A
certain amount of opposition always exists between the claims of plot, and those of
characters, where attention is paid primarily to plot, the characters have often to be
forced into its service, even at the cost of some sacrifice to their consistency, where
attention is paid primarily to character, the expansion of personality-often quite
unforeseen at the outset-as the story runs its course, will frequently prove fatal to
the regularity of the plot design.
While in every novel, plot and characters must be combined; there is a right
way and wrong way of treating their relationship. The wrong is to bring them
together arbitrarily and without making each depend logically upon each, the right
way is to conceive them throughout as forces vitally interacting in the movement of
the story.
In all really good fiction the mainsprings of the action must ultimately be
sought. Simple or complex, the plot evolves as a natural consequence of the fact
that a number of given people, of such and such dispositions and impelled by such
and such motives and passions are brought together in circumstances which give
rise to an interplay of influence or clash of interest among them. The circumstances
themselves may indeed count greatly as co-operating factors, and an impersonal
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element may thus combine with the personal in the development of action. Yet even
so, the personal reaction to circumstances will always remain a central
consideration. Incident is thus rooted in character, and is to be explained in terms
of it.
Muir’s particular contribution to the critical study of the novel is the
differentiation among the ‘action novel’, the ‘character novel’ and the ‘dramatic
novel’. In the ‘novel of action’, the characters are designed to fit the plot, e.g.
“Treasure Island”. In the ‘character-novel’, the plot is improvised to suit the
characters, e.g. “Vanity fair”. In the ‘dramatic novel’, character and plot are closely
knit, with interior causation showing itself in character issuing in action and action
issuing in character.
In the evolution of plot out of character, the motives which prompt the persons
of the story to act as they do must impress us as both in keeping with their natures
and adequate to the resulting incidents. If for the sake of the plot a character is
made to take a line of action in contradiction to the whole bias of his disposition, or
on motives, which seem insufficient or fantastic, then the true relation of plot and
character is ignored, and the art is faulty. The problem of psychological truth is as
essential in the management of plot as in the handling of character itself.
4.1.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Crawford calls the novel the pocket theatre.
2. Plot, characters, dialogue, time and place of action, style and a stated or
implied philosophy of life are the element of fiction & drama.
3. The plot-structure may be distinguished roughly between two kinds of novel-
the novel of loose plot and the novel of organic plot.
4. The plot of a novel may be simple or compound.
5. The novelist has three methods in telling the story the direct or epic, the
autobiographical and the documentary.
6. The characterization depends upon the novelist’s faculty for graphic
descriptions.
7. Dialogue is one of the most delightful elements of a novel.
8. Plot is the systematic arrangement of the action and situation to achieve the
desired effect.
9. The element of plot is the nature of the raw material out of which it is made.
10. There are three methods of narrative: (i) Direct or Epic Method, (ii) The First
Person Account or Autobiographical Approach, and (iii) Epistolatory Method.
11. The epic, the autobiographical and the documentary are the three methods
is story telling.
12. Plot and character are interdependent critical concepts.
13. Plot and characterization in practice are always united.
14. There are two methods of character portrayal: Direct or Analytical Method
and Indirect or Dramatic Method. In Direct Method, the novelist explains and
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comments the attitude and the behaviour of his characters, while Indirect
Method, he stands apart and allows his characters to reveal themselves.
4.1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Trace the beginnings of novel.
2. What are the essential elements of fiction?
3. Explain the structure of a novel.
4. Discuss different methods of plots and different methods of narration.
5. Discuss the importance and the methods of characterization in the novel.
4.1.6 SUMMARY
Elements of Fiction
The novel is an independent art form. The important elements of fiction are
(i) the plot that deals with events and actions, (ii) the characters in the novel, (iii) the
conversations that take place among the characters, that is, dialogues, the place of
action or setting, and the style of writing that differs from novelist to novelist.
Plot in the Novel
The greatness of the novel depends on its plot. There are two types plot: the
novel of loose plot and the novel of organic plot. In loose plot, the story is composed
of a number of detached incidents. But the organic novels are bound by logical
pattern and there are definite designs. There are three methods of narrative:
(i) Direct or Epic Method, (ii) The First Person Account or Autobiographical
Approach, and (iii) Epistolatory Method.
The Relations of Plot and Character
Plot and character are interdependent critical concepts. Plot and
characterization in practice are always united. In every novel, in the evolution of
plot out of character, the motives which prompt the persons of the story to act must
impress us. There are two methods of character portrayal: Direct or Analytical
Method and Indirect or Dramatic Method. In Direct Method, the novelist explains
and comments the attitude and the behaviour of his characters, while Indirect
Method, he stands apart and allows his characters to reveal themselves.
4.1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What is a novel?
2. What are the important elements of fiction?
3. What are the two types of plot?
4. What are the different methods of narrative?
5. Mention the two methods of character portrayal?
6. Write a short note on Epistolatory method of narrative.
4.1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
The Novel and the Short Story: A Comparison
There is a tendency to regard the short story as a novel in miniature. A short
story cannot be called either a story that is short or ‘a short novel’. There is a clear
difference between them in the treatment of material, in focus and in angle. It is
true that both the short story and the novel deal with life. The short story cannot
afford the large canvas on which the novel exhibits life in its complexity and variety.
Usually, only one aspect of life is dealt with. It presents only a slice of life. In this
 75

respect, a short story differs from a novel in the dimension which Aristotle calls
‘magnitude’. O Cannon says, “The form of the novel is given by the length; in the
short story, the length is given by the form.”
The method of detailed treatment used in a novel cannot be used in a short
story. A short story, usually, shares the usual constituents of all action, plot
character and setting. But, they cannot be treated with the same detail as in novel.
In a short story, each has to be reduced to the minimum.
In plot, the short story writer has to select one situation or episode and has to
introduce a very limited number of characters, whereas the novelist can deal with
numerous incidents and characters. He can’t afford the space for a leisurely
analysis and sustained development of character. A short story is more restricted in
character and setting and is usually concerned with a single effect unlike a novel. It
does not aim at the development of character, for in it a single aspect of personality
undergoes a change and is shown as a result of character. There is frequently
concentration on a single character involved in a single episode. The short story
writer must be quick and must choose one or two characters or incidents and hint
at the rest and thus not clutter up the short story with unnecessary details.
A short story cannot deal with the evolution of character in such amplitude as
the novel can, for in a short story we meet people for a few minutes and see them in
a few relationships and circumstances only. But we have to live for some time with
men and women and to see them in different relationships and circumstances
before we get ready to know them. This is possible only in a novel. The novelist may
depict a character in a set of circumstances and allow the character to grow in
stature. The short story writer cannot afford this expansiveness. He has to pick and
choose a suggestive moment which may reveal a character like a flash of lightning.
In the novel, different elements are woven into its texture and at times, there
may be many points of interest. But no such scattering of interest can be permitted
in the short story. In a short story, there must be one and only one informing idea
which must be worked out to its logical conclusion with unerring singleness of aim
and directness of method. The interest arising from the germinal idea of the story
must not be complicated by any other consideration.
A novel often has passages which could be scored out without detriment to the
plot but there is no room for these in a short story. They will act as a drag on the
progress of the short story and lead nowhere.
The novel has all the time and space to tell its story at length, but the short
story, has to convey its truth of life and its impressions in a different manner. The
limited space or brevity of the short story produces an effect of concentration and
economy where as the novel has a leisurely prolific way of narrative. The novel can
deal with a long span of time or even generations. It has unlimited space at its
disposal for all this. But, a short story has to be compact and therefore, it has take
into consideration the most significant area of time.
There is as much difference between the novel and the short story as there is
between the epic and the lyric. The short story is not likely to replace the novel.
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4.1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Read a fiction of your choice and find out the various elements of that
fiction.
2. Write an assignment on the relationship between the plot and the character.
4.1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Bangalore: Prism Books Pvt.
Ltd., 1993.
2. Beckson, Karl E and Ganz, Arthur F. A Reader’s Guide to Literary Terms, a
Dictionary. Chandigarh: Vishal Publishers, 1982.
3. Gupta A.N. and Gupta, Satish. A Dictionary of Literary Terms: Bareilly:
Prakash Book Dept. 1983.
4. Iyengar, Srinivasa K.R. Introduction of the Study of English Literature.
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 2011.
5. Prasad, Birjagadish. A Background to the Study of English Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
6. Upham, Alfred H. The Typical Forms of English Literature. New Delhi: AITBS
Publishers, 1999.
7. Hudson, W.H. An Introduction of the Study of Literature. New Delhi: Atlantic
Publishers, 2006.
8. Monfries, Helen. An Introduction to Critical Appreciation for Foreign Learners:
An Anthology of Prose Passages and Verse. Chennai: Macmillan, 1970.
9. Rees, R.J. English Literature: An Introduction to the study of Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
4.1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Why does Marian Crawford call novel as a 'pocket theatre'?
2. Write a paragraph about a story that you enjoyed reading.
3. Write a summary of a novel or film that you enjoyed.
4.1.12 KEYWORDS
1. Plot: A literary term used to describe the events that make up a story or the
main part of a story. These events relate to each other in a pattern or a
sequence. The structure of a novel depends on the organization of events in
the plot of the story.
2. Loose plot: The story is composed of a number of detached incidents.
3. Organic plot: Novels that are bound by logical pattern and there are definite
designs.
4. Epic Method: The novelist narrates the events from outside like a
commentator. He describes everything like the omniscient author.
5. Epistolatory Method: The action of the novel is unfolded through letters.
Sometimes, different characters write letters and tell their stories.
6. Direct or Analytical Method: The novelist stands outside and dissects the
passions, motives, thoughts and feelings of the characters.
7. Indirect or Dramatic Method: The novelist stands apart and allows his
characters to reveal themselves through speech and feelings.

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UNIT –IV
LESSON - 2

4.2 THE SHORT STORY

STRUCTURE
4.2.1 Objectives
4.2.2 Introduction
4.2.3 Content:
4.2.3.1 Short Story
4.2.4 Revision Points
4.2.5 Intext Questions
4.2.6 Summary
4.2.7 Terminal Exercise
4.2.8 Supplementary Materials
4.2.9 Assignments
4.2.10 Suggested Reading
4.2.11 Learning Activities
4.2.12 Keywords
4.2.1 OBJECTIVES
To introduce students to short story is the main purpose of this lesson
4.2.2 INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, we intend to explore the literary form namely the Short Story.
The origin of the short story can be traced back to the oral story-telling tradition.
The short story is a literary genre which presents a single significant event or a
scene involving a limited number of characters. Unlike in a novel, characters in a
short story are not developed to their logical conclusions. The genre demands
economy of settings and precise narrations. Characters in a short story are often
revealed in an action or through a dramatic situation. One of the important aspects
of the short story is that it focuses on a creation of a mood rather than narration of
a story. A short story may be defined as short prose fiction, having a few characters
and aiming at unity of effect.
4.2.3 CONTENT:
The Study of the Short Story
If we are asked what is meant by a short story we need only say, rather
tautologically, it is a story which is short. The shortest of short stories may be no
more than a page or two in length; the longest, like D.H. Lawrence’s “St. Mawr’ for
example, may run over a hundred pages. Obviously there comes a point at which it
is impossible to distinguish between a long short story and a short novel. Some
modern critics have received the word novella for long short story. The “novella” in
this sense is distinguished from the genuine short novel by its limited number of
characters, its less varied setting and its simple plot.
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Critics and literary historians sometimes speak of the short story as though it
were something new-a product of the nineteenth century and the first half of the
twentieth. Although this is far from being the case, there is no doubt, so far as mere
productivity is concerned, that this period was the heyday of the short story. The
rapid growth on literacy in Britain and America after about 1800 created a demand
for periodical literature of all kinds. Many novels, of course, appeared in serial form,
being printed in staple in monthly or fortnightly parts.
All magazines used short stories both good and bad, as their main ingredients,
thus offering a ready market to the writers of the day. In these circumstances, it
was not surprising that the short story flourished, becoming indeed the staple
literary diet of millions of readers. To say that the short story reached the height of
its popularity about the beginning of the present century is, of course, not to
underrate its past or to underestimate its future as a species of literature; it had its
place in classical times.
Written about 130 B.C in less than two thousand words in length, was the
story of Susannah and the Elders. This little tale is a model of what the short story
should be and one could wish that some later practitioners had more frequently
imitated it in point of clarity, brevity, and wit.
Most ordinary readers, as well as most of great writers of the past, regard plot
as an essential ingredient in the art of story-telling. Unlike the novel or the full-
length play, the short story gives little scope for the subtle portrayal of character or
of anything resembling fine writing it demands rather, the simplicity and directness
which characterizes so many of the fascinating stories in what has been called ‘the
unread best-seller’ the old Testament.
Roughly contemporary with the writers responsible for setting down the semi
legendary stories of David was the Greek Herodotus of Halicarnassus (480 – 425
B.C). Like many of the Old Testament writers, Herodotus was, by modern
standards, rather an old sort of historian. He had however an ear always open to a
good story, and his ‘Histories” contain many tales which, lifted out of their context,
can be read as excellent short stories.
Among the thousands of characters mentioned by Herodotus –many of them
historical and many legendary in the semi-legendary Aesop, who is said to have
lived about the middle of the sixth century B.C. Some of the fables attributed to
him must be reckoned among the best known short stories in the world, and
though they differ widely from the conception of the short story held by most
modern practitioners. It is worthwhile pointing out that the qualities of conciseness
and wit which have kept them alive for some two-and-a-half thousand years are
just that the qualities which one find in the best short stories of all ages. Aesop’s
fables nevertheless differ in one important respect from the short story as we now
know it; they were written in order to inculcate various moral truths which seemed
important to their author. His purpose, indeed, seems to have been moral and
didactic: and it was a purpose about which he was not ashamed of. In this respect,
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Aesop resembled the mediaeval Christian writers who developed the kind of short
story which they called “exemplum”.
‘Exempla’ were simply tales used by mediaeval preachers to illustrate their
sermons. Just as music and painting were useful to the church in conveying moral
and religious truths to people who were generally illiterate, so also imaginative
literature, read or recited aloud, served to illustrate and enliven the same truths for
men and women who might find sermons boring or incomprehensible.
Hundreds of stories of a similar kind were used by preachers and passed on by
word of mouth among their flocks, thus feeding the hunger for good stories which
seems to be an almost universal human trait: and because perhaps regrettably,
most people prefer a good story to a good sermon the ‘exempla’ often survived where
the sermons were lost.
Other kinds of mediaeval short stories, in connection with the origin of the
novel were the tales known as ‘contest’ and ‘fabliaux’. The latter was generally in
verse and the former in prose, but both were ‘down to earth’ than most of the
‘exempla’ being concerned with ordinary people living everyday lives, and frequently
marked by that kind of jolly coarseness which we find in Chaucer’s Miller’s Tale”.
The practice of linking a number of short stories together seems always to
have been attractive to authors, from the time of “The Thousand and One Nights” to
that of William Painter’s “Place of Pleasure” (1566) and William Morris’s “The
Earthly Paradise” (1868-70)
Many of the world’s best known short stories have been written in the last one
hundred and fifty years: this means that they are too recent to be safely ‘evaluated’.
Maupassant, (1850-93), though strictly ineligible to be discussed in a book
concerned with English literature must be regarded, with Chekov, as among the
greatest half a dozen short story writers of the world. He wrote some three hundred
tales, one of which, known to educated people all over the world, is called “The
Necklace”. It so happens that James also wrote a short story about a necklace; this
(Entitled ‘Paste’) is concerned with pearls which, though thought to be worthless
imitations, were in fact immensely valuable.
Poe’s worldwide popularity over the past hundred and the enormous influence
he has over later writers are sufficient to justify if not compel his inclusion in any
study of the short story.
Most of Poe’s tales appeared in various periodicals with which he was
associated, specially the “Southern Literary Messenger” of which he was an editor
for a short time. Stories like “The Murders in the Rue Morgue”, “The Mystery of
Marie Roget” and “The Gold Bug” reveal Poe as the father of the detective story, as it
developed in the later nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth. They
are written in the straight forward prose of Poe, the practical journalist and they
keep (more or less) to the rules which we now regard as traditional in the detective
tale-namely that realism should prevail, and that the author should not conceal
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from the reader any of the clues which can lead to the solution of the mystery. As
founder, or at least one of the founders, of the tradition of the detective thriller, Poe
deserves a high place in the history of literature.
The grotesque, the fantastic, the surrealistic, the obsessive, the psychopathic,
the horrible-these are the aspects of life which appealed to Poe’s romantic and
perhaps diseased imagination and which he thrusts before the half-reluctant reader
in fantasies like “the Fall of the House of Usher”.
Men like Baudelaire (1821-67), the surrealists of the present century and the
makers of those Psychological Thrillers and Horror Films which still exercise a
curious fascination over the minds of many of us, were influenced by Poe.
The lank form and aquiline features of Sherlock Holmes, created by Sir Arthur
Conan Doyle, may safely be described as the most widely read short stories in the
world. Even in the very different world of the nineteen sixties their popularity seems
undiminished and they continue to make admirable fodder for film and television.
In the same tradition, or one closely related, are the ghost stories of M.R.
James (1862-1936). He has an extraordinary talent for making the reader’s flesh
creep with his evocations of mysterious but all – too – tangible visitors, like the
apparition in “O Whistle and I’ll Come to You”. Ghosts and ghost stories are,
perhaps, among the regrettable casualties on the march of technological progress,
but no general view or the short story would be complete without some mention of
the detective story and the story of the supernatural. Multiplied almost to infinity
since the time of Poe, both kinds can claim his as their most prominent forebear.
Like Poe, Kipling is one of the major short story writers. He still arouses
feelings of dislike in many readers yet there are others, and they include such good
judges as T.S. Eliot, Somerset Maugham, and the American critic, Edmund Wilson,
who regard his works as being of considerable importance. It is the variety of
subject-matter and setting which more than anything else, shows Kipling’s mastery
as a writer of short stories.
D. H. Lawrence, a contemporary of Kipling, though twenty years younger, is
without question a figure our won century whereas Kipling seems in many ways to
belong, to the nineteenth century. The exigencies of the short story forced Lawrence
to concentrate on those aspects of creative writing which he found most difficult to
accept namely precision, economy and design.
In general, the short story before Lawrence had been an entertainment mainly
dependent upon the interest of its plot. At least something of the effect of a tale by
Kipling, for example, can be conveyed by a summary of its plot. With Lawrence’s
tale, it is quite otherwise; the plot is always of secondary importance, and what
counts is subtlety of situation or suggestiveness of atmosphere, or vividly sensuous
evocations of nature.
It is the displacement of plot as the main element which more than anything
else, distinguishes the modern short story from the type of story generally written
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before 1910. this is, of course, a dangerously broad generalization, but the reader
can test it for himself by a study of the works of such writers as James Stephens
(1882-1950), Caradoc Evans (1878-1945), Katherine Mansfield (1888-1923), Frank
O’Connor (1903-1966), H.E. Bates (b. 1905) and other contemporary writers who in
various ways have followed or emulated Lawrence in writing stories where plot is of
less importance than mood or atmosphere.
With Lawrence, plot ceases to be the most important element in the short
story. It never disappears altogether as it seems to have done in the ‘stories’ of some
later writers, but it is generally subordinated to situation and atmosphere. As
Frank O’ Connor wrote, “Story telling is the nearest thing one can get to the quality
of a pure lyric poem. It doesn’t deal with problems; it doesn’t have solutions to offer;
it just states the human situation”.
It is true that one would hesitate to think of Maugham as a great creative
genius like Lawrence or even Kipling yet one cannot help wondering whether this is
not merely so because he appears as a man eminently sane. Whereas geniuses (like
saints) are generally a little mad. Maugham too has been above all an exponent of
the ‘plotted’ short at a time when most practitioners have been preoccupied with
other aspects of form. Further, Maugham has no ‘message’ for the world. He does
not set up as a prophet or even as a psychologist and in this respect one cannot
help wishing that more contemporary writers would follow his example.
Maugham’s stories range in length from ‘novella’ like “The Letter” down to
sketches two or three pages in length like “Raw material”. Many of his earlier
stories are based on his own experiences during that period, though he tells them
through the mouth of the imaginary Ashenden first person singular narrative was,
in fact, a form of storytelling which Maugham particularly favoured. Whatever one
may think of these alleged advantages, Maugham himself was a highly successful
exponent of this particular kind of narrative. As well as being a highly successful
practitioner of the art of the short story, Maugham was a great admirer of Chekov
and Maupassant by whom he seems to have been much influenced.
The field of short story is an enormous one, and it is only the individual reader
who can decide which areas of it are most worth his attention.
4.2.4 REVISION POINTS
1. A short story is a story which is short.
2. It is a new product of the nineteenth century and the first half of the
twentieth.
3. Unlike the novel, the short story gives little scope for the subtle portrayal of
character.
4. Roughly contemporary with the writers responsible for setting down the semi
legendary stories of David was the Greek Herodotus of Halicarnassus (480 –
425 B.C).
5. ‘Exempla’ were simply tales used by mediaeval preachers to illustrate their
sermons.
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6. Other kinds of mediaeval short stories, in connection with the origin of the
novel were the tales known as ‘contest’ and ‘fabliaux’.
7. Maupassant, Chekov, Poe are the greatest short story writers of the world.
Poe is the founder, or at least one of the founders, of the tradition of the
detective thriller.
8. Kipling, one of the major short story writers, is known for the variety of
subject-matter and setting.
9. For D. H. Lawrence, a contemporary of Kipling, the plot is always of
secondary importance, and what counts is subtlety of situation or
suggestiveness of atmosphere, or vividly sensuous evocations of nature.
10. James Stephens (1882-1950), Caradoc Evans (1883-1945), Katherine
Mansfield (1888-1923), Frank O’Connor (1903-1966), H.E. Bates (b. 1905)
and other contemporary writers who in various ways have followed Lawrence
in writing stories where plot is of less importance than mood or atmosphere.
11. A short story cannot be called either a story that is short or ‘a short novel’.
12. The form of the novel is given by the length; in the short story, the length is
given by the form.
13. In short story, the usual constituents of all action, plot character and setting
are reduced to the minimum.
14. In plot, the short story writer has to select one situation or episode and has
to introduce a very limited number of characters.
15. A short story writer chooses a suggestive moment which may reveal a
character like a flash of lightning.
16. In a short story, there must be only one informing idea which must be
worked out to its logical conclusion.
4.2.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Why is Short Story the most popular in the Twentieth Century?
2. Define a Short Story?
3. Name some of the famous Short Story writers in English.
4. What is a novella?
5. Do short story permit the evolution of character?
4.2.6 SUMMARY
A short story is a story which is short. It is a new product of the nineteenth
century and the first half of the twentieth. The short story gives little scope for the
subtle portrayal of character. A short story cannot be called either a story that is
short or ‘a short novel’. In short story, the usual constituents of all action, plot
character and setting are reduced to the minimum. Action, plot, character and
setting are reduced to the minimum in short story. In plot, the short story writer
has to select one situation or episode and has to introduce a very limited number of
characters. In a short story, there must be only one informing idea which must be
worked out to its logical conclusion.
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4.2.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE

1. Contrast the Short Story and the Novel.
2. Trace the origin and the development of the Short Story.
3. Analyze a short story of your choice.
4.2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
4.2.8.1 Some Popular Short Story Writers
The Decameron is a collection of novellas by the fourteenth century Italian
author Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375). The book is structured as a frame
story containing 100 tales told by a group of seven young women and three young
men; they shelter in a secluded villa just outside Florence in order to escape the
Black Death, which was afflicting the city. Boccaccio probably conceived of The
Decameron after the epidemic of 1348, and completed it by 1353. The various tales
of love in The Decameron range from the erotic to the tragic. In addition to its
literary value and widespread influence (for example on Chaucer’s Canterbury
Tales), it provides a document of life at the time.
In Italy during the time of the Black Death, a group of seven young women and
three young men flee from plague-ridden Florence to a deserted villa in the
countryside of Fiesole for two weeks. To pass the evenings, each member of the
party tells a story each night, except for one day per week for chores, and the holy
days during which they do no work at all, resulting in ten nights of storytelling over
the course of two weeks. Thus, by the end of the fortnight they have told 100
stories.
Each of the ten characters is charged as King or Queen of the company for one
of the ten days in turn. This charge extends to choosing the theme of the stories for
that day, and all but two days have topics assigned: examples of the power of
fortune; examples of the power of human will; love tales that end tragically; love
tales that end happily; clever replies that save the speaker; tricks that women play
on men; tricks that people play on each other in general; examples of virtue. Only
Dioneo, who usually tells the tenth tale each day, has the right to tell a tale on any
topic he wishes, due to his wit. Many commentators have argued that Dioneo
expresses the views of Boccaccio himself. Each day also includes a short
introduction and conclusion to continue the frame of the tales by describing other
daily activities besides story-telling. These framing interludes frequently include
transcriptions of Italian folk songs. The interactions among tales in a day, or across
days, as Boccaccio spins variations and reversals of previous material, forms a
whole and not just a collection of stories. Recurring plots of the stories include
mocking the lust and greed of the clergy; female lust and ambition on a par with
male lust and ambition; tensions in Italian society between the new wealthy
commercial class and noble families; and the perils and adventures of traveling
merchants.
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov is considered to be master of the modern short
story. His best short stories are held in high esteem by writers and critics. His
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inspirational short stories are famous around the World. Some of the best loved
stories and tales have been penned by this remarkable Russian author considered
as one of the best short story writers in history and by some as the founder of short
stories! The following selection of his famous short stories will provide hours of
reading pleasure. The following are some of the short stories
1. The Lady with the Little Dog
An unhappily married woman Anna and a bored father and husband, Dmitry,
meet each other on holiday in Yalta. United in their misery, the two have a holiday
romance that for Anna meant a glimmer of hope, but for Dmitry was just a way to
take his mind off his unhappy life. As a woman, Anna feels that she has lost her
dignity, whereas Dmitry is incapable of sympathising with her worries and treats
the matter with little consideration. Soon after they are separated, and Dmitry
comes back to his mundane life, he realises what he has lost and how deep were
his feelings for Anna. The moral of the story is simple: love can conquer all and
change people.
2. Anna on the Neck
The underlying theme of the story is social inequality and how deeply it can
affect the life of one person. Anna, the main heroine, is born into a financially
insecure family, and so her parents begin looking for a husband as soon as she
comes of age. Anna makes a sacrifice by marrying an elderly, unattractive man,
hoping that he will be able to help her family. Her hopes are soon crushed, as he
treats her family with no respect, doesn’t allow Anna to handle any money and
continuously reminds her of where she came from. Her situation soon changes, as
Anna becomes popular in the higher social circles of Russia and her life turns to a
whirlpool of parties and dancing. It is then she who forgets about her family
altogether and ashamed that her father is such simple man.
3. Death of a Statesman
A very short and humorous story with a simple plot. Low-ranking official
Chervyakov suddenly sneezes on the person sitting in front of him. He recognises
that person to be General Brizzhalov, a government official well above Chervyakov
in rank. Although the general dismisses the situation and quickly accepts an
apology, Chervyakov is bothered by his actions. He goes to the general’s office the
next day to apologise again and the general, trying to get rid of the unwelcome
visitors, starts screaming. The devastated Chervyakov goes home, lies on the couch
and dies. An improbable end, but an eager stab at the state system.
4. Chameleon
A comical story that exposes the hypocrisy of people and with a comic twist,
mourns the values that rule society. A man gets bitten on the finger by a dog.
Hoping to make something of the situation, he plays the victim and calls out for
help. A passing by policeman, Ochumelov, hears the screams and wants to
exterminate the dog. His plans suddenly change when a person in the crowd
suggests that the dog belongs to a well-known general. Ochumelov swiftly changes
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his mind and wants to return the dog to his owner, making sure that his name is
mentioned. As the crowd keeps discussing whose dog it is, Ochumelov changes like
a chameleon, continuously shifting his anger back and forth from the bitten man to
the dog, showing that his loyalty lies not with the law, but with pleasing high
ranking officials.
5. Ward No: 6
Chekhov himself was a doctor and was no stranger to what goes on inside
hospitals. In this short story, the main character Ragin is also a doctor who joins
the workforce in a new hospital. From his first days in the system, he realises the
horrendous conditions patients live in, but believes that nothing can be done to
change them. The reader becomes acquainted with the inhabitants of psychiatric
ward №6, and especially with a patient by the name of Gromov, who criticises
Ragin’s apathy and acceptance of the system as it is. The juxtaposition of a
suffering patient and a doctor incapable of understanding him represent the
realities of a bureaucratic society.
Edgar Allan Poe
Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) is a Nineteenth century, American short story
writer, poet, critic, and editor, renowned for his Gothic Horror Style of writing. He is
notable for his acute knowledge and evocative macabre imagination. To modern
critics, Poe endured through time for his short stories, almost all of which were
collected in three volumes published during his lifetime: Tales of the Grotesque and
Arabesque, The Prose Romances of Edgar Allan Poe, and Tales By Edgar.A.Poe.
Poe specialized in writing stories with a first person narrator. And that
narrator is almost highly recklesss like they’re either mad, a violent criminal, or
both. These unreliable anti-heroes tend to resemble Poe himself. With the gothic
styling, tone of dread, atmosphere of unreality, and macabre details, Poe’s tales
seem at first glance to be simple scary stories. But they’re more complex than that.
For example, The Black Cat is a story narrated by Poe. The story focuses upon the
deteriorating life of an alcoholic but also it involves animal abuse and murder. His
own shortcomings and fear of falling into madness as a result of alcoholism would
have influenced him writing this story. The story is about unlocking of clues to a
murder, as revealed by a mysterious black cat. The cat is named as Pluto which
symbolizes the devil and the hell. This gothic tale becomes all the most shocking as
the reader gets into the mind of an insane person and ultimately it leaves the
reader to ponder the shocking story.
Poe’s horror tales naturally revolve around characters who outstretches to
extreme alienation, terror, and madness. These horror stories often contain
supernatural elements. Another important theme in the horror tales of Poe is, The
Gothic Style. Gothic Literature is one of the distinguished movements in the 18th
century and Poe elevated the style by utilizing the settings like castles, dungeons,
prisons, vaults and using colors, symbols, haunting figures that advocate the gory
and supernatural. Poe assimilates psychology to the horror themes to make it
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realistic and believable to the readers. Poe constructs a narrator challenged with an
antagonistic person and that impels the storyline. In the “The Tell Tale Heart” short
story, the protagonist confesses that he has an addiction to the ‘vulture eye’ of an
old man. He displays how madness has taken over him mentally and controls his
physical behaviors. This reflects the personal background of Poe and his addiction
to alcohol. Poe brings the aspects of the gothic genre like obsession, insanity and
addiction through the characters in his stories.
Though Poe’s stories still seem astoundingly fresh and innovative even more
than a century later and a half after publication, a close examination at the plots
divulge that Poe hinged on a affluent storytelling devices that he salvaged over and
over. William Carlos Williams wrote “he was a genius of originality and that it was
to save our faces that we’ve given him a crazy reputation, a writer from whose
classic accuracies we have not known how else to escape.”
O. Henry
Born as William Sidney Porter in North Carolina, Porter wrote short stories
and novels under the pen name O. Henry. O. Henry is called “the Father of Modern
American Short Stories” and is known as “Encyclopedia of American Humor” in the
domain of world literature. O. Henry created a total of 300 short stories. His famous
stories, such as The Cop and the Anthem, The Furnished Room, The Gift of the Magi,
and The Last Leaf, earned him a great reputation in the world of short stories.
His had fame far and wide for his unique writing styles. His short stories are
generally funny and interesting, and he is a master of using paronomasia, irony,
metaphor, and other ways to create humorous stories. All of his novels were
ingeniously conceived, with the O. Henry-style ending, the surprising ending, which
is often contrary to the readers expectations. O. Henry’s typical writing styles are
generally branded with such features as humorous language, surprising endings,
and tearful smile.
The usage of humorous language is one of the unique styles in O. Henry’s
stories. The manner of the language is rich and colorful, such as slang, irony,
metaphor, metonymy and exaggeration. Hence, his stories are usually amusing and
humorous. In the story The Cop and the Anthem, humorous languages can be easily
found. For example: “Soapy walked past the policeman sadly. He seemed doomed to
liberty.” As we know, the phrase “be doomed to” is usually followed by negative
words like failure, death, frustration, destruction, etc., while liberty is a positive
word, meaning freedom and happiness. Therefore, it is very strange and whimsical
to express “He seemed doomed to liberty.”, because no one will consider liberty
negative except the poor and homeless Soapy. However, the funny expression
indicates the true thoughts of Soapy, because liberty means coldness, hunger, and
death to him in the cold winter. So he wishes to be put into prison to spend the
cold winter. O. Henry shows us poor Soapy’s miserable life and abnormal belief in
such strange and humorous languages.
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Surprising Endings is one of the most important qualities of O. Henry’s

writing. The surprising endings are always fair and impartial, even if the ending is
sad. In the beginning of story The Gift of the Magi, O. Henry tells us how precious
the watch and the hair are to the poor young couple. In order to exchange
Christmas gifts, the poor young couple are not reluctant to sell the most precious
possessions of each. However, their two precious gifts they bought all became
pointless at the end of the story, while they got the most valuable thing than any
material objects—love. This is the distinctive unexpected ending in O.Henry’s short
stories.
The Tearful Smile is another popular recurrent style of writing in O. Henry’s
short stories. Although some plots or ends of O. Henry’s story are sad, there are
usually some hopes and amiable feelings in the story, which made the readers
smile bitterly. The Last leaf is an example of “tearful smile” writing style.
4.2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. Reasons for the popularity of Short Story.
2. The short stories of Poe.
3. The famous short stories of your mother-tongue in translation.
4.2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Bangalore: Prism Books Pvt.
Ltd., 1993.
2. Beckson, Karl E and Ganz, Arthur F. A Reader’s Guide to Literary Terms, a
Dictionary. Chandigarh: Vishal Publishers, 1982.
3. Gupta A.N. and Gupta, Satish. A Dictionary of Literary Terms: Bareilly:
Prakash Book Dept. 1983.
4. Iyengar, Srinivasa K.R. Introduction of the Study of English Literature.
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 2011.
5. Prasad, Birjagadish. A Background to the Study of English Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
6. Upham, Alfred H. The Typical Forms of English Literature. New Delhi: AITBS
Publishers, 1999.
4.2.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Read a short story and compare it with the work of fiction and compare it
with the work of fiction you read for the assignment of previous unit.
2. Name your favorite short story. Give reason for why you like it most.
3. Try to translate stories into English.
4. Choose a short story and try to comment on the setting of the story.
4.2.12 KEYWORDS
1. Aesop: An Ancient Greek fabulist or story teller credited with a number
of fables now collectively known as Aesop's Fables.
2. Susannah - is a feminine given name meaning lily.
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3. David – is described in the Hebrew Bible as the king of the United Monarchy
of Israel and Judah
4. Halicarnassus - An ancient Greek city
5. Exemplum – a story told to illustrate a moral point
6. Chaucer – an English poet
7. Maupassant – a nineteenth century French author.
8. Grotesque - a very ugly or comically distorted figure or image
9. Edgar Allan Poe – An American author
10. Sherlock Holmes –is a fictional detective created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.
11. Novella- a story that is shorter than a novel but longer than a short story.

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UNIT – V
LESSON - 1

5.1 THE ESSAY

STRUCTURE
5.1.1 Objectives
5.1.2 Introduction
5.1.3 Content: The Study of the Essay
5.1.4 Revision Points
5.1.5 Intext Questions
5.1.6 Summary
5.1.7 Terminal Exercises
5.1.8 Supplementary Materials
5.1.9 Assignments
5.1.10 Suggested Reading
5 1.11 Learning Activities
5.1.12 Key words
5.1.1 OBJECTIVES
Essay is a short piece of writing on a particular subject. When you attempt or
try to write something on anything under the Sun, you are writing an essay.
English essays have a glorious tradition. The main purpose this lesson is
familiarizing our young learners with the enterprising form of literature called
essays.
5.1.2 INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, we intend to explore the literary forms namely the Essay, the
Short Story and Criticism. An essay is a short form of literary composition based on
a single subject matter, and often gives personal opinion of an author. Oxford
Dictionary describes it as “a short piece of writing on a particular subject.” In simple
words, we can define it as a scholarly work in writing that provides the author’s
personal argument. The function of an essay depends upon the subject matter,
whether the writer wants to inform, persuade, explain or entertain. In fact, the
essay increases the analytical and intellectual abilities of the writers as well as
readers. It evaluates and tests the writing skills of a writer and organizes his/her
thinking to respond personally or critically to an issue. Through an essay, the
writers present their arguments in a more sophisticated manner. In addition, it
encourages the students to develop concepts and skills such as analysis,
comparison and contrast, clarity, exposition, conciseness, and persuasion.
5.1.3 CONTENT:
The Study of the Essay
Montaigne is the pioneer of essays. All his essays were first translated into
English by John Florin about 1603 and later by others. They were widely read by
educated Englishmen. His essays are ‘personal.’ They reveal the character of their
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authors in such a way that we come to think of him as a living as a person with
whom we are on fairly intimate terms.
According to the oxford dictionary, “an essay is a short composition on any
particular subject.” If this definition seems a little less than complete, we can
supplement it in the words of Edmund Gosse, who described it as ‘a composition of
moderate length, usually in prose, which deals in an easy, cursory way with the
external conditions of a subject and in strictness, with that subject only as it affects
the writer. It is true that the word has occasionally been used in a different sense.
But actually the word ‘essay’ is used for the kind of thing written by Montaigne,
Bacon, Charles Lamb and those anonymous wits who used to compose the third
and fourth ‘leaders’ in “The Times”.
The essential quality of the essay lies in its ‘personal’ nature. It is probably the
most personal and idiosyncratic of all kinds of literature. If we look at the subject in
the chronological order, selecting a few of the major essayists for comment, it is
almost inevitable that we should begin with Francis Bacon.
Bacon’s essays are ‘thought packed, close and rendered portable’ as Macaulay
described it; indeed this plain, concise meaningful prose is what makes the Essays
an important land mark in the history of our literature. Bacon has shown once for
all that the essence of good writing is having something to say, and saying it briefly
as possible. So well indeed, did he say what he wished to say that his aphorisms
have become almost a part of our daily language?
In describing his essays as ‘civil and Moral’, Bacon was presumably
distinguished between those dealing with public affairs – political or administrative
and those concerned with private and personal matters. The essay “Of Judicature”,
for example is clearly ‘civil whereas ‘Of Parents and Children’ is moral. There are
many essays which do not fit comfortably into either category: “Of Gardens” for
instance; and there are several which treat of subjects which could vaguely be
called philosophical, indeed, the range of topics is astonishing “I have taken all
knowledge to be my province” Bacon wrote: and the “Essays” well illustrate the
justice of his
There are some critics who hold that the first major English essayist was not
Bacon, but Abraham Cowley (161867). Those who accept this view have no wish to
detract from Bacon’s greatness as a writer: they recognize his “Essays and
Counsels” as great literature, but they feel the Baconian essay is so unlike the
essay as it developed in the hands of later English writers that it would be better to
call it by a different name. Cowley’s essays, on the other hand, are written in the
same view as those of Charles Lamb or G.K. Chesterton; they are highly personal,
generally light and un-pompous, and written in the kind of lucid, fluent prose
which we recognize as modern. We may agree, therefore, to call Cowley the first
‘modern’ essayist.
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Any attempt to trace the history of the essay after Cowley would be impossible.
For our present study, it will be convenient to exclude from the category of essays
which are primarily didactic or informative in intention, anything which claims to
treat a subject in an unbiased and impersonal way and anything which as
important as Locke, Dryden and Pope, and turn to the journalistic essayists of the
early eighteenth century.
The last two or three decades of the seventeenth century were marked by an
improvement in the power and status of the middle classes. Culture and politics
were no longer a preserve of the court and the aristocracy, and an entirely new kind
of institution was beginning to be intellectual centre of city life. This was the coffee-
house, of which by about 1700, there were several in London, and the best known
being Buttons and Wills.
It was in the London coffee-house that most famous of all English periodicals
were born-“The Tatler” and “The Spectator”. In these a similar production, the essay
as we now understand the term became a widely read form of literature, and was
cultivated by writers of the caliber of Steele, Addison as well as by countless other
and less distinguished men.
In 1709, Steele founded a periodical called “The Tatler” which he produced
thrice weekly over a period of some three years. He was joined in this enterprise by
his friend Joseph Addison. “The Tatler” consisted of essays and articles on all sorts
of topics, mostly written by Steele and Addison and sometimes purporting to be the
work of the imaginary Isaac Bickerstaff, whose equally imaginary sister, Jenny
Distaff; provided the necessary feminine interest. The articles were written as
though from well-known coffee houses-poetry came from well-known coffee-house
Will’s, current events from St. James, and so on.
It was not only the ideas in “The Tatler” that came from the coffee-house: even
more important, so far as the history of English prose is concerned, it was the
coffee-house influences on literary style. Cowley had already shown that good prose
need not be either prose elaborate or aphoristic and the writers of “The Tatler” went
further by making their prose easy and conversational. The language of intelligent
and wide ranging conversation of the kind one heard in the coffee-house became
the language of the journalist, and in spite of various notable exceptions, it had
been a tradition of the English essay since Addison that its language should be
colloquial.
In 1711, “The Tatler” was replaced by a newspaper called “The Spectator”,
published daily, and still largely written by Steele and Addison, though there were
many other contributors, including Pope. The members of the club, though
portrayed as individual in a lively and interesting way, represented typical upper
and middle – class old fashioned English country gentleman Sir Roger de Coverley
invented by Steele, but developed by Addison.
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Sir Roger and the other members of the club became immensely popular with
the reading public, occupying the same sort of place in their minds as do television
celebrities, real or fictitious, in the minds of the modern public.
“The Spectator” essays of Steele and Addison, in which they aimed at to
enliven morality with wit and to temper with morality; were to influence the future
of the essay in England in at least one important respect; hence forth it was in
general to be witty, light, and agreeable in tone something resembling in daily
conversation of the educated men and women rather than the splendid didacticism
of Bacon; but the eighteenth century produced one notable expression to this
general trend in the person of the great Dr. Johnson.
Dr. Johnson was much concerned with ‘refinement’ and ‘correctness’ of
language, and did not share the view implicitly in the essays of Addison and Steele
that this kind of literature should be informal and conversational. Thus the
“Rambler”, which Johnson brought out in 208 numbers between 1749 and 1752,
seemed to some of his readers to be in altogether too lofty a strain. The essays
contained were concerned with serious literary criticism and serious moral
questions.
There is something of the sermon in many of Johnson’s essays, and it is worth
bearing in mind that any detailed history of the essay would acquire at least a
chapter on the sermon as a literary form.
Some seventy years after, the last number of “The Rambler” was published
there appeared a volume of essays which in the opinion of many people, enshrines
this peculiar kind of English literature at its best. This was Charles Lamb’s ‘Essays
of Elia’ published in book form in 1823.
The first Elia essay appeared in a periodical called “The London Magazine” in
the August of 1820. It was called “The South Sea House’ and was written around
Lamb’s recollections of the offices of the Moribund South See company after leaving
school. All through 1820 and 1821, the ‘Elia’ essays continued to appear in “The
London Magazine”, and Lamb found himself famous through his pseudonym.
William Hazlitt (1778-1830) inevitably appears in any study of the essay as a
sort of Tweedledum to Lamb’s Tweedledee. They were friends as well as
contemporaries. A study of his essays reveals him as a man of varied interests and
an outstanding figure among English essayists. The “Vigour of his Intellect” is well
displayed in his essays “On the Ignorance of the Learned”, where he takes the view
that too much learning can act as a sort of encumbrance to the intelligence.
Like Wordsworth and Coleridge, whose poetry he so much admired, Hazlitt
was a lover of nature and the open air. This is apparent in an early essay “On the
Love of the Country” and in the delightful “On Going a Journey”.
During the later nineteenth century, the essay lost something of the
spontaneity and loveliness which had marked it from the time of Cowley to the time
of Hazlitt. It ceased to be a sort of jeu d’esprit for clever men in the intervals of more
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serious work, and became altogether heavier and more solemn. The little known
essays of Isaac D’Israch (1766-1848) are perhaps typical of the informative literary
form and historical essays pleased serious minded readers in Victorian time. He
was a Purveyor of anecdotes rather than that essayist, however; for his articles lack
that genuinely personal touch which most people feel to be the essential of the
essay. The same can be said of much more important writer, Thomas Babington
Macaulay.
Macaulay’s “Essays” are mainly historical and critical. We read them for
information and instruction about their subjects rather than for amusement or for
any insight into the personality of their writer. Several of them were written, indeed
for the “Encyclopaedia Britannica”. Macaulay, therefore, must be regarded as a
great master of the historical essay rather than a general essayist like Bacon or
Hazlitt and the same can be said of his younger contemporary J.A. Froude (1818-
94), whose “Short Studies on Great Subject” deals with a wide range of topics, but
in an informative rather than a purely personal manner. The essays of Mathew
Arnold (1822-88) cover a wide range of subjects and are of great interest both to the
student of literature and the general reader.
Like Macaulay and Froude, Arnold was an essayist, whose aim was instruction
or propaganda rather than self revelation and entertainment. He could certainly not
claim to be a follower of Montaigne’s rule. J.S. Mill (1806-73) was another essayist
in the more specialized sense of the word, his essay “On liberty” being a major
contribution to the political thought of the century. R.L. Stevenson (1950-94)
although best known as a writer of stories, wrote a number of essays on literature
and travel particularly in ‘Virginibus Puerisque’ and ‘Familiar Studies of Men and
Books’.
In our known country the proliferation of newspapers and journals of every
sort has done much to keep the essays alive. “The Times”, for example, for many
years carried a “third leader – sometimes a fourth leader’. The first and second
leading articles in a serious newspaper traditionally deal with politics and
important current events; but in “The Times” at least, it became customary to
include the article on some light hearted topic such as “Waste Paper Baskets” or
“Hot Water Bottle”. These little essays, widely read and enjoyed, became in
important feature of the English cultural landscape. They were written by
journalists and others, and always appeared anonymously.
Hillarie Belloc (1870-1953) and G.K. Chesterton (1876-1934) were often closely
associated with essays during their lives, and we still tend to link their names by
virtue of the fact that both were Roman Catholics and both cultivated a style which
might be called whimsical or paradoxical or affected according to the reader’s taste.
Chesterton and Belloc seems to many of us to be very much more ‘dated’ than
Hazlitt’s or even Cowley’s. Perhaps this is so because his particular kind of essay-
insubstantial but amusing –does not often appear in print now, though often heard
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in ‘Chattyu’ radio programmes. The titles under which Belloc published his
collections of essays are both amusing and revealing.
Chesterton and Belloc are among the last writers to cultivate the essay purely
for its own sake rather than as vehicle for criticism of the arts or the propagation of
ideas. Others who might have been mentioned are Max Beerbohm (1872-1956),
E.V. Lucas (1868-1938), and Robert Lynd (1879-1949). Much of the most readable
and interesting essays of our century, however, have been written by men or
women eminent in other spheres of literature or life are Bernard Shaw, Bertrand
Russell, Virginia Woolf, T.S. Eliot, Aldous Huxley, and George Orwell.
The tradition that the essay should be in some sense a personal thing – an
almost random jotting down of one’s thoughts upon any subject under the sun
seems almost to have died out. Perhaps this is inevitable in an age of democracy
and mass culture when the personal habits and personal opinions of anyone who is
not a show business. ‘Celebrity’ are unlikely to be of much interest to people in
general. It may be that radio and television will lead to its revival through some
other different form.
5.1.4 REVISION POINTS
1. An Essay is essentially a short composition on any subject.
2. Montaigne is the pioneer of essays.
3. Personal nature is the essential quality of a good essay.
4. Francis Bacon is considered to be the father of English essay. His essays are
concise and thought packed.
5. Cowley’s essays highly personal, generally light and un-pompous and
written in modern prose.
6. Locke, Dryden and Pope turned to be the journalistic essayists of the early
eighteenth century
7. In 1709, Steele founded a periodical called “The Tatler.” In 1711, “The Tatler”
was replaced by a new paper called “The Spectator, written by Steele and
Addison.
8. Johnson’s “Rambler” brought out 208 numbers between 1749 and 1752 and
the essays contained were concerned with serious literary criticism and
serious moral questions.
9. Charles Lamb is called the Prince among English Essayists and he is known
for his personal essays.
10. William Hazlitt’s (1778-1830) essays reveal him as a man of varied interests
and an outstanding figure among English essayists.
11. Macaulay’s “Essays” are mainly historical and critical.
12. Chesterton and Belloc are among the last writers to cultivate the essay
purely for its own sake rather than as vehicle for criticism of the arts or the
propagation of ideas.
13. Other notable essayists of our century are Bernard Shaw, Bertrand Russell,
Virginia Woolf, T.S. Eliot, Aldous Huxley, and George Orwell.
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5.1.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS

1. Trace the history of English essays.
2. What are the features of a good essay?
3. Comment on the Essays of a few of the major essayists.
5.1.6 SUMMARY
The essay is one of the most important forms of literature. According to the
oxford dictionary, “an essay is a short composition on any particular subject.”
Montaigne is the pioneer of essays. The Essay is a loose form of literature, free from
the shackles of fixed form, theme and diction. Like the lyric, it is the most
subjective form of literature. It is a composition in prose o any subject in brief. It
has considerable freedom both in subject and in treatment. Personal nature is the
essential quality of a good essay. We find a variety of essay ranging from Montaigne
to A.G Gardiner. Bacon, Locke, Hobbes, Charles Lamb, Hazlitt, Joseph Addison,
Richard Steele, Chesterton, Stevenson, E.V. Lucas, Hillarie Belloc are the
remarkable essayists.
5.1.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Define Essay.
2. What are the different types of Essay?
3. Write a short note on Personal Essay?
4. Comment on the Essays of Elia.
5.1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
The Two most notable English Essayists
Prose as a literary form has a continuous history from the period of Anglo-
Saxons to the present day. As a form it is opposed to poetry, which is both metrical
and poetical. The history of English Prose shows various kinds of prose with varied
styles in different periods of English Literary History. The prose of the Elizabethan
Age expresses the spirit of adventure manifested in all activities of the people. The
religious attitude of the Middle Ages was replaced by the scientific outlook in the
Elizabethan Age and as a result people made voyages. Similarly the prose writers of
this Age used, the literary form of prose in a variety of prose works, prose
translations, prose romances, prose dramas, prose sermons, biographies,
travelogues, and so on. The most important name in the history of English essays
is Francis Bacon.
Francis Bacon published only ten essays in the first edition that appeared in
1597. Then the second edition was published in 1612 with thirty eight essays. His
final edition containing fifty eight essays was published in 1625. He considered his
essays as “certain brief notes set down rather significantly than curiously”.
Oliphant Sneaton groups the essays of Bacon round three great principles, and the
three principles are: 1. Man’s relation to the world and society. 2. Man in relation to
himself. 3. Man in relation to maker. Most of his essays fall in the first category.
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In the history of English prose Bacon occupies a very prominent position. He is

called the father of English Essay. Long says “Bacon’s Essays is the one work which
will interest all students of English literature.” The aphoristic style of his Essays is
real contribution to the history of English prose style.
He applied that inductive method in history by basing his account all the time
on facts to speak for themselves in his historical World History of Henry VII. His The
New Atlantis belongs to the class of Thomas More’s Utopia. It is a fragmentary
sketch of a Baconian Utopia.
Bacon expressed his dreams for the advancement of knowledge and the
improvement of human conditions and also dealt with the social and political
arrangement in his island of The New Atlantis.
Many minor writers wrote a number of pamphlets, letters, treatises ‘tracts’ on
various ‘kinds’ of subjects in the Age of Elizabeth in order to earn their livelihood.
On the whole, Elizabethan Age is considered to be one of the most productive
periods in the literary history of England. Though it is considered to be the golden
age of poetry and drama, it is not devoid of other literary productions in the fields of
prose and novel. In fact a variety of prose works appeared and showed various
kinds of style--simple and plain, epigrammatic and sententious, ornate and
artificial, equivocal and so on. The prose writers dealt with the lives of men of
letters, statesmen, religious reformers; saints and martyrs, the problems of politics
and society, morality and religion, the adventures of robbers, weavers and cobblers,
the travels and explorations to unknown lands.
Thus the study of Elizabethan prose throws light on the spirit of the Age
manifested in all walks of life and shows the expansion of creative and critical
activities by Elizabethan men of letters.
Charles Lamb is one of the Best Beloved of English essayists whose memory,
as Southey said, "will retain its fragrance as long as the best spice expended on the
"Pharaohs". Lamb occupies a peculiar place in literature both as a writer and as a
man. The rich humour and pathos, his blending of fancy and wisdom, tenderness
and gusto have given irresistible and lasting charm to his works. As an essayist he
is unsurpassed. As a dramatic critic, he is a pioneer. In poetry he can claim "The
Old Familiar Faces'' and ''Hester" as classics.
Lamb had early learning’s to literature. Inspired by Coleridge, he had started
writing sonnets addressed to eminent persons at the end of 1794. He published his
sonnets and other verses in association with Coleridge and Charles Lloyd. His first
book was ''The Tale of Rosamond Gray'', one of the most pathetic stories in English
literature. Shortly afterwards, he began contributing to the daily papers. In 1801,
he published a five-act tragedy "John Woodvil", which was a great failure as a
drama. The remarkable feature in it was the way in which Lamb had caught the
manner and spirit of the Elizabethan writers of whom he was a constant and
enthusiastic student.
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Brother and sister wrote together `Tales from Shakespeare' (1807), `Mrs.
Leicester's School' (1808) and `Poetry for Children' (1309). Of each of these books
Mary wrote about two-thirds. To the same period belong other children's books,
''The King and Queen of Hearts'' (1806) and ''The Adventures of Ulysses'' (1808). In
1808, Lamb wrote ''Specimens of English Dramatists'' who lived about the Time of
Shakespeare. This book gave an impetus to the study of the Elizabethan
dramatists. But his best book which places him in the highest rank as a writer of
prose’s the ''Essays of Elia'', which originally appeared in the London Magazine.
Later it was published in a collected form in 1823.
Between 1811 and 1820 he wrote almost nothing. These years represent his
most social period during which he played much host and entertained his friends
on Wednesday or Thursday nights. At this time, he gathered that reputation as a
conversationalist or inspirer of conversation in others.
In 1830, Lamb published small volume of poems called Album Verses. In
1833, his ''Last Essays of Elia'' was published. Lamb was a curious reader, an
amusing talker, a convivial soul. He became the centre of a group of wits including
Coleridge and Hazlitt. Long before he had discovered his talent for writing essays,
he had practised the art of dramatic and literary criticism. He played a considerable
part in reviving the dramatic writers of the Shakespearean age. Here he displays
exquisite powers of discrimination. As a poet he is not entitled to a high place. Yet,
one cannot forget the tenderness, grace and the quaint humour in them. As a
letter-writer he ranks very high and when he is in his frequent nonsensical mood,
none can equal him. As an essayist he can properly be described as a romantic in
the sense that his work is highly personal, tinged with various emotional tones,
given to the exploitation of individual whims. In style, he deviates widely from the
norm of cultivated style. In his essays, he shows his tendency to escape from the
harsh and painful aspects of life into the realm of imagination.
A bundle of essays, a number of casual lyrics, one or two brief plays, a tale of
striking pathos, a few narratives and adaptations of old authors for children and
some critical notes on his favourite writers -these constitute the sum-total of his
work.
5.1.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. The essential quality of the essay lies in its personal nature.
2. The contribution of Addison and Steele to English prose.
3. Twentieth Century English essays.
5.1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Bangalore: Prism Books Pvt.
Ltd., 1993.
2. Beckson, Karl E and Ganz, Arthur F. A Reader’s Guide to Literary Terms, a
Dictionary. Chandigarh: Vishal Publishers, 1982.
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3. Gupta A.N. and Gupta, Satish. A Dictionary of Literary Terms: Bareilly:

Prakash Book Dept. 1983.
4. Iyengar, Srinivasa K.R. Introduction of the Study of English Literature.
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 2011.
5. Prasad, Birjagadish. A Background to the Study of English Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
6. Upham, Alfred H. The Typical Forms of English Literature. New Delhi: AITBS
Publishers, 1999.
7. Hudson, W.H. An Introduction of the Study of Literature. New Delhi: Atlantic
Publishers, 2006.
8. Monfries, Helen. An Introduction to Critical Appreciation for Foreign Learners:
An Anthology of Prose Passages and Verse. Chennai: Macmillan, 1970.
9. Rees, R.J. English Literature: An Introduction to the study of Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
5.1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Read a few essays of Charles Lamb and comment on the element of pathos
in it.
5.1.12 KEYWORDS
1. Montaigne: One of the most significant philosophers of the French
Renaissance, known for popularizing the essay as a literary genre.
2. Voltaire: A French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher.
3. Mathew Arnold: A Victorian poet and critic.
4. The Tatler: A British literary and society journal begun by Richard Steele in
1709 and published for two years.
5. The Spectator: A daily publication founded by Joseph Addison and Richard
Steele in England, lasting from 1711 to 1712.
6. Elia: The Penname of Charles Lamb.
7. Surrealism: A twentieth century avant-garde movement in art and literature
which sought to release the creative potential of the unconscious mind, for
example by the irrational juxtaposition of images.
8. Macaulay: A British historian and Whig politician. He wrote extensively as
an essayist and reviewer, his books on British history have been hailed as
literary masterpieces

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UNIT – V
LESSON - 2
5.2 BIOGRAPHY AND AUTOBIOGRAPHY
STRUCTURE
5.2.1 Objectives
5.2.2 Introduction
5.2.3 Content: The Study of the Essay
5.2.4 Revision Points
5.2.5 Intext Questions
5.2.6 Summary
5.2.7 Terminal Exercise
5.2.8 Supplementary Materials
5.2.9 Assignments
5.2.10 Suggested Reading
5 2.11 Learning Activities
5.2.12 Keywords
5.2.1 OBJECTIVES
Biography and autobiography are as old as the other more popular forms of
literature. A faithful and authentic account of a person’s life, his or her ambitions
and achievements, virtues and flaws is always a source of inspiration for the
readers. This lesson is included with a view to provided our young learners about
the importance of these two forms of literature.
5.2.2 INTRODUCTION
The term biography was first used by Dryden defining it as ‘the history of
particular men’s lives’. The term connotes a complete account of a person's life
including one’s character and temperament. Nowadays biography is considered a
part of literature. Harold Nicolson defines it as ‘a truthful record of an individual
composed as a work of art’.
In an autobiography the author writes the story of his own life and
achievements. It is a successful presentation of personality. It takes its-origin in the
common human urge to express one's own achievements in the form of writing. The
writer may give a full account of his life in detail or he may give only a few
anecdotes or events from his life. The great drawback of an autobiography is that it
can never be complete because it comes to an end before the author’s death.
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5.2.3 CONTENT:
The Study of the Essay
The Biography
The basis of the biographical impulse is man’s interest in man. The proper
study of mankind is man. A biography has its origin in the instinct of man to
celebrate the memory of someone whom he admires and to draw inspiration from
him. Biography is the record of the life of an individual. Whereas history deals with
events, that mould the life of a nation. Biography is defined by the birth and death
of a person concerned. Other persons are only subsidiary to the central hero. It is
the account of the persons’ achievements and personality. Sidney Lee says that
‘character and exploit jointly constitute biographic personality’.
A biography should neither be excessive in praise nor in vile condemnation of
its subject. Both the virtues and the faults of the person should be presented
dispassionately. A biography is not something to satisfy the curiosity of the reader
it should be a work of art, not a mere collection of odds and ends. Its function is to
‘transmit personality’. A biography should be based on facts about the person
concerned and on correct interpretation of facts. Any invented details have no place
in a biography. A good biography is of great value to a historian because, as Carlyle
said, ‘history is the essence of countless biographies’.
There are few factors that make a biography impure. One is the desire of the
biographer to exaggerate either the virtues or the voices of his subject. Another
factor is the intrusion of the author’s own views and prejudices. The biographer
should stand apart and away from his subject and maintain an attitude of
detachment. Yet another cause of impurity is the employment of utilitarian or moral
aims for the purpose of illustrating some preconceived theory. In short, a biography
is a true narrative without any straining of effort or drawing of moral. It relates
faithfully to the human soul.
Biography in English
Originally the biography had didactic and commemorative purpose. It was
meant to celebrate the life and activities of important persons like the Saints, kings,
warriors and conquerors. So, in the middle Ages, two types of biographies or lives
became popular - The Saint’s life and the royal chronicle. The most ancient example
is Plutarch’s ‘Lives’.
The English biography proper appeared in the 17th century. Izaak Walton’s
‘Lives’ appeared between 1640 and 1678. Then came Dr. Johnson’s monumental
‘Lives of the Poets’ and Boswell’s ‘Life of Samuel Johnson’. Some critics hold the
latter as the greatest of all biographies. Boswell was a constant companion of
Johnson and his biography of the great master throbs with life as it contains
practically everything which the great man did, thought or said. Goldsmith
‘Biographical Sketches’ also appeared during this period. In the 19th century some
of the great biographies in English appeared. Among them are Lockhart’s ‘Scott’,
Carlyle’s, ‘Sterling’ and Froude’s ‘Carlyle’s’. In modern times Lytton Strachey made
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biography writing a perfect art. His ‘Queen Victoria’ and ‘Eminent Victorians’ are
well- known. Some other important biographies of modern times are Trevelyan’s
‘Macaulay’, Churchill’s ‘Malborough’ and David Cecil’s ‘The Stricken Deer’, A
Biography of Poet Cowper.
Today biography has become such a popular and necessary art form that we
have biographies of practically every writer, Scientist, or Philosopher. A good lot of
research goes into the making of a modern biography. Most of them show a
tendency of ruthless dissection of their subjects. In Lytton Strachey's 'Eminent
Victorians' this process of dissection becomes debunking of the subjects. Strachey
emphasises not only the outstanding qualities of his subjects but also their
weaknesses, However, today this tendency is being kept in check and the
biographer is content to confine himself to an understanding of the subject and the
social background of the subject's activities. Biography is a difficult art and calls for
a capacity on the part of the biographer for absorbing facts and stating them
interestingly without prejudice. As W.H. Hudson says, “Other forms of composition
deal with thought and emotion, but biography deals with the source of thought and
emotion”.
Autobiography
Dr. Johnson preferred autobiography to biography saying that every man’s life
is best written by himself. The writer of his own life has the full knowledge of the
truth though sometimes he may disguise or suppress it in his writings. From the
psychological view point, also an autobiography is preferable because the writer
knows what are the motives, hopes and ambitions that prompted him at decisive
moments in his life. Thus while biography is the product of second hand
knowledge, autobiography is the product of firsthand experience. R.L. Stevenson
says, “There is no truer sort to writing than what is to be found in autobiographies,
and certainly none more entertaining".
An autobiography is a candid narration of events in author's life. It may take
the form of a confession, apology, self-scrutiny or a mere delightful account. When
it is a mere account of facts without reference to the author’s inner conflicts and
motives, it is an objective autobiography. When an autobiography reveals the
character and inner struggle of the writer and presents a searching analysis of his
moods, motives and fancies, it is subjective. St. Augustine’s ‘Confessions’ the
earliest example of an autobiography, belongs to the subjective kind. Also
Rousseau’s confessions' written in the 18th century. Three other important
autobiographies appeared in the 18th century - those of David Hume, Edward
Gibbon and Benjamin Franklin.
The chief characteristics of an. autobiography are the lowing:

1. Truth should be the hallmark of an autobiography. Facts should not be

perverted. A true picture of the writer's personality should emerge from the
autobiography. Gandhiji's autobiography is the best example in this respect.
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2. Courage and frankness are the essential virtues of a good writer of

autobiography. The writer should not be secretive and reluctant. Bertrand
Russell's three-volume autobiography is noted for these qualities.
3. The author of an autobiography should be objective in dealing with
contemporary events and personalities. Autobiographies of Gibbon and
Nehru are good examples of this kind.
4. The author should not be verbose in his description or narration.
5. Self-consciousness is the very essence of an autobiography. An
autobiography should not aim at self-effacement as in the autobiography of
T.E.Lawrence. Similarly the author of an autobiography should not indulge
in self-glorification.
6. The style should be interesting and even entertaining. A natural felicity of
expression and flashes of humour and wit are essential attributes of an
autobiography.
There are some difficulties an auto biographer faces:

1. He is likely to forget the impressions and emotions connected with the

events happened in the distant past. Sometimes there may be embarrassing
episodes he would like to hide or reveal only partially.
2. It is difficult for anyone to be entirely objective while dealing with
contemporary persons and events that have affected his personal life and
happiness.
3. An autobiographer is likely to omit the details of daily life that are common.
This may lead to some falsification.
Autobiography in English Prose
Autobiography differs from memoirs and letter writing. They may form a part
of autobiography or may have separate identity. During the eighteenth century
diarists and letter writers were popular. In them we find the art of autobiography
writing in its seminal stage. Some of the famous diaries are-Samuel Pepys's Diary,
John Evelyn's Diary and the Diary of Countess of Warwick. Samuel Pepys is the
master diarist. Although his diary is not a work of art, it makes its appeal as
human document. Letters of Lord Chesterfield have a great literary significance.
The diaries and Letters reveal the character and personality of the writers, contain
befitting comments on contemporary events and eminent personalities. Evelyn's
Diary is a veritable record of the events from 1642 up to the year 1706.It contains
many rich and graphic descriptions of the places the writer visited. The Diary of the
Countess of Warwick exhibits a well-marked note of reflective piety. The Memoirs of
Lady Fanshawe are buoyant, lucid and high-spirited and The Memoirs of Queen
Mary II are remarkable for an undercurrent of pathos. The Letters of Rachal, Lady
Russell is tranquil and high toned. The diarists and letter writers exercised great
influence upon the development of style and the broadening of subject matter.
Thus, they gave colloquial ease and familiarity to the paved the way for
autobiography writing.
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Some of the famous autobiographers are De Quincey, Benjamin Robert

Haydon, Leigh Hunt, J. S. Mill, Ruskin, Morley, H. G. Wells, Rudyard Kipling,
George Moore, Winston Churchill, Viscount Haldane, E. V. Lucas, Mahatma
Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and Nirad C. Chaudhuri. Autobiography writing is very
popular in the modern age. "I foresee a great future for English autobiography,"
remarks Harold Nicholson, "but I do not pretend that it has had a great past."
5.2.4 REVISION POINTS
1. Harold Nicolson defines it as ‘a truthful record of an individual composed as
a work of art.
2. A biography has its origin in the instinct of man to celebrate the memory of
someone whom he admires and to draw inspiration from him.
3. A biography should neither be excessive in praise nor in vile condemnation
of its subject
4. Any invented details have no place in a biography
5. There are few factors that make a biography impure. One is the desire of the
biographer to exaggerate either the virtues or the voices of his subject.
Another factor is the intrusion of the author’s own views and prejudices.
6. The English biography proper appeared in the 17th century.
7. Today biography has become such a popular and necessary art form that we
have biographies of practically every writer, Scientist, or Philosopher.
8. In an autobiography the author writes the story of his own life and
achievements. It is a successful presentation of personality. It takes its-
origin in the common human urge to express one's own achievements in the
form of writing.
9. It may take the form of a confession, apology, self-scrutiny or a mere
delightful account.
10. Truth should be the hallmark of an autobiography
11. Courage and frankness are the essential virtues of a good writer of
autobiography
12. There are some difficulties an auto biographer faces.
13. Autobiography differs from memoirs and letter writing
14. Autobiography writing is very popular in the modern age.
5.2.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What can be the impulse behind biographies?
2. What makes biography impure?
3. Name some of the famous biographers
4. Write on the difference between autobiography and memoir
5. Is autobiography very popular today?
5.2.6 SUMMARY
Harold Nicolson defines it as ‘a truthful record of an individual composed as a
work of art. A biography has its origin in the instinct of man to celebrate the
memory of someone whom he admires and to draw inspiration from him. A
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biography should neither be excessive in praise nor in vile condemnation of its

subject. Any invented details have no place in a biography. There are few factors
that make a biography impure. One is the desire of the biographer to exaggerate
either the virtues or the voices of his subject. Another factor is the intrusion of the
author’s own views and prejudices. The English biography proper appeared in the
17th century. Today biography has become such a popular and necessary art form
that we have biographies of practically every writer, Scientist, or Philosopher. In an
autobiography the author writes the story of his own life and achievements. It is a
successful presentation of personality. It takes its-origin in the common human
urge to express one's own achievements in the form of writing. It may take the form
of a confession, apology, self-scrutiny or a mere delightful account. Truth should be
the hallmark of an autobiography. Courage and frankness are the essential virtues
of a good writer of autobiography. There are some difficulties an auto biographer
faces. Autobiography differs from memoirs and letter writing. Autobiography writing
is very popular in the modern age.
5.2.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. Define biography
2. Define autobiography
3. Comment on Nicolson’s definition of biography
4. What are the difficulties an autobiographer faces?
5.2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
A Brief Account of Biography
In the Western world, biographical literature can be said to begin in the 5th
century BCE with the poet Ion of Chios, who wrote brief sketches of such famous
contemporaries as Pericles and Sophocles. It continued throughout the classical
period for a thousand years, until the dissolution of the Roman Empire in the 5th
century CE. Broadly speaking, the first half of this period exhibits a considerable
amount of biographical activity, of which much has been lost; such fragments as
remain of the rest—largely funeral elegies and rhetorical exercises depicting ideal
types of character or behavior—suggest that from a literary point of view the loss is
not grievous. Biographical works of the last centuries in the classical period,
characterized by numerous sycophantic accounts of emperors, share the declining
energies of the other literary arts. But although there are few genuine examples of
life writing, in the modern sense of the term, those few are masterpieces.
Plato’s life of Socrates keeps to strict biographical truth cannot now be
ascertained and he does not offer a full-scale biography. Yet in his
two consummate biographical dialogues—The Apology (recounting the trial and
condemnation of Socrates) and the Phaedo (a portrayal of Socrates’ last hours and
death)—he brilliantly re-creates the response of an extraordinary character to the
crisis of existence. The same century, the first of the Christian era, gave birth to the
three first truly “professional” biographers—Plutarch and Seutonius (discussed
above) and the historian Tacitus, whose finely wrought biography of his father-in-
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law, Agricola, concentrating on the administration rather than the man, has
something of the monumental quality of Roman architecture.
Middle Ages
This was a period of biographical darkness, an age dominated by the
priest and the knight. The priest shaped biography into an Exemplum of other-
worldliness, while the knight found escape from daily brutishness in allegory
chivalric romances, and broad satire (the fabliaux). Bishop Gregory of Tour’s
History of the Franks depicts artlessly but vividly, from firsthand observation, the
lives and personalities of the four grandsons of Clovis and their fierce queens in
Merovingian Gaul of the 6th century. Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English
People, of the 8th century, though lacking the immediacy and exuberance—and the
violent protagonists—of Gregory, presents some valuable portraits, like those of “the
little dark man,” Paulinus, who converted the King of Northumbria to Christianity.
Renaissance
Like the other arts, biography stirs into fresh life with the Renaissance in the
15th century. Its most significant examples were autobiographical, as has already
been mentioned. Biography was chiefly limited to uninspired panegyrics of Italian
princes by their court humanists. During the first part of the 16th century in
England, now stimulated by the “new learning” of Erasmus, John Colet, Thomas
More, and others, there were written three works that can be regarded as the
initiators of modern biography: More’s History of Richard III, William Roper’s Mirrour
of Vertue in Worldly Greatness; or, The life of Syr Thomas More, and George
Cavendish’s Life of Cardinal Wolsey. The History of Richard III (written about 1513
in both an English and a Latin version) unfortunately remains unfinished; and it
cannot meet the strict standards of biographical truth since, under the influence of
classical historians, a third of the book consists of dialogue that is not recorded
from life. However, it is a brilliant work, exuberant of wit and irony, that not
only constitutes a biographical landmark but is also the first piece of modern
English prose. With relish, more thus sketches Richard’s character:
Worked up into dramatic scenes, this biography, as reproduced in
the Chronicles of Edward Halland Raphael Holinshed, later provided both source
and inspiration for Shakespeare’s rousing melodramatic tragedy, Richard III.
The remaining period of the Renaissance, however, is disappointingly barren.
The Elizabethan Age in England, for all its magnificent flowering of the drama,
poetry, and prose, did not give birth to a single biography worthy of the name. Sir
Fulke Greville’s account of Sir Philip Sidney(1652) is marred by tedious
moralizing; Francis Bacon’s accomplished life of the first Tudor monarch, The
Historie of the Raigne of King Henry the Seventh(1622), turns out to be mainly a
history of the reign. But Sir Walter Raleigh suggests an explanation for this lack of
biographical expression in the introduction to his History of the World (1614):
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th th
17 and 18 centuries
In the 17th century the word biography was first employed to create a separate
identity for this type of writing. That century and the first half of the 18th presents
a busy and sometimes bizarre biographical landscape. It was an era of
experimentation and preparation rather than of successful achievement. The last
half of the 18th century witnessed the remarkable conjunction of these two
remarkable men, from which sprang what is generally agreed to be the world’s
supreme biography, Boswell’s Life of Samuel Johnson LLD (1791). Dr. Johnson,
literary dictator of his age, critic and lexicographer, himself created the first English
professional biographies in The Lives of the English Poets. In essays and in
conversation, Johnson set forth principles for biographical composition: the writer
must tell the truth—“the business of the biographer is often to…display the minute
details of daily life,” for it is these details that re-create a living character; and men
need not be of exalted fame to provide worthy subjects.
For more than one reason the somewhat disreputable and incredibly diligent
Scots lawyer James Boswell can be called the unique genius of biographical
literature, bestriding both autobiography and biography. Early in his acquaintance
with Johnson he was advised by the Doctor “to keep a journal of my [Boswell’s] life,
full and unreserved.” Boswell followed this advice to the letter. His gigantic journals
offer an unrivaled self-revelation of a fascinatingly checkered character and career.
Boswell actively helped to stage the life of Johnson that he knew he was going to
write—drawing out Johnson in conversation, setting up scenes he thought likely to
yield rich returns—and thus, at moments, he achieved something like the novelist’s
power over his materials, being himself an active part of what he was to re-create.
Finally, though he invented no new biographical techniques, in his Life of Samuel
Johnson he interwove with consummate skill Johnson’s letters and personal
papers, Johnson’s conversation as assiduously recorded by the biographer,
material drawn from interviews with large numbers of people who knew Johnson,
and his own observation of Johnson’s behaviour, to elicit the living texture of a life
and a personality. Boswell makes good his promise that Johnson “will be seen as
he really was.” The influence of Boswell’s work penetrated throughout the world
and, despite the development of new attitudes in biographical literature, has
persisted to this day as a pervasive force. Perhaps equally important to life writers
has been the inspiration provided by the recognition accorded Boswell’s Life as a
major work of literary art.
19 th century
The Life of Johnson may be regarded as a representative psychological
expression of the Age of Enlightenment, and it certainly epitomizes several typical
characteristics of that age: devotion to urban life, confidence in common sense,
emphasis on man as a social being. Yet in its extravagant pursuit of the life of one
individual, in its laying bare the eccentricities and suggesting the inner turmoil of
personality, it may be thought of as part of that revolution in self-awareness, ideas,
aspirations, exemplified in Rousseau’s Confessions, the French Revolution, the
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philosophical writings of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, the political

tracts of Thomas Paine, and the works of such early Romantic poets as Robert
Burns, William Blake, Wordsworth—a revolution that in its concern with the
individual psyche and the freedom of man seemed to augur well for biographical
literature. This promise, however, was not fulfilled in the 19th century.
20 th century
The period of modern biography was ushered in, generally speaking, by World
War I All the arts were in ferment, and biographical literature shared in the
movement, partly as a reaction against 19th-century conventions, partly as a
response to advances in psychology, and partly as a search for new means of
expression. This revolution, unlike that at the end of the 18th century, was
eventually destined to enlarge and enhance the stature of biography. The chief
developments of modern life writing may be conveniently classified under five
heads: (1) an increase in the numbers and general competence of biographies
throughout the Western world; (2) the influence on biographical literature of the
counter forces of science and fictional writing; (3) the decline of
formal autobiography and of biographies springing from a personal relationship; (4)
the range and variety of biographical expression; and (5) the steady, though
moderate, growth of a literature of biographical criticism. Only the first three of
these developments need much elaboration.
Little has been said about biography since the Renaissance in Germany,
Spain, Italy, Scandinavia, and the Slavic countries because, as in the case of
Russia, there had been comparatively little biographical literature and because
biographical trends, particularly since the end of the 18th century, generally
followed those of Britain and France. Russian literary genius in prose is best
exemplified during both the 19th and 20th centuries in the novel. In the 19th
century, however, Leo Tolstoy’s’s numerous autobiographical writings, such
as Childhood and Boyhood, and Maxim Gorky’s’s autobiographical Trilogy
(Childhood; In the World; and My Universities, 1913–23) represent, in specialized
form, a limited biographical activity. The close control of literature exercised by the
20th-century communist governments of Eastern Europe has created a wintry
climate for biography. The rest of Europe, outside the iron curtain,
has manifested in varying degrees the fresh biographical energies and practices
illustrated in British–American life writing: biography is now, as never before, an
international art that shares a more or less common viewpoint.
The second characteristic of modern biography, its being subject to the
opposing pressures of science and fictional writing, has a dark as well as a bright
side. Twentieth-century fiction, boldly and restlessly experimental, has, on the one
hand, influenced the biographer to aim at literary excellence, to employ devices of
fiction suitable for biographical ends; but, on the other, fiction has also probably
encouraged the production of popular pseudo biography, hybrids of fact and fancy,
as well as of more subtle distortions of the art form. Science has exerted two quite
different kinds of pressure: the prestige of the traditional sciences, in their
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emphasis on exactitude and rigorous method, has undoubtedly contributed to a

greater diligence in biographical research and an uncompromising scrutiny of
evidences; but science’s vast accumulating of facts—sometimes breeding the
worship of fact for its own sake—has helped to create an atmosphere in which
today’s massive, note-ridden and fact-encumbered lives proliferate and has
probably contributed indirectly to a reluctance in the scholarly community to take
the risks inevitable in true biographical composition.
The particular science of psychology, as earlier pointed out, has conferred
great benefits upon the responsible practitioners of biography. It has also
accounted in large part, it would appear, for the third characteristic of modern
biography: the decline of formal autobiography and of the grand tradition of
biography resulting from a personal relationship. For psychology has rendered the
self more exposed but also more elusive, more fascinatingly complex and, in the
darker reaches, somewhat unpalatable. Since honesty would force the
autobiographer into a self-examination both formidable to undertake and
uncomfortable to publish, instead he generally turns his attention to outward
experiences and writes memoirs and reminiscences
After World War I, the work of Lytton Strachey played a somewhat similar role
to that of Boswell in heading a “revolution” in biography. Eminent
Victorians and Queen Victoria (1921), followed by Elizabeth and Essex (1928), with
their artful selection, lacquered style, and pervasive irony, exerted an almost
intoxicating influence in the 1920s and ’30s. Writers seeking to capitalize on
Strachey’s popularity and ape Strachey’s manner, without possessing Strachey’s
talents, produced a spate of “debunking” biographies zestfully exposing the clay feet
of famous historical figures. By World War II, however, this kind of biography had
been discredited; Strachey’s adroit detachment and literary skill were recognized to
be his true value, not his dangerously interpretative method; and, since that time,
biography has steadied into an established, if highly varied, form of literature.
Biographical literature today
The re-creation of a life is also now being attempted in other media than that
of prose. Biographical drama has of course been staged from before the time of
Shakespeare; it continues to be popular, whether translated from narrative to the
theatre (as the Diary of Anne Frank) or written specifically for the stage, like Jean
Anouilh’s Becket and Robert Bolt’s study of Sir Thomas More, A Man for All
Seasons (which nonetheless owes a great deal to William Roper). The cinema often
follows with its versions of such plays; it likewise produces original biographical
films, generally with indifferent success. Television, too, offers historical “re-
creations” of various sorts, and with varying degrees of responsibility, but has
achieved only a few notable examples of biographical illumination, for the conflict
between gripping visual presentation and the often undramatic, but important,
biographical truth is difficult to resolve. Biography, indeed, seems less innovative,
less rewarding of experiment, and less adaptable to new media, than does fiction or
perhaps even history. Words are no longer the only way to tell a story and perhaps
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in time will not be regarded as the chief way; but so far they seem the best way of
unfolding the full course of a life and exploring the quirks and crannies of a
personality. Anchored in the truth of fact, though seeking the truth of
interpretation, biography tends to be more stable than other literary arts; and its
future would appear to be a predictably steady evolution of its present trends.
(Source: Wikipedia)
A Brief Account of Autobiography.
The classical period: Apologia, oration, confession
In antiquity such works were typically entitled apologia, purporting to be self-
justification rather than self-documentation. John Henry Newman’s Christian
confessional work (first published in 1864) is entitled Apologia Pro Vita Sua in
reference to this tradition. The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus introduces his
autobiography with self-praise, which is followed by a justification of his actions as
a Jewish rebel commander of Galilee. The pagan rhetor Libanius framed his life
memoir as one of his orations, not of a public kind, but of a literary kind that could
not be aloud in privacy.
Augustine applied the title Confessions to his autobiographical work, and Jean
Jacques Rousseau used the same title in the 18th century, initiating the chain of
confessional and sometimes racy and highly self-critical, autobiographies of
the Romantic era and beyond. Augustine's was arguably the first Western
autobiography ever written, and became an influential model for Christian writers
throughout the Middle Ages. It tells of the hedonistic lifestyle Augustine lived for a
time within his youth, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual
exploits; his following and leaving of the anti-sex and anti-marriage Manichaeism in
attempts to seek sexual morality; and his subsequent return to Christianity due to
his embracement of Skepticism and the New Academy movement (developing the
view that sex is good, and that virginity is better, comparing the former to silver and
the latter to gold; Augustine's views subsequently strongly influenced Western
theology. Confessions will always rank among the great masterpieces of western
literature. In the spirit of Augustine's Confessions is the 12th-century Historia
Calamitqatum of Peter Abelard, outstanding as an autobiographical document of its
period.
Early autobiographies
One of the first great autobiographies of the Renaissance is that of the sculptor
and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini (1500–1571), written between 1556 and 1558, and
entitled by him simply Vita. He declares at the start: "No matter what sort he is,
everyone who has to his credit what are or really seem great achievements, if he
cares for truth and goodness, ought to write the story of his own life in his own
hand; but no one should venture on such a splendid undertaking before he is over
forty." These criteria for autobiography generally persisted until recent times, and
most serious autobiographies of the next three hundred years conformed to them.
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Another autobiography of the period is De vita propria, by the Italian

mathematician, physician and astrologer Gerolamo Cardano (1574).
The earliest known autobiography written in English is the Book of Margery
Kempe, written in 1438.[ Following in the earlier tradition of a life story told as an
act of Christian witness, the book describes Margery Kempe’s pilgrimages to the
Holy Land and Rome, her attempts to negotiate a celibate marriage with her
husband, and most of all her religious experiences as a Christian mystic. Extracts
from the book were published in the early sixteenth century but the whole text was
published for the first time only in 1936.
Possibly the first publicly available autobiography written in English was
Captain John Smith's autobiography published in 1630 which was regarded by
many as not much more than a collection of tall tales told by someone of doubtful
veracity. This changed with the publication of Philip Barbour's definitive biography
in 1964 which, amongst other things, established independent factual bases for
many of Smith's "tall tales", many of which could not have been known by Smith at
the time of writing unless he was actually present at the events recounted.
18 th and 19th centuries
Following the trend of Romanticism, which greatly emphasized the role and the
nature of the individual, and in the footsteps of Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s
Confessions, a more intimate form of autobiography, exploring the subject's
emotions, came into fashion. Stendhal’s autobiographical writings of the
1830s, The Life of Henry Bruland and Memoirs of an Egotist, are both avowedly
influenced by Rousseau. An English example is William Hazlitt’s Liber
Amoris (1823), a painful examination of the writer's love-life.
With the rise of education, cheap newspapers and cheap printing, modern
concepts of fame and celebrity began to develop, and the beneficiaries of this were
not slow to cash in on this by producing autobiographies. It became the
expectation—rather than the exception—that those in the public eye should write
about themselves—not only writers such as Charles Dickens (who also incorporated
autobiographical elements in his novels) and Anthony Trollope, but also politicians,
philosophers, churchmen, and entertainers. Increasingly, in accordance with
romantic taste, these accounts also began to deal, amongst other topics, with
aspects of childhood and upbringing—far removed from the principles of "Cellinian"
autobiography.
th st
20 and 21 centuries
From the 17th century onwards, "scandalous memoirs" by supposed libertines,
serving a public taste for titillation, have been frequently published.
Typically pseudonymous, they were (and are) largely works of fiction written
by ghostwriters. So-called "autobiographies" of modern professional athletes and
media celebrities—and to a lesser extent about politicians—generally written by
a ghostwriter, are routinely published. Some celebrities, such as Naomi Campbell,
admit to not having read their "autobiographies". Some sensationalist
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autobiographies such as James Frey's A Million Little Pieces have been publicly
exposed as having embellished or fictionalized significant details of the authors'
lives.
Autobiography has become an increasingly popular and widely accessible
form. A Fortunate Life by Albert Facey (1979) has become an Australian literary
classic. With the critical and commercial success in the United States of such
memoirs as Angela’s Ashes and The Color of Water, more and more people have
been encouraged to try their hand at this genre. Maggie Nelson’s book The
Argonauts is one of the recent autobiographies. Maggie Nelson calls it "auto-
theory"—a combination of autobiography and critical theory. A genre where the
"claim for truth" overlaps with fictional elements though the work still purports to
be autobiographical is auto-fiction. (Source: Wikipedia)
5.2.9 ASSIGNMENTS
Write in about 300 words on the following topics:
1. A short history of biography
2. Autobiographies in English in India
3. Write an account of your own ambitions and achievements.
5.2.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Bangalore: Prism Books Pvt.
Ltd., 1993.
2. Beckson, Karl E and Ganz, Arthur F. A Reader’s Guide to Literary Terms, a
Dictionary. Chandigarh: Vishal Publishers, 1982.
3. Gupta A.N. and Gupta, Satish. A Dictionary of Literary Terms: Bareilly:
Prakash Book Dept. 1983.
4. Iyengar, Srinivasa K.R. Introduction of the Study of English Literature.
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 2011.
5. Prasad, Birjagadish. A Background to the Study of English Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
6. Upham, Alfred H. The Typical Forms of English Literature. New Delhi: AITBS
Publishers, 1999.
7. Hudson, W.H. An Introduction of the Study of Literature. New Delhi: Atlantic
Publishers, 2006.
8. Monfries, Helen. An Introduction to Critical Appreciation for Foreign Learners:
An Anthology of Prose Passages and Verse. Chennai: Macmillan, 1970.
9. Rees, R.J. English Literature: An Introduction to the study of Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999
5 2.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Attempt an autobiographical sketch of yourself.
2. Study the Lives of Poets and other great personalities
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5.2.12 KEYWORDS
1. Biography - a faithful written account of one’s life.
2. Autobiography - an account of a person’s life written by that person
3. Ghostwriter - is a writer who is hired to write literary or journalistic works.
4. Memoir - an account or biography written from personal knowledge
5. Pseudonym - pen name.
6. Augustine - is a masculine name meaning to increase. In the Bible,
Augustine was the bishop of Hippo.
7. Boswell - The biographer of Dr. Johnson
8. Apologia - a formal written defence of one’s opinions or conduct
9. Oration - a formal speech, especially one given on a ceremonial occasion.
10. Confession - a formal statement admitting that one is guilty of a crime.


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UNIT – V
LESSON - 3
5.3 NATURE AND FUNCTION OF LITERARY CRITICISM
STRUCTURE
5.3.1 Objectives
5.3.2 Introduction
5.3.3 Content: The Study of Criticism
5.3.4 Revision Points
5.3.5 Intext Questions
5.3.6 Summary
5.3.7 Terminal Exercise
5.3.8 Supplementary Materials
5.3.9 Assignments
5.3.10 Suggested Reading
5.3.11 Learning Activities
5.3.12 Keywords
5.3.1 OBJECTIVES
Literary criticism is a literature on literature. Towards better appreciation of
literary works is the main function of literary criticism. To provide the basic and
necessary understanding of literary criticism to the students of literature is the
main objective of this lesson
5.3.2 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit, we intend to explore the literary forms namely the Essay, the
Short Story and Criticism. Criticism is how we evaluate and interpret art. Literary
criticism goes all the way back to the days of Plato. Through the years, it has
developed and grown, and ultimately provides us with parameters on how to study
literature because there are a million different ways to dissect written works, such
as novels or poems. Literary criticism provides some general guidelines to help us
analyze, deconstruct, interpret and evaluate. Literary criticism helps us to go inside
of the text and understand the written work from many different viewpoints.
5.3.3 CONTENT: THE STUDY OF THE CRITICISM
The Nature and Function of Criticism
The word 'Criticism' is derived from the Greek verb "Kritein" which means to
judge and one who does judging is known as a "critic". The literacy critic is
therefore regarded primarily as an expert with a special faculty and training to
pronounce his judgment on a piece of literary work. He examines the merits and
defects of a given work of art and comes out with a verdict on it. The literature of
criticism included more than the literature which records the judgment. It includes
the mass of literature written about literature whether its object is analysis
interpretation or valuation. While poetry, drama and the novel directly deal with
life, criticism deals with these genres of literature and also about criticism. Hence if
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creative literature is defined as an interpretation of life under various forms of

literary art, critical literature is defined as an interpretation of these forms of art.
The prejudice against criticism is that it does not allow us to examine a great
author by ourselves. Our first business with a great author is with him and his
work that we want to understand. What then is the use of the intermediary? Why
should we study the criticism about Dante and Shakespeare more than we study
actual works of these great writers? In recent times, there is an enormous growth of
the parasitic literature of explanation and commentary and in addition there are
critical works about critics. Hence we have not only books about books but also of
books about books. We have histories of criticism: we have analytical studies of the
methods of criticism; we have journal articles in which such studies are
summarized and discussed. At the end, we are tempted to have knowledge of the
great literary works at second-hand or third-hand instead of examining them
directly. For examples, there are Scherer's' examination of Paradise Lost and
Matthew Arnold’s' analysis of Scherer and Matthew Arnold and their critical
remarks, there arises the danger of Milton's work being remained unread. At best,
the study of criticism can be no substitute for the study of literature that is
criticized. At worst, it may keep us ignorant of the original work and prevent us
from acquiring the personal knowledge of the authors and books.
This danger of criticism is understandable in an age when creative literature is
in danger of being buried under a growing mass of exposition and commentary. Yet
we have to protest against such abuse of criticism, since we can never deny the
utility of criticism. Criticism, in fact has its place and function in the world of
literature.
The distinction between the literature that deals with life and that which deals
with literature is an artificial one. Literature is the creation of whatever that
interests us in life. But personality is one of the chief facts in life. A critic who
interprets the personality of a great writer also deals with life, as the writer
interprets life as the subject of his study. A noble book is as interesting as a noble
deed and the processes of art are as vital as those which are involved in author's
life of any-sided activities. William Watson defends his stand as one who has taken
the great poets as his subject matter deliberately in the following lines:
"Holding these also to be very part
Of Nature's greatness, and accounting not
Their descants least heroical of deeds.”
True criticism also draw its matter and inspiration from life, and in its own way, it
is also creative.
It becomes important to distinguish between the abuse and use of criticism.
We can make this distinction from our own experience of criticism when it becomes
a snare and when it is help to us. Criticism indeed becomes a snare only when we
remain satisfied with what some has said about a great author instead of studying
the author ourselves and master his works. In recent times, in the rush of modern
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life, shortcuts to knowledge are numerous and we are easily tempted to depend
upon critics for information about many writers about whom the world talks freely
and about whom we also wish to talk freely but with whom we have no time or
patience to get acquainted directly. Also in case of studying a book the Odyssey, we
recoil from the task on the ground that it is very long and in turn, we prefer to the
epitome of its contents as provided in Ancient Classics for English Readers that
suits our needs. Such dependence upon literature of exposition must not be totally
condemned. We must treat the problem practically and if we insist on studying the
Odyssey instead of the summary, it would remain a sealed book cases and the
same may become true of many lengthy classics. Hudson points out that it is better
to know something about the poem from the briefest sketch of it than to know
nothing about it. Since life is short and out margin of leisure is limited, and our
curiosity and wish to understand many important writers of the world are justified,
we could turn freely to the service rendered by critics as a substitute for our own
reading of the works or perhaps as a guide for subsequent use of the books. As an
illustration, consider the case of Voltaire, one of the greatest writers of the 18th
century. He is interesting both in himself and on account of the notable place he
has acquired in the history of literature. His publications number is more than 260
and he is a versatile writer. For the ordinary English reader, the mass of his
immense and varied output may remain unexplored but for Lord Morley value of
less than 400 pages which presents a compact and luminous study of the man, his
milieu and his work. A careful perusal of this volume will give him a better idea of
Voltaire's genius, power, limitations and accomplishment than it is possible to
derive the opinion from his direct acquaintance of the author and his works.
Mathew Arnold calls the many minor writers as real "men of genius" having "a
genuine gift for what is true and excellent". Since they emit a life-giving stimulus, it
is salutary to come across a genius of this kind and to extract his honey. To read
many of these writers is impossible and we must be grateful to the intermediaries
who extract the honey for us and given it in an already available form. Their service
is of inestimable value and we have every right to take advantage of it.
It is only exaggeration that we must not depend upon other people for
knowledge of authors and books. Though in principle our chief business is directly
with literature, it should not be assailed for taking into consideration the best
critical interpretation of literature. Bacon commends that distilled books are like
common distilled waters, flashy things. If one wants to test the individual power or
the life-giving stimulus of a book, it can be achieved only through immediate
contact. This can never be transmitted by an agent or expositor. Once a reputed
American Professor told his student that the best book we could read on is Timon of
Athens, but most of the students of literature neglect his view. Hudson is of the
view that no analysis or criticism of a book can ever be an adequate substitute for
our personal mastery of the text. Such an attitude provides a means of literary
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culture and it is of greater value than the knowledge that we could obtain from a
commentary outside.
There is another danger inherent in our continual recourse to the literature of
criticism. We passively accept the other person's interpretation of a book or his
judgment upon it. The degree of this danger increases with the power of the critic
himself. It the critic happens to be a great person with exceptional learning, grasp
and vigor, he imposes completely on us his views. Being aware of our own
shortcomings, we yield ourselves to him. He dominates our thought and his verdict
becomes final. In fact, the critic stands as an obstacle between us and the subject.
We could not establish a personal intercourse with the author and our mind could
not make a free play.
What then is the real use of criticism in our study of literature? The chief
function of criticism is to enlighten and stimulate. If a great poet makes us
partakers of his larger sense of the meaning of literature, a true critic is one who is
well equipped for his task by knowledge of his subjects and is endowed with special
features of insight, penetration and comprehension. Such a man will see a great
deal more than we could do and thereby he helps us to discover the books qualities
of power and beauty, to which we would have remained blind but for his help. Often
the critic gives us an entirely new approach. He could also translate very firmly into
words what were dimly recognized and remained. He is a pathfinder, a friendly
companion leading us into the unseen realm of the work of art. Also he teaches us
how to re-read a book with quickened intelligence and keener appreciation.
Sometimes he challenges our own judgments and thereby provokes us, according to
Emerson. We are sure to gain by our contact with him in insight and power.
Criticism is regarded to have a twofold function in literature, namely
'Interpretation' and 'Judgment'. While judgment is the end of criticism,
interpretation is considered to be the means towards that judgment or end. Of late,
the distinction between the roles has been enforced into prominence. Recently,
students of literature set the two functions in opposition and they maintain the
thesis that the chief duty of the critic is exposition.
What does the critic set out to accomplish as an interpreter? His task is large
and difficult. His purpose is to penetrate into the heart of the book before him: to
disengage its essential qualities of power and beauty: to distinguish between the
elements of transistoriness and the elucidate of permanence: to analyze and
formulate its meaning; to elucidate by direct examination the artistic and moral
principle involved consciously or unconsciously in the creation of the work of art.
Then critic makes explicit what is implicitly in the author's work: he exhibits
the interrelations between the parts and the connections between each of these
parts and the whole: through his explanation, unfolding and illumination, he will
task of judgment to us. Walter Pater considers that to feel the virtue of the poet, or
creator to disengage it, and to set it forth there are three stages of critic’s task. In
the execution of this task: the critic will follow his own particular line of exposition
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he may strictly confine himself to the book on hand; he may elucidate the work by
systematic reference to the other works of the author: he may throw light on the
work from outside by comparison and contrast: or he may step further and seek the
assistance of historical interpretation. Whatever be the method, the critic's one aim
is to know and help to know the book as such.
Prof. Moulton's criticism of Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist is a scientific
kind of literary criticism which pays its way for the critic as an interpreter from
different angles in his opinion, the bulk of literary criticism, whether in popular
conversation or in discussion occupies itself with the merits of authors and works.
These estimates are founded on canons of taste which are assumed to have met
with general acceptance or deduced from speculations as to fundamental
conceptions of literary beauty. In opposition to this, Prof. Moulton advocates the
principle of what he calls inductive criticism. The very name betrays the influence
of modern science and its avowed object is to bring the treatment of literature into
the circle of the inductive sciences. This kind of criticism is not a branch of
literature but it remains necessarily a branch of science. As such, it seeks a
scientific accuracy and impartiality. Hence the inductive critic reviews the
phenomena of literature as they actually stand, inquiring into and endeavoring to
systematize the laws and principles by which they are molded and produce their
effects. Three important points of contrast of this inductive criticism from the older
judicial criticism may be indicated. First of all, judicial criticism is largely
concerned with the question of the order of merit among literary works, a question
that lies outside science. Secondly, judicial criticism rests on the idea that the so
called laws of the state and so they are imposed by an external authority. They
become binding on the artist, since such laws are binding on the man in society but
for the inductive critic such laws do not exist. For him the laws of literature are to
be considered as the laws of nature where facts are reduced to formula. Thirdly,
judicial criticism proceeds upon the hypothesis that there are ‘fixed standards’ by
which literature may be tried and adjudged. But in fact, these standards are
assumed by critics and these vary from critic to critic and in different ages.
Inductive criticism, on the other hand, recognizes no fixed standards as it considers
literature as a product of evolution; its history is a history of unceasing
transformation. As a result, inductive criticism examines literature in the spirit of
pure investigation. It has nothing to do with the supposed or possible value of a
piece of literary art or without personal feelings. The critic, as a scientist, addresses
himself wholly to the labor of creation.
The theory of inductive criticism advocates that the law of each authors work
must be sought within the work itself. It implies that the law found in an author or
a particular work can never be used as a standard of judgment or even as a guide.
Edmond Scherer, the French critic points out that the judgments of Voltaire
and Macaulay on Paradise Lost are not acceptable since one is indulged in
disparagement and the other in laudation. As a result, there is no real verdict of the
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work. From these judgments, one can note the bias of the critic against the writer.
Hence a judge of literature should have the quality of detachment and impartiality.
In order to keep ourselves above our prejudices, Scherer advises us to adopt the
historical method, since it is more conclusive and equitable then the other schools
of criticism.
Since then many schools of criticism have been established. There are several
theories concerning the purpose and methods of criticism. In spite of the
development and variety, many learned scholars still dispute about the meaning of
Aristotle's famous dictum and literary criticism is kept crushed beneath the dead
weight of authority and tyranny of preconceived notions. Also the superstitious
veneration of the classics that began with the Renaissance lingers among the critics
today. That is, there is a general belief in the value of Greek and Latin writers as
permanent standards of excellence. As a result, criticism too often degenerated into
pedantic disquisitions on matters of little real importance, and sterile efforts to keep
production within certain prescribed bounds. Such criticism practically denied the
principle of development and the right of the new spirit in literature to find fresh
paths for itself. It ignored Wordsworth's principle that every author, as far as he is
great and at the same time original has had the task of creating the taste by which
he is to be enjoyed.
After having seen a sample of the French school of Inductive criticism and the
English school of Judicial Criticism, we conclude that judgment in literature is
universal. What the inductive critic gives us, we shall always accept with gratitude;
but we shall none the less turn to the judicial critic in the hope that he may
complete the work of induction by helping us, on the basis of the results obtained,
to distinguish between what is excellent in literature and what is not.
5.3.4 REVISION POINTS
The Nature and Function of Criticism
1. The word 'Criticism' is derived from the Greek verb "Kritein" which means to
judge.
2. A literacy critic is an expert with a special faculty and training to pronounce
his judgment on a piece of literary work.
3. Criticism deals with all genres of literature and so the critical literature is
defined as an interpretation of all forms of art.
4. The prejudice against criticism is that it may keep us ignorant of the original
works and prevent us from acquiring the personal knowledge of the authors
and books.
5. True criticism draws its matter and inspiration from life, and in its own way,
it is also creative.
6. Since we wish to understand many important writers of the world within the
short span of life time, we have to depend upon the service rendered by
critics as a substitute for our own reading of the works and as a guide for
subsequent use of the books.
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7. Hudson and some others are of the view that no analysis or criticism of a
book can ever be an adequate substitute for our personal mastery of the
text.
8. There is another view that the critic stands as an obstacle between the
readers and the subject.
9. The real use and function of criticism is to enlighten and stimulate. A critic
should act as a pathfinder, a friendly companion who should lead the
readers to the unseen realm of the work of art.
10. Criticism is regarded to have a twofold function in literature, namely
'Interpretation' and 'Judgment'.
11. Walter Pater sets forth three stages of critic’s duty in his method of
exposition: (i) Studying the books of the same author, (ii) Adopting the
method of comparison and contrast, and (iii) Using the method of historical
interpretation.
12. Prof. Moulton advocates the principle ‘inductive’ criticism. The inductive
critic is a researcher and systematic investigator.
13. The ‘judicial’ criticism is concerned with the question of the order of merit
among the literary works. Here the critic judges a work in regard to the
existing laws of literary criticism.
14. A judge of literature should have the quality of detachment and impartiality.
5.3.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. What are the qualifications and equipments of a critic?
2. What are the various approaches to Criticism?
3. What is the real use of Criticism in our study of literature?
4. Defend Criticism as a creative art.
5.3.6 SUMMARY
The Nature and Function of Criticism
The word 'Criticism' means judgment or evaluation. A literacy critic is an
expert with a special faculty and training to pronounce his judgment on a piece of
literary work. Criticism deals with all genres of literature and so the critical
literature is defined as an interpretation of all forms of art. Often the use and abuse
of criticism is debated. The prejudice against criticism is that it may keep us
ignorant of the original works and prevent us from acquiring the personal
knowledge of the authors and books. The real use and function of criticism is to
enlighten and stimulate. Criticism is regarded to have a twofold function in
literature, namely 'Interpretation' and 'Judgment'. Walter Pater sets forth three
stages of critic’s duty in his method of exposition: (i) Studying the books of the
same author, (ii) Adopting the method of comparison and contrast, and (iii) Using
the method of historical interpretation. Prof. Moulton advocates the principle
‘inductive’ criticism. The ‘judicial’ criticism is concerned with the question of the
order of merit among the literary works. Here the critic judges a work in regard to
the existing laws of literary criticism. A judge of literature should have the quality of
detachment and impartiality. Scherer advises us to adopt the historical method in
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order to keep ourselves above our prejudices, since it is more conclusive and
equitable then the other schools of criticism.
5.3.7 TERMINAL EXERCISE
1. What is Inductive Criticism?
2. What is Judicial Criticism?
3. Write a note on the Historical Study of Criticism.
4. What is the function of Criticism?
5. How does Criticism help readers in interpreting literature?
5.3.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Bangalore: Prism Books Pvt.
Ltd., 1993.
2. Beckson, Karl E and Ganz, Arthur F. A Reader’s Guide to Literary Terms, a
Dictionary. Chandigarh: Vishal Publishers, 1982.
3. Gupta A.N. and Gupta, Satish. A Dictionary of Literary Terms: Bareilly:
Prakash Book Dept. 1983.
4. Iyengar, Srinivasa K.R. Introduction of the Study of English Literature.
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 2011.
5. Prasad, Birjagadish. A Background to the Study of English Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
6. Upham, Alfred H. The Typical Forms of English Literature. New Delhi: AITBS
Publishers, 1999.
5.3.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. “The function of criticism is not to praise or blame the writer, but to evaluate
the work.” – Discuss.
5.3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Hudson, W.H. An Introduction of the Study of Literature. New Delhi: Atlantic
Publishers, 2006.
2. Monfries, Helen. An Introduction to Critical Appreciation for Foreign Learners:
An Anthology of Prose Passages and Verse. Chennai: Macmillan, 1970.
3. Rees, R.J. English Literature: An Introduction to the study of Literature.
Chennai: Macmillan, 1999.
5.1.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Choose any one of the novels prescribed for your study and analyze the
following: (i) Analyze the isolated scenes and their contribution to the
success of the plot as a whole, (ii) Analyze differences in the characters'
moral dilemmas in the novel across different countries or cultures, (iii)
Evaluate the connection between forms of narration (e.g., unreliable,
omniscient) and tone in the novel, and (iv) Demonstrate familiarity with
works by authors from non-English-speaking literary traditions with
emphasis on 20th century world literature.
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5.1.12 KEY WORDS

1. Criticism - a word derived from Greek meaning to judge
2. Abuse – misuse or use something for a bad purpose
3. Odyssey – a poem by Homer
4. Voltaire - a French writer
5. Timon of Athens – Play by Middleton and Shakespeare
6. Plato – Athenian Philosopher
7. Aristotle – Greek Philosopher
8. I.A. Richards- English literary critic

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