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 Race in America
SECOND EDITION

RACEAMER2_ptr_ch00_fm_i-1.indd 1 04/10/19 11:50 AM

 Colonization of the Americas 42
The Spanish Conquest 42
The English Conquest 44
The Invention of Whiteness and Blackness 47
Africans Enslaved 49
The Atlantic Slave Trade 49
The Rise of the Cotton Kingdom 53
The Horrors of Slavery 54
Resistance, Great and Small 56
From Emancipation to Jim Crow 59
Manifest Destiny 61
Conquering Mexico and the Invention of the Mexican American 61
“The Indian Problem” 65
Immigration from Asia and Europe 67
The Invention of the Asian American 67
Immigrants from the Old World 69
Racial Discourses of Modernity 72
America’s Racial Profile Today 74
We, the Past 78

CHAPTER 3: Politics 80
The Civil Rights Movement 81
The NAACP 84
The SCLC and Church-Driven Direct Action 85
The SNCC and Youth-Driven Direct Action 86
Freedom Summer 88
The Selma-to-Montgomery March 89
Other Ethnic Movements 91
Backlash 95
Partisanship and Representation 98
Partisanship and Racial Polarization 98
Political Representation 101
Gerrymandering 102
Voting 104
The Effects of Racial Attitudes on Voting Behavior 104
Principle-Implementation Gap 107
Voter Intimidation and Felon Disenfranchisement 107

viii Contents

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 Elections and Implicit Racial Appeals 111
The Longing for Color-Blind Politics 113

CHAPTER 4: Economics 116

Economic Racism from the New Deal to Reaganomics 117
When Affirmative Action Was White 118
The End of Industrialization 120
Income and Wealth Disparities 121
Income Inequality 121
Wealth Inequality 123
Chasing the American Dream: Poverty and Affluence 126
The Causes of Poverty 126
Black Poverty, Black Affluence 128
American Indian Reservations 131
The Struggles of Immigrants 132
Labor Market Dynamics 137
Getting a Job 137
Racial Antagonism and Interracialism in a Split Labor Market 139
Power and Privilege in the Workplace 140
Welfare 141
Why Is American Welfare the Size It Is? 142
Who’s on Welfare? 143
Does Welfare Lead to Dependency? 143
When Affirmative Action Wasn’t White 145
What Is Affirmative Action? 146
Does Affirmative Action Help Those It Was Intended to Help? 147
Does Affirmative Action Hurt White Men? 149
Is Affirmative Action an Affront to American Meritocracy? 149
The Value of Inconvenient Facts 150

CHAPTER 5: Housing 152

Racial Struggles over Residence in Twentieth-Century
America 153
The Racialization of Neighborhoods 154
Migration and Urbanization 154
The Origins of the Ghetto 157

Contents ix

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 White Fight and White Flight 159
Urban Unrest 162
Racial Segregation 165
The Role of Economic Factors 167
The Role of Personal Choice 167
The Role of Housing Discrimination 169
The Consequences of Segregation 170
The City 172
Unaffordable America 172
Advanced Marginality: The Ghetto 174
Ethnic Enclaves 175
Interracial Conflict: Blacks and Koreans 176
The Suburbs 177
Rural America 179
Colonias and Bordertowns 179
Life on the Reservation—and Environmental Racism 180
The Changing Face of Rural White America 183
Toward an Integrated America 184

CHAPTER 6: Crime and Punishment 186

The Rise of the American Prison 187
The Lynch Mob and the Prison Labor Camp 187
The Prison Boom 190
The Color of America’s Incarcerated 191
Severe Sentencing 193
The Rise of the “Law and Order” Politician 194
Fear 196
Criminalizing Darkness 197
Do Immigrants Increase Crime? 198
The Arabization of Terrorism 201
Crime 203
Drug Trafficking 203
White-Collar Crime 205
Violence against Women 206
Homicide 209

x Contents

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 Punishment 211
American Police State 211
Unjust Sentencing 216
The Many Costs of Mass Incarceration 218
Do Prisons Make Us Safer? 220
Things Are Not What They Seem 222

CHAPTER 7: Education 224

“I Have a Right to Think!”: Racial Battles over Education,
1900–1970 225
The Colonizer’s Education: Indian Boarding Schools 226
“Spoiling Field Hands”: Early African American Education 228
“Separate but Equal”: School Desegregation 230
Whiteness in Education 234
Whiteness in the Curriculum 234
Whiteness on College Campuses 236
Educational Inequality 239
The Role of the Economy 241
The Role of the Family 241
Cultural Capital 241
Social Capital 243
The Role of Culture 244
Does Culture Help Explain Asian American
Educational Achievement? 244
The Model Minority 245
Oppositional Culture 246
Stereotype Threat 248
The Role of Schools 250
Students Advantaged, Students Betrayed 250
Tracking 253
Combating Educational Inequality: The Case of
Affirmative Action 254
The Benefits of a Multicultural Learning Environment 256

Contents xi

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 CHAPTER 8: Aesthetics 258
Race and Art in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century
America 259
The Reign of Minstrelsy 259
Voices from the Underground 261
The Rise of Multiculturalism 262
Racial Representation in Art 263
The White Aesthetic 263
The Racist Aesthetic 268
The Antiracist Aesthetic 271
The Promise and Pitfalls of Hip-Hop 273
The Racialization of Art Worlds 275
The Power of the White Gaze 276
The Racial Structures of the Aesthetic Sphere 278
Highbrow and Lowbrow Culture 280
Cultural Appropriation 283
Making Sense of Cultural Appropriation 284
Racist Appropriation 285
Antiracist Appropriation 286
The Sociology of Art, the Art of Sociology 288

CHAPTER 9: Associations 290

The Ordeal of Integration and the Rise of
Ethnic Nationalism 291
The Segregated Community 292
Toward Integration: Associational Coalition Building 294
Away from Integration: The Case for Ethnic Nationalism 295
Civil Society in a Multiracial Democracy 298
Racial Variation in Civic Participation 298
Homophily in Associational Life 301
Identity Politics and the Fragmentation of Civil Society 303
What Is “Political Correctness”? 306
Hate Groups 307
Organized Racism 308
Who Joins Hate Groups? 309

xii Contents

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 Cyber Communities 312
The Digital Divide 312
Virtual Racism 313
Virtual Empowerment 314
Religious Associations 315
Religious Illiteracy and Intolerance 315
Racialization of the Religious Sphere 317
Explaining Racial Homophily in Religious Life 320
Religion and Racial and Ethnic Identity 321
American Promise 323

CHAPTER 10: Intimate Life 326

The Family since Colonialism and Slavery 327
The Black Family under Slavery 327
Reproductive Justice in the Twentieth Century and Today 329
Brave New Families: The Emergence of Interracial and
Same-Sex Unions 330
Race and the Family Today 333
Explaining Racial Differences in Marriage Rates 334
Interracial Marriage 336
Doing the (Racial) Work 339
Divorce 340
Single Parents and Out-of-Wedlock Births 341
The Consequences of Single Motherhood 344
The Self and Identity Formation 346
Interaction Troubles 346
Intersectional Identity 348
Racial Authenticity 351
What to Do with White Identity? 354
The Problem with “Identity” 357

CHAPTER 11: Toward Racial Democracy 360

What Are the Goals? 362
Color-Blindness 363
Multiculturalism and Cosmopolitanism 366

Contents xiii

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 Racial Democracy 371
What Are the Goals for Individual Transformation? 373
How Do We Bring about Change? 375
Change at the Individual Level 376
Change at the Interactional Level 380
Change at the Institutional Level 383
Change at the Level of Collective Action 386
We Who Believe in Freedom 389
Glossary G1
Notes N1
Credits C1
Index I1

xiv Contents

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 PREFACE

More than a generation after the Civil Rights Movement, we continue to be tongue-tied
when it comes to race and, as a result, are constrained from fully understanding our
society and fellow citizens.
Old ways of thinking about race and ethnicity no longer seem to apply in a
society that has moved well beyond the struggles of the 1950s and 1960s, a society
that now confronts problems of racial division in some ways far more complex and
ambiguous than those of straightforward segregation or bigotry, persistent as those
tendencies may still be in the present day. What is needed is a new way of thinking
about race for a society itself quite new. This book addresses that pressing need. It
is our hope that Race in America will provide a more effective language with which to
think and talk about—and to effectively address—the problem of racial inequality
and injustice in today’s society.
After launching this textbook several years ago, we received excellent feedback
from instructors and students around the country, feedback we channeled into
this thoroughly revised Second Edition. You, the student, will find here relevant
examples drawn from the headlines and from your own experiences. Each chapter
has been updated to include references to recent social movements and popular
culture, making the book a more helpful tool for navigating society’s critical conver-
sations about race, racism, ethnicity, and white privilege. You will also find updated
scholarship and data figures, reflecting the most cutting-edge sociological research.
Examples include:
• In Chapter 3, which deals with how race and ethnicity intersect in the political
sphere, the section on gerrymandering now addresses recent legal battles over
racist electoral maps, in addition to a new discussion of how perceived racial
vulnerability influenced voter behavior in the 2016 presidential election.
• In Chapter 4, recent research has been added to show the changes in class mobility
over the past decades. This includes an all-new section focused on welfare reforms
and the debates that have surround entitlement programs within the last year.
• Chapter 5, which focuses on housing, has been updated with new research to
discuss the effects of gentrification on low-income housing. The chapter also
addresses the approved construction of the Dakota Access and Keystone XL
pipelines in 2016, and the ensuing protests that followed.
• In Chapter 7, the section titled “Whiteness on College Campuses” has been
revised to include new and pertinent examples of racially charged incidents
on college campuses, including the “USA versus Mexico” party at Randolph-
Macon College, the “Colonial Bros and Nava-Hos” party at California Polytechnic
State University in 2013, as well as the PolyCultural Weekend in 2018.

xv

RACEAMER2_ptr_ch00_fm_i-1.indd 15 04/10/19 11:50 AM

 • With its focus on Aesthetics, Chapter 8 bolsters its discussion of racial
politics in the digital age by drawing on contemporary examples through
TV shows like Atlanta and Orange is the New Black, as well as movies like
Get Out and Black Panther. The chapter also includes a discussion about the
emergence and implications of digital black face.

• Chapter 9 now analyzes the impacts of the intersectional approach of the 2017
Women’s March in Washington, D.C. New discussions within the chapter
include, for example, why African American protestors were more likely than
others to say that they came out because they were concerned about racial
justice, compared to the reasons other racial groups in attendance gave.

• Chapter 10 now includes updated coverage on the racial disparity within

medical care, particularly as it relates to the types of contraceptives offered
to poor women of color in addition to the disproportionality of deaths during
childbirth between black and white women.

• The concluding chapter, Toward Racial Democracy is specifically devoted

to helping students answer the question, “What can I do now?”—and it,
too, has been updated to include new challenges for racial justice, and
new opportunities for making our racial lives better. For example, though
artificially intelligent software technologies like Google are supposedly
color-blind, they can inadvertently provide racist results. How might this be?
How might supposedly race-neutral algorithms be racially biased? And what
can be done in the future to address the problem?

New features in the text and online also will help you better see the “big picture”—
and better allow you to grasp how you might participate in the fight for racial equality.
Now with new bolded key terms, and a narrative that has been streamlined by about
10 percent, Race in America is more student-friendly than ever. With InQuizitive and
end-of-chapter Big Picture concept maps, you can stay focused on the core concepts
and more effectively participate in critical classroom discussions on sensitive issues.
Even as this new edition of Race in America features changes intended to help
readers better grasp key ideas and more meaningfully engage with a rapidly chang-
ing racial landscape, it also retains features that from the start made this text a
bold break from long-established approaches. We rely on innovative advances in
modern social thought that take place not only in sociology but also in philosophy,
anthropology, political science, economics, history, and literary and art criticism—
not to mention exciting developments in such literatures as whiteness studies,
critical race theory, and cultural studies. We fuse this social thought with music,
literature, poetry, and popular culture. In this book you can find the sociology of
Pierre Bourdieu alongside spoken-word poetry; American pragmatist philosophy
followed by country music lyrics; ideas from the likes of W. E. B. Du Bois, Toni
Morrison, Alejandro Portes, Ella Baker, Edward Said, and Ruth Frankenberg (to
list but a few)—applied to modern society. Race in America is steeped in social-
scientific scholarship on race and ethnicity, as well as in examples from contempo-
rary life, including youth culture. We have taken seriously American sociologist C.
Wright Mills’s famous dictum that “data is everywhere” and have drawn on social
science to illuminate racial dynamics in all areas of social life.

xvi Preface

RACEAMER2_ptr_ch00_fm_i-1.indd 16 04/10/19 11:50 AM

 Race in America confronts some of today’s most controversial and misunderstood
issues, including immigration, affirmative action, racial segregation, interracial
relationships, political representation, racialized poverty and affluence, educational
inequality, incarceration, terrorism, cultural appropriation, civil society, religion,
marriage and divorce, and racial identity formation. Throughout, it treats racial
inequality not as some “hot topic” issue to be debated in loose, unsystematic
fashion but as a complex sociological phenomenon properly understood only
through critical socioanalysis that arrives at conclusions after sifting carefully
through the best available evidence.
Race in America is uncompromisingly intersectional. It refuses to artificially
separate the sociology of race and ethnicity from class and gender. It highlights how
racial division overlaps other forms of division based on economic standing and
gender (as well as religion, nationality, and sexuality), and it does so because these
bases of inequality are inextricably bound together.
This book’s organization is nothing like that of previous-generation textbooks
on race and ethnicity. Instead of proceeding, chapter-by-chapter, from one racial
group to the next—which only naturalizes racial divisions and renders the sociology
of race and ethnicity nothing more than a collection of isolated snapshots of dif-
ferent groups—it pursues the analysis of racial dynamics into many of the different
areas or fields of life of our society. Examining how race is a matter not of separate
entities but of systems of social relations, it unpacks how race works in the politi-
cal, economic, residential, legal, educational, aesthetic, associational, and intimate
fields of social life. In each of these fields, it analyzes how white privilege is institu-
tionalized and naturalized, such that it becomes invisible even to itself.
At its base, this book is about the workings of race and ethnicity in contempo-
rary America. It offers you a comprehensive overview of the causal mechanisms
or processes whereby racial divisions are established, reproduced, and in some
cases transformed. In doing so, it necessarily engages with history in a serious and
sustained way. Here, historical processes are not relegated to a single introductory
chapter but inform the entire work.
Race in America does not reduce one of today’s most sociologically complicated,
emotionally charged, and politically frustrating topics to a collection of facts for
you—the reader—to memorize for a midterm. Rather, this book seeks to connect
with you in a way that combines disciplined reasoning with a sense of engage-
ment and passion, conveying sophisticated ideas in a clear and compelling fashion.
Accordingly, the book works just as well in lower-division courses as it does in more
advanced settings. Conventional textbooks on race and ethnicity stimulate a type
of reading that can only be called contemplative, a reading that devotes academic
interest to social problems without ever being touched by them or resonating deeply
with them. By contrast, we seek to stimulate generative readings, which simulta-
neously engage the world you find intimately familiar and yet also effect a sharp
rupture with that world, defamiliarizing the familiar to help you arrive at a deeper
sociological understanding of the world, offering solutions and strategies so that we
can all work toward racial justice.
We seek to offer you, in short, a way of thinking about race that you can apply
to your everyday lives. More, we hope to cultivate in you a sociological imagination,
one that rejects easy explanations and that takes into account social and historical

Preface xvii

RACEAMER2_ptr_ch00_fm_i-1.indd 17 04/10/19 11:50 AM

 forces that operate on an expansive scale. We are living in an age in which racial
inequality and discrimination persists. But we are also living in an age when rac-
ism has come under serious and sustained attack. We are living in an age when
multicultural coalitions have formed and all people, regardless of race, have taken
stands against racial intolerance. And many of the most powerful and important
antiracist movements have been led by young people. Considerable progress has
been made, but considerable work also remains unfinished.
It is commonplace for students in a course on the sociology of race and ethnicity
to think the course is for someone else. A course such as this one, however, is meant
for everyone.
We all have something to learn in this class—and we all have something to teach.
This book is not just about “them” but also about you. It seeks to educate—and
unsettle—the righteous along with the disengaged, those who have long discussed
matters of racism as well as those who are just now joining the conversation.
Let us begin a conversation, then. This conversation might make you feel
uncomfortable, since topics as important and as personal as race are difficult to
discuss. You might feel a bit unsteady and awkward, clumsy even. You might feel
exposed and vulnerable. Your words might trip and stumble at times, and you might
say things you later regret. Take courage in the fact that many of your classmates
(and perhaps even your professors) feel the same way. And know, too, that we must
have this conversation, lest we allow racial inequality and injustice to poison the
promising vitality of American society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We relied on a number of scholars who read chapters of the manuscript and
offered helpful suggestions: Maria Isabel Ayala, Michigan State University; Angela
Block, Sacramento City College; Ann-Marie Bradley, Citrus College; Dennis Breslin,
University of Connecticut–Avery Point; Emily Cabaniss, Sam Houston State
University; Paul Calarco, Hudson Valley Community College; Theresa Davidson,
Samford University; Benjamin M. Drury, Morton College; Kim Ebert, North Carolina
State University; Larry Friedenberg, Lord Fairfax Community College; Albert S.
Fu, Kutztown University of Pennsylvania; Jeffrey Adrian Gardner, University of
Georgia; Devon Goss, University of Connecticut; Frank Ha, Cuesta College; Danielle
Hedegard, University of San Diego; Joseph Herrera, Washington State University;
Sarah Jacobson, Harrisburg Area Community College; Danielle James, Community
College of Baltimore County–Catonsville; Michael O. Johnston, William Penn Uni-
versity; Jana Knibb, Community College of Rhode Island; Christopher P. Lehman, St.
Cloud State University; David Leonard, Washington State University; Ana Liberato,
University of Kentucky; Melanie J. Murchison, University of Wisconsin–Madison;
Tamika Odum, University of Cincinnati–Blue Ash; Alexandra Raphael, Ferris State
University; Amy L. Redman, Saint Michael’s College; Ivan Sanchez, Mt. San Antonio
College; Chad Sexton, Ocean County College; Mimi Sheller, Drexel University;
Rachel Stehle, Cuyahoga Community College; Cynthia Stockton, University of
Memphis; Mary Texeira, California State University San Bernardino; Kathryn
Tillman, Florida State University; Staci Willis, Stephen F. Austin State University.

xviii Preface

RACEAMER2_ptr_ch00_fm_i-1.indd 18 04/10/19 11:50 AM

 We’d like to thank everyone at Norton involved in publishing Race in America.
In particular, we owe a large debt of gratitude to our editors—Karl Bakeman, Justin
Cahill, and Michael Moss—for their vision and superb guidance. We’d also like to
thank editorial assistant Funto Omojola, project editor Taylere Peterson, and pro-
duction manager Elizabeth Marotta, who handled every stage of the manuscript and
worked together to produce this book. We also would like to thank Norton’s sales
and marketing team, especially Julia Hall, the sociology marketing director, and the
social science sales specialists Emily Rowan and Julie Sindel. They have been enthu-
siastic advocates for the book throughout its development. We also must thank our
photo editor, Stephanie Romeo, for providing such powerful visual images, as well
as Eileen Connell, Sam Tang, and the rest of the digital media team responsible for
all the innovative video and electronic resources that accompany Race in America.
Finally, we’d like to thank Katie Krywokulski and Anne Kat Alexander at Prince-
ton University for their brilliant research assistance.

RESOURCES FOR STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS

InQuizitive
digital.wwnorton.com/raceinamerica2
InQuizitive is an adaptive learning tool that personalizes quiz questions for each
student to improve understanding of these “Big Picture” concepts and develop the
vocabulary they need to discuss race. In addition to reading comprehension ques-
tions, the chapter-based InQuizitive activities offer a variety of applied and analytical
questions that encourage students to develop their critical thinking skills. InQuizitive
can also improve students’ test grades when assigned consistently for points, as a part
of the overall course grade. The convenience of LMS integration saves instructors
time by allowing InQuizitive scores to report right to an LMS gradebook.

Preface xix

RACEAMER2_ptr_ch00_fm_i-1.indd 19 04/10/19 11:50 AM

 Writing for Sociology Tutorials
These tutorials strengthen essential skills such as evaluating sources, developing
research questions, choosing a research method, and crafting an effective introductory
paragraph. They are a helpful assignment to give students the opportunity to practice
their writing skills. Each tutorial includes concept-check questions as well as short-
answer prompts designed to give students a jumpstart in writing their papers. Students
receive full credit for completing the tutorial, and instructors can review their answers
within the Norton gradebook. Access to the tutorials is included with InQuizitive.

Video Clips
The Sociology in Practice: Thinking about Race and Ethnicity film clips offer more
than four hours of footage from documentary films and are ideal for initiating
classroom discussion. Students and instructors can access these clips directly from
Norton’s digital media page. Access to the clips is included with InQuizitive. These
clips are closed captioned for the hearing impaired.

Norton Ebook
The ebook for Race in America provides students and instructors an enhanced read-
ing experience at a fraction of the cost of a print textbook.

Test Bank
The revised and updated Test Bank includes approximately 50 multiple-choice
questions, 5 short answer questions, and 5 essay questions per chapter. The Test
Bank conforms to Bloom’s taxonomy and every question is tagged with difficulty
level, making it easy for instructors to construct meaningful and diagnostic tests.
Additionally, the Test Bank’s concept map for each chapter shows students and
instructors how the Test Bank and InQuizitive are designed in conjunction to
prepare students for tests. It is available in PDF, Microsoft Word, and Examview
formats.

Lecture and Art Slides

All of the art from the book is available for classroom use. These visually engag-
ing PowerPoint slides feature concept check and discussion questions as well as
lecture outlines. Alt-text is included, and the slides are designed to be used with
screen readers.

xx Preface

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 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Matthew Desmond is the Maurice P. During Professor of Sociology at Princeton

University. He is the recipient of awards including a MacArthur “genius” Fellow-
ship and a Pulitzer Prize for his bestselling book Evicted: Poverty and Profit in the
American City. The principal investigator of The Eviction Lab, Desmond’s research
focuses on poverty in America, city life, housing insecurity, public policy, racial
inequality, and ethnography.

Mustafa Emirbayer is professor of sociology at the University of Wisconsin–

Madison. A past chair of the ASA Theory Section and winner of the Lewis Coser
Award for Theoretical Agenda-Setting in Sociology, Emirbayer’s research includes
historical studies on the teaching of morality and citizenship in American public
schools as well as theoretical studies on race, social networks, culture, agency,
collective emotions, the public sphere and civil society, revolutions and social
movements, organizations, and democracy.

Together, they are the authors of The Racial Order, a companion to this volume.

xxi

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RACEAMER2_ptr_ch00_fm_i-1.indd 22 04/10/19 11:50 AM
 Race in America
SECOND EDITION

RACEAMER2_ptr_ch00_fm_i-1.indd 1 04/10/19 11:50 AM

 Race in the Twenty-
First Century

RACEAMER2_ptr_ch01_002-037.indd 2 04/10/19 11:50 AM

 MAIN POINTS

• Explain why one should avoid the individualistic fallacy, the legalistic
fallacy, the tokenistic fallacy, the ahistorical fallacy, and the fixed fallacy
when thinking about racism.
• Distinguish between institutional racism and interpersonal racism, and
understand how these types of racism often interpenetrate and inform
one another.
• Understand what is meant by symbolic violence, and explain its
significance for the perpetuation of racial inequality.
• Understand how racism intersects with other forms of social division—
those based on gender, class, sexuality, religion, nationhood, and ability.
• Learn why race is a symbolic category, and understand why there is no
biological foundation for race.
• Understand how whiteness is racial domination normalized, which
produces and reproduces many privileges for white people.
• Recognize how race and ethnicity are overlapping symbolic categories,
and explain why they cannot be collapsed into one category.

A CANCER
In this book, we will investigate a problem as old as America itself. That problem is
the problem of the color line. It is the problem of racism, of inequality and privilege,
of the suffering and oppression of some groups of people at the hands of another.
Some have argued that in these modern times there is no problem at all—and in
some respects, we have good reason to be optimistic. Thanks to the brave activists
of the Civil Rights Movement, the United States no longer upholds legally enforced
residential, educational, and economic segregation. Most of us will not experience
grotesque acts of racial violence that many people of color experienced fifty years
ago. A number of social institutions, moreover, have been thoroughly integrated,
most notably the American military. The black middle class and the Hispanic mid-
dle class have grown; American Indian nations have developed effective economic
development strategies on the basis of the principle of tribal sovereignty; and Asian
Americans have made impressive inroads into positions of influence in politics,
science, business, and the arts. There are other encouraging trends as well—in reli-
gion, sports, the mass media, voluntary associations, and other significant areas in
American life. To say that nothing has gotten better certainly would be inaccurate.
But has racism been completely vanquished? Let’s take a glance at race relations
in the United States to find out:

• In 2016, white families had an average net worth of $919,000 compared to

$140,000 for black families and $192,000 for Hispanic families. That means white
families are seven times more wealthy than black families and five times more

A Cancer 3

RACEAMER2_ptr_ch01_002-037.indd 3 04/10/19 11:50 AM

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