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 Mitchell

Braun Principles of
Heating, Ventilation,

Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning in Buildings

Principles of
and Air Conditioning
in Buildings

ISBN 978-0-470-62457-9

www.wiley.com/college/mitchell John W. Mitchell James E. Braun

Brief Contents
Fundamentals
1. Introduction to HVAC Systems 1

2. System Analysis Techniques and the Use of EES 15

3. Thermodynamics and Fluid Flow in HVAC Applications 39

4. Heat Transfer in HVAC Applications 61

5. Psychrometrics for HVAC Applications 95

6. Overview of HVAC Systems 137

7. Thermal Comfort and Air Quality 171

Building Heating and Cooling Loads

8. Weather Data, Statistics, and Processing 185

9. Components of Building Heat Loss and Gain 221

10. Heating and Cooling Loads 265

Equipment

11. Air Distribution Systems 289

12. Liquid Distribution Systems 329

13. Heat Exchangers for Heating and Cooling Applications 345

14. Cooling Towers and Desiccant Dehumidification Systems 379

15 Vapor Compression Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Systems 401

16. Heat Pump Systems 433

17. Thermal Storage Systems 447

Design and Control of HVAC Systems

18. Building and HVAC Energy Use 475

19. HVAC Control Principles 497

20. Supervisory Control 523

21. Designing HVAC Systems 555

vii
Table of Contents
Fundamentals
1 Introduction to HVAC Systems 1

1.1 Systems and Definitions 1

1.2 History of Air Conditioning 3
1.3 Trends in Energy Use and Impact 5
1.4 HVAC System Design and Operation 7
1.5 Energy Costs 11
1.6 Book Philosophy and Organization 11
1.7 Units 13
1.8 Summary 14
Problems 14

2 System Analysis Techniques and the Use of EES 15

2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Introduction to EES 19
2.3 Common Problems Encountered when Using EES 22
2.4 Curve Fitting Using EES 26
2.5 Optimization Using EES 29
2.6 Successful Problem Solving Using EES 31
2.7 Summary 34
Problems 35

3 Thermodynamics and Fluid Flow in HVAC Applications 39

3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Conservation of Mass 39
3.3 Conservation of Energy 41
3.4 Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substances 43
3.5 Thermodynamic Limits on Performance 45
3.6 Thermodynamic Work Relations for Pure Substances 47
3.7 Thermodynamic Relations for Fluid Flow 48
3.8 Energy Loss Mechanisms in Fluid Flow 54
3.9 Summary 59
Problems 59

4 Heat Transfer in HVAC Applications 61

4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Conduction Heat Transfer 61
4.3 Convection Heat Transfer 67
4.4 Thermal Radiation Heat Transfer 76
4.5 Transient Heat Transfer 83
4.6 Combined-Mode Heat Transfer 87
4.7 Summary 92
Problems 92

ix
x Table of Contents

5 Psychrometrics for HVAC Applications 95

5.1 Introduction 95
5.2 Moist Air Properties 95
5.3 The Psychrometric Chart 102
5.4 The Standard Atmosphere 103
5.5 Determining Psychrometric Properties Using EES 105
5.6 Psychrometric Applications 109
5.7 Heat and Mass Transfer for Air–Water Vapor Mixtures 126
5.8 Summary 132
Problems 133

6 Overview of HVAC Systems 137

6.1 Introduction 137

6.2 Overview of HVAC Systems and Components 137
6.3 Energy Comparison Between CAV and VAV Systems 144
6.4 HVAC System Performance Calculations 145
6.5 ASHRAE Load Calculation Equations 153
6.6 HVAC System Improvements and Alternatives 156
6.7 Summary 167
Problems 167

7 Thermal Comfort and Air Quality 171

7.1 Introduction 171

7.2 Criteria for Occupant Comfort Inside Buildings 171
7.3 Criteria for Indoor Air Quality 179
7.4 Summary 182
Problems 183

Building Heating and Cooling Loads

8 Weather Data, Statistics, and Processing 185

8.1 Introduction 185

8.2 Design Temperature Parameters for HVAC Systems 186
8.3 Ambient Temperature and Humidity Correlations 190
8.4 Degree-Day Data and Correlations 195
8.5 Bin Method Data 200
8.6 Ground Temperature Correlations 202
8.7 Solar Radiation Fundamentals 205
8.8 Clear-Sky Solar Radiation 213
8.9 Weather Records 216
8.10 Summary 219
Problems 219

9 Components of Building Heat Loss and Gain 221

9.1 Introduction 221

9.2 Thermal Resistance and Conductance of Building Elements 222
9.3 Heat Flow Through Opaque Exterior Surfaces 225
 Table of Contents xi

9.4 Transient Heat Flow Through Building Elements 228

9.5 Heat Flow Through Building Elements—Transfer Function Approach 234
9.6 Heat Flow Through Building Elements—Thermal Network Approach 240
9.7 Heat Flow Through Glazing 244
9.8 Energy Flows Due to Ventilation and Infiltration 247
9.9 Internal Thermal Gains 256
9.10 Summary 258
Problems 259

10 Heating and Cooling Loads 265

10.1 Introduction 265

10.2 Design Heating Load 266
10.3 Design Sensible Cooling Load Using the Heat Balance Method 268
10.4 The Heat Balance Method Using the Thermal Network Approach 273
10.5 Design Latent Cooling Load 276
10.6 Design Loads Using the Thermal Network Method 277
10.7 Summary 286
Problems 287

Equipment

11 Air Distribution Systems 289

11.1 Introduction 289

11.2 Pressure Drops in Duct Systems 290
11.3 Design Methods for Air Distribution Systems 298
11.4 Fan Characteristics 311
11.5 Interaction Between Fan and Distribution System 315
11.6 Air Distribution in Zones 318
11.7 Heat Losses and Gains for Ducts 320
11.8 Air Leakage from Ducts 322
11.9 Summary 323
Problems 324

12 Liquid Distribution Systems 329

12.1 Introduction 329

12.2 Head Loss and Pressure Drop in Liquid Distribution Systems 329
12.3 Water Distribution Systems 332
12.4 Steam Distribution Systems 335
12.5 Pump Characteristics 338
12.6 Heat Loss and Gain for Pipes 340
12.7 Summary 342
Problems 342

13 Heat Exchangers for Heating and Cooling Applications 345

13.1 Introduction 345

13.2 Overall Heat Transfer Conductance 347
13.3 Heat Exchanger Thermal Performance 349
xii Table of Contents

13.4 Heating Coil Selection Process 355

13.5 Cooling Coil Processes 361
13.6 Cooling Coil Performance Using a Heat Transfer Analogy 362
13.7 Cooling Coil Selection Procedure 368
13.8 Summary 376
Problems 376

14 Cooling Towers and Desiccant Dehumidification Systems 379

14.1 Introduction 379

14.2 Cooling Towers 379
14.3 Cooling Tower Performance using an Analogy to Heat Transfer 381
14.4 Cooling Tower Selection Procedure 385
14.5 Desiccant Dehumidifiers 388
14.6 Desiccant Dehumidification Systems 393
14.7 Summary 397
Problems 398

15 Vapor Compression Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Systems 401

15.1 Introduction 401

15.2 Vapor Compression System 401
15.3 Refrigerants 407
15.4 Vapor Compression System Compressors 412
15.5 Vapor Compression System Performance 416
15.6 Alternative Vapor Compression System Concepts 421
15.7 Summary 429
Problems 429

16 Heat Pump Systems 433

16.1 Introduction 433

16.2 Air Source Heat Pumps 435
16.3 Ground Source Heat Pumps 441
16.4 Water Loop Heat Pump Systems 443
16.5 Summary 444
Problems 444

17 Thermal Storage Systems 447

17.1 Introduction 447

17.2 Ice Storage Systems 451
17.3 Chilled Water Storage Systems 452
17.4 Cold Air Distribution Systems 453
17.5 Building Thermal Storage 454
17.6 Thermal Storage Control Strategies 456
17.7 Performance Characteristics of Ice Storage Tanks 460
17.8 Selection of Ice Storage Capacity 466
17.9 Summary 471
Problems 471
 Table of Contents xiii

Design and Control of HVAC Systems

18 Building and HVAC Energy Use 475

18.1 Introduction 475

18.2 Weather Data for Energy Use Calculations 475
18.3 Degree-day Method for Estimation of Heating Energy Use 476
18.4 Bin Method for Estimating Energy Use 479
18.5 Simulation Methods for Estimating Energy Use 486
18.6 Thermal Network Method for Estimating Building Energy Use 487
18.7 Summary 491
Problems 492

19 HVAC Control Principles 497

19.1 Introduction 497

19.2 Feedback Control Techniques 500
19.3 Implementation of Local Loop Control 517
19.4 Advanced Control Techniques 518
19.5 Summary 521
Problems 521

20 Supervisory Control 523

20.1 Introduction 523

20.2 Introduction to Optimal Operation of HVAC Systems 525
20.3 Optimization Statement for All-Electric Cooling Plants Without Storage 531
20.4 Model-based Optimization Procedure 531
20.5 Quadratic Optimization Procedure 533
20.6 Simplified Control Strategies for System Components 536
20.7 Optimization Statement for All-Electric Cooling Plants with Storage 544
20.8 Simplified Control Strategies for Systems with Storage 545
20.9 Methods for Forecasting Building Loads 548
20.10 Summary 550
Problems 551

21 Designing HVAC Systems 555

21.1 Introduction 555

21.2 Design Methodology 555
21.3 Life-Cycle Cost 562
21.4 Rules of Thumb 564
21.5 Design Problems for the Students 565
Problems 566

Appendix A: Thermal Property Values 573

Appendix B: Psychrometric Charts for Sea-Level Conditions 575
Appendix C: Wall and Roof Property Data 577
References 583
Nomenclature 589
Index 595
Online Material
Topics

SM 1 Heat Exchangers for Heating Applications

SM 2 Heat Exchangers for Cooling Applications

SM 3 Cooling Towers

SM 4 Heat and Mass Exchangers

SM 5 Thermal Storage Systems

SM 6 Compressors and Expansion Devices

SM 7 Evaporators and Condensers

SM 8 Absorption Air-conditioning Systems

SM 9 Combustion Heating Equipment

SM 10 Economic Evaluation of HVAC Systems

Supplementary Material
EES Code for Text Chapter Examples

Text Problem Solutions

PowerPoint Slides for Text Chapter Material

EES Code for Online Chapter Examples

Online Problem Solutions

PowerPoint Slides for Online Chapter Material

Online Chapters

SM 1 Heat Exchangers for Heating Applications

SM 1.1 Heat Exchanger Thermal Performance

SM 1.2 Extended Surfaces
SM 1.3 Single Phase Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drop
SM 1.4 Extended Surface Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drop
SM 1.5 Summary
SM 1.6 Nomenclature
SM 1.7 References
SM 1.8 Problems

xv
xvi Online Material

SM 2 Heat Exchangers for Cooling Applications

SM 2.1 Heat and Mass Transfer Processes in a Cooling Coil

SM 2.2 Cooling Coil Performance Using an Analogy to Heat Transfer
SM 2.3 Heat and Mass Transfer Fin and Surface Efficiencies
SM 2.4 Extension of Catalog Data
SM 2.5 Summary
SM 2.6 Nomenclature
SM 2.7 References
SM 2.8 Problems

SM 3 Cooling Towers

SM 3.1 Heat and Mass Transfer Processes in a Cooling Tower

SM 3.2 Cooling Tower Performance Using an Analogy to Heat Transfer
SM 3.3 Extension of Catalog Information
SM 3.4 Summary
SM 3.5 Nomenclature
SM 3.6 References
SM 3.7 Problems

SM 4 Heat and Mass Exchangers

SM 4.1 Introduction
SM 4.2 Evaporative Coolers
SM 4.3 Spray Dehumifiers
SM 4.4 Evaporative Condensers
SM 4.5 Enthalpy Exchangers
SM 4.6 Summary
SM 4.7 Nomenclature
SM 4.8 References
SM 4.9 Problems

SM 5 Thermal Storage Systems

SM 5.1 Mechanisms for Freezing and Melting of Ice

SM 5.2 Summary
SM 5.3 Nomenclature
SM 5.4 References
SM 5.5 Problems

SM 6 Compressors and Expansion Devices

SM 6.1 Performance Trends for Positive Displacement Compressors

SM 6.2 Performance Correlations for Positive Displacement Compressors
SM 6.3 Performance Trends for Centrifugal Compressors
SM 6.4 Expansion Devices
SM 6.5 System Component Integration
SM 6.6 Summary
SM 6.7 Nomenclature
SM 6.8 References
SM 6.9 Problems
 Online Material xvii

SM 7 Evaporators and Condensers

SM 7.1 Introduction
SM 7.2 Thermal Performance of Shell-and-Tube Evaporators
SM 7.3 Thermal Performance of Direct Expansion Cooling Coils
SM 7.4 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Evaporators
SM 7.5 Thermal Performance of Condensers
SM 7.6 Heat Transfer Coefficients for Condensers
SM 7.7 Pressure Drops in Two-Phase Flows
SM 7.8 Summary
SM 7.9 Nomenclature
SM 7.10 References
SM 7.11 Problems
SM 8 Absorption Air-conditioning Systems

SM 8.1 Introduction
SM 8.2 Fundamentals of Absorption
SM 8.3 Performance of a Single Effect Absorption Cycle
SM 8.4 Absorption Machine Configurations
SM 8.5 Summary
SM 8.6 Nomenclature
SM 8.7 References
SM 8.8 Problems
SM 9 Combustion Heating Equipment

SM 9.1 Introduction
SM 9.2 Combustion Processes
SM 9.3 Combustion Reactions
SM 9.4 Use of EES in Combustion Reactions
SM 9.5 Combustion Reactions with Air
SM 9.6 Simplified Model for Overall Furnace Performance
SM 9.7 Seasonal Performance
SM 9.8 Furnace Emissions
SM 9.9 Summary
SM 9.10 Nomenclature
SM 9.11 References
SM 9.12 Problems
SM 10 Economic Evaluation of HVAC Systems

SM 10.1 Introduction
SM 10.2 Costs and Interest Rates
SM 10.3 Life-Cycle Cost Concepts
SM 10.4 Present Worth Factors
SM 10.5 Life-Cycle Cost Formulation
SM 10.6 Costs and Savings Measures
SM 10.7 Importance of Economic Factors
SM 10.8 Summary
SM 10.9 Nomenclature
SM 10.10 References
SM 10.11 Problems
Preface

The career opportunities for engineering students and professionals in the HVAC field lie in many
different areas: architectural and engineering (A&E) firms, equipment manufacturers, control
companies, utilities, and government research institutions. The specific engineering applications
and tools may be very different for each career path, but the fundamental principles associated with
the heating, ventilating; and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment and systems are a common thread.
It is the intent of this book to provide a fundamental basis for launching or enhancing careers in the
HVAC field.
Our goal is to provide the foundational knowledge for the behavior and analysis of HVAC-
related devices and processes. We believe that it is important for engineers to have a basic and
quantitative understanding of the physical phenomena underlying the performance of the compo-
nent or system with which they are concerned. The approach we have taken is to present the
development of performance relations from fundamental thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, and heat
transfer principles. Engineers will then be able to better understand why a device or system responds
as it does and what its limits of performance are. This information will aid them in their design and
equipment operation activities. The HVAC field is broad, and we have attempted, first, to cover most
of the processes that an engineer might come in contact with, and second, to provide tools that allow
the engineer to design or evaluate a new device, system, or process.
We believe that it is also important to state what this text is not intended to do. It does not prepare
the student for immediate design practice. We do not cover the many “canned” programs and
methodologies that are available and used in the profession for specialized design and evaluation
tasks. Rather, we intend that our basic approach will prepare the student to understand what a
software program or a hand calculation method is intended to do and be able to interpret results in a
physically meaningful manner.
There are several features of this book not found in existing texts. The first is the tight
integration of physical descriptions with a software program that allows performance to be directly
calculated. The physical description of each device or system is developed from the basic
engineering equations and carried through to performance. The examples in the text and the
problems at the end of each chapter represent the type of situation that an engineer might face in
practice. The problems are more than exercises and, while each problem is designed to emphasize
the material in that chapter, it often includes basic material from other chapters. We believe these
problems illustrate the complex and integrated nature of an HVAC system or piece of equipment.
Although many software programs are used throughout the industry, and some are available for
class use, our approach is to have students formulate their own solutions rather than use existing
design programs. In this manner they will learn the underlying physics. We have built the problems
and examples around the program EES (Engineering Equation Solver), which is a general-purpose
nonlinear equation solver. An important feature of EES is that thermodynamic and transport
properties are directly integrated into EES, which facilitates the calculation of energy transfers that
involve fluids such as moist air, water, and refrigerants. EES is an interpretive programming
language and the program statements are essentially conventional mathematical statements, which
reduces the problems of learning a new language. Powerful solution techniques are built into EES;
this allows the engineer to focus on the physical description of the problem and not on how to obtain
a numerical solution. By employing EES, much more realistic and complex problems can be
formulated and solved than with hand calculations.
We have presented the examples in the text in terms of EES equations. This is a compact format
that replicates the mathematical development in the text. The same nomenclature and symbols are
used for both mathematical and EES formats. The descriptions of the examples are intended both to

xix
xx Preface

describe the situation in physical variables and to serve as a model for the student in developing the
solution to an end-of-chapter problem.
We have found that the discipline required to formulate a program in EES, debug it, obtain a
solution, and interpret the results carries over into the use of other programs. Although in practice an
engineer may use a program designed for a specific design purpose, the same steps are present. The
engineer still needs to understand the basic ideas and limits of the program being employed.
We have divided the book into four sections that cover the application of engineering principles
to HVAC equipment and systems. The first section, entitled Fundamentals, comprises seven
chapters that present the use of EES, review the relevant thermodynamics, fluid flow, and heat
transfer principles, provide an in-depth study of psychrometrics, cover different types of HVAC
systems and components, and present the criteria for comfort and air quality. The three chapters in
the Building Heating and Cooling Loads section cover weather data processing and the procedures
used to determine the design heating and cooling loads for a building. The section on Equipment
covers systems that transfer energy: air and water distribution systems, heating and cooling coils,
cooling towers, and equipment that supply heating or cooling. The last section on Design and
Control of HVAC Systems covers the seasonal energy use of buildings and equipment, control
techniques, and supervisory control of building operation. The last chapter in the book describes the
HVAC design process and presents the rules of thumb often used in design. Several design problems
typical of those that an engineer might face are included. Our experience is that this broad coverage
coupled with detailed analysis provides a foundation for students entering the HVAC profession.
In addition to the text material, we have developed online chapters (termed Supplemental Material,
SM) on a number of topics that relate to HVAC buildings and equipment but that are not central to the
design of a typical HVAC system. This additional material includes the development of the basic heat
and mass exchange relations as applicable to cooling coils, cooling towers, and similar equipment in
which moisture is removed or added, mechanisms of ice formation in thermal stores, heat transfer
relations for condenser and evaporators, models that yield insight into the performance of compressors
and refrigeration systems, absorption systems, and combustion heating equipment. This material is
included to allow an instructor or a student to explore in depth topics that are not covered in the text.
The book is intended first as the text for students in an HVAC or thermal systems course, and
second as a reference book for practicing engineers who wish to extend or update their knowledge.
To aid the instructor, we have developed a sample syllabus for a one-semester (14-week) course that
provides the broad coverage of HVAC.

John W. Mitchell, Professor Emeritus, University of Wisconsin

James E. Braun, Professor, Purdue University
 Preface xxi

SAMPLE SYLLABUS

Chapter Topic No. of Weeks

1 Introduction to Air Conditioning Systems
2 System Analysis Techniques and the Use of EES
2
3 Thermodynamics and Fluid Flow in HVAC Applications
4 Heat Transfer in HVAC Applications
5 Psychrometrics for HVAC Applications 1
6 Overview of HVAC Systems
2
7 Thermal Comfort and Air Quality
8 Weather Data, Statistics, and Processing
9 Components of Building Heat Loss and Gain 3
10 Heating and Cooling Loads
11 Air Distribution Systems
1
12 Liquid Distribution Systems
13 Heat Exchangers for Heating and Cooling Applications
1
14 Cooling Towers and Desiccant Dehumidification Systems
15 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Systems
2
16 Heat Pump Systems
17 Thermal Storage
18 Building and HVAC Energy Use
2
19 HVAC Control Principles
20 Supervisory Control
Acknowledgments

We are greatly indebted to our colleagues at the University of Wisconsin with whom we have
discussed simulation and modeling both in general and as it relates to HVAC. The late Professor
John (Jack) A. Duffie, Director of the Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, was a role
model in how to approach problems and generate solutions. Professor William A. Beckman and
Sanford A. Klein provided immeasurably valuable advice on modeling systems, and their develop-
ment of EES has let students easily solve complicated problems. John Seem, Johnson Controls Inc.,
reviewed and provided valuable insight on HVAC controls.
ASHRAE has had a large influence on our careers, both through support of projects and
providing us with a forum to present ideas and discuss them with colleagues. Our experience gained
through ASHRAE has hopefully made this text a useful resource for others in the field.
Several colleagues have reviewed the manuscript and given valuable advice on orientation,
style, and content. Agami Reddy, Arizona State University, and Leon Glicksman, MIT, have made
many useful suggestions. Gregor Henze and Michael Brandmuehl, University of Colorado, William
Bahnfleth, Pennsylvania State University, Gren Yuill, University of Nebraska—Lincoln, and Leslie
Norford, MIT, have all provided encouragement for writing this text. Lastly, students in our classes
over the years have provided constructive criticism of much of the material, which has helped us in
the presentation of this important subject.
We would like to thank Linda Ratts, Executive Editor, for her support and encouragement, and
Christopher Teja, Editorial Assistant, and Song Yee Lyn, Assistant Production Editor, for their
diligent attention to production. Their contributions have been essential to bringing this project to
completion.

xxiii
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 The laws which regulated the intensity of this force, with reference
to the distance and position of the bodies, now naturally came to be
examined. MM. Biot and Savart in France, and Mr. Barlow in
England, instituted such measures; and satisfied themselves that the
elementary force followed the law of magnitude of all known
elementary forces, in being inversely as the square of the distance;
although, in its direction, it was so entirely different from other forces.
But the investigation of the laws of phenomena of the subject was
too closely connected with the choice of a mechanical theory, to be
established 246 previously and independently, as had been done in
astronomy. The experiments gave complex results, and the analysis
of these into their elementary actions was almost an indispensable
step in order to disentangle their laws. We must, therefore, state the
progress of this analysis.
 CHAPTER VI.

Theory of Electrodynamical Action.

A MPÈRE’S Theory.—Nothing can show in a more striking

manner the advanced condition of physical speculation in 1820,
than the reduction of the strange and complex phenomena of
electromagnetism to a simple and general theory as soon as they
were published. Instead of a gradual establishment of laws of
phenomena, and of theories more and more perfect, occupying
ages, as in the case of astronomy, or generations, as in the
instances of magnetism and electricity, a few months sufficed for the
whole process of generalization; and the experiments made at
Copenhagen were announced at Paris and London, almost at the
same time with the skilful analysis and comprehensive inductions of
Ampère.

Yet we should err if we should suppose, from the celerity with

which the task was executed, that it was an easy one. There were
required in the author of such a theory, not only those clear
conceptions of the relations of space and force, which are the first
conditions of all sound theory, and a full possession of the
experiments; but also a masterly command of the mathematical
arms by which alone the victory could be gained, and a sagacious
selection of proper experiments which might decide the fate of the
proposed hypothesis.

It is true, that the nature of the requisite hypothesis was not

difficult to see in a certain vague and limited way. The conducting-
wire and the magnetic needle had a tendency to arrange themselves
at right angles to one another. This might be represented by
supposing the wire to be made up of transverse magnetic needles,
or by supposing the needle to be made up of transverse conducting-
wires; for it was easy to conceive forces which should bring
corresponding elements, either magnetic or voltaic, into parallel
positions; and then the 247 general phenomena above stated would
be accounted for. And the choice between the two modes of
conception, appeared at first sight a matter of indifference. The
majority of philosophers at first adopted, or at least employed, the
former method, as Oersted in Germany, Berzelius in Sweden,
Wollaston in England.

Ampère adopted the other view, according to which the magnet is

made up of conducting-wires in a transverse position. But he did for
his hypothesis what no one did or could do for the other: he showed
that it was the only one which would account, without additional and
arbitrary suppositions, for the facts of continued motion in
electromagnetic cases. And he further elevated his theory to a higher
rank of generality, by showing that it explained,—not only the action
of a conducting-wire upon a magnet, but also two other classes of
facts, already spoken of in this history,—the action of magnets upon
each other,—and the action of conducting-wires upon each other.

The deduction of such particular cases from the theory, required,

as may easily be imagined, some complex calculations: but the
deduction being satisfactory, it will be seen that Ampère’s theory
conformed to that description which we have repeatedly had to point
out as the usual character of a true and stable theory; namely, that
besides accounting for the class of phenomena which suggested it, it
supplies an unforeseen explanation of other known facts. For the
mutual action of magnets, which was supposed to be already
reduced to a satisfactory theoretical form by Coulomb, was not
contemplated by Ampère in the formation of his hypothesis; and the
mutual action of voltaic currents, though tried only in consequence of
the suggestion of the theory, was clearly a fact distinct from
electromagnetic action; yet all these facts flowed alike from the
theory. And thus Ampère brought into view a class of forces for
which the term “electromagnetic” was too limited, and which he
designated 14 by the appropriate term electrodynamic; distinguishing
them by this expression, as the forces of an electric current, from the
statical effects of electricity which we had formerly to treat of. This
term has passed into common use among scientific writers, and
remains the record and stamp of the success of the Amperian
induction.
14 Ann. de Chim., tom. xx. p. 60 (1822).

The first promulgation of Ampère’s views was by a communication

to the French Academy of Sciences, September the 18th, 1820;
Oersted’s discoveries having reached Paris only in the preceding
July. 248 At almost every meeting of the Academy during the
remainder of that year and the beginning of the following one, he had
new developements or new confirmations of his theory to announce.
The most hypothetical part of his theory,—the proposition that
magnets might be considered in their effects as identical with spiral
voltaic wires,—he asserted from the very first. The mutual attraction
and repulsion of voltaic wires,—the laws of this action,—the
deduction of the observed facts from it by calculation,—the
determination, by new experiments, of the constant quantities which
entered into his formulæ,—followed in rapid succession. The theory
must be briefly stated. It had already been seen that parallel voltaic
currents attracted each other; when, instead of being parallel, they
were situate in any directions, they still exerted attractive and
repulsive forces depending on the distance, and on the directions of
each element of both currents. Add to this doctrine the hypothetical
constitution of magnets, namely, that a voltaic current runs round the
axis of each particle, and we have the means of calculating a vast
variety of results which may be compared with experiment. But the
laws of the elementary forces required further fixation. What
functions are the forces of the distance and the directions of the
elements?

To extract from experiment an answer to this inquiry was far from

easy, for the elementary forces were mathematically connected with
the observed facts, by a double mathematical integration;—a long,
and, while the constant coefficients remained undefined, hardly a
possible operation. Ampère made some trials in this way, but his
happier genius suggested to him a better path. It occurred to him,
that if his integrals, without being specially found, could be shown to
vanish upon the whole, under certain conditions of the problem, this
circumstance would correspond to arrangements of his apparatus in
which a state of equilibrium was preserved, however the form of
some of the parts might be changed. He found two such cases,
which were of great importance to the theory. The first of these
cases proved that the force exerted by any element of the voltaic
wire might be resolved into other forces by a theorem resembling the
well-known proposition of the parallelogram of forces. This was
proved by showing that the action of a straight wire is the same with
that of another wire which joins the same extremities, but is bent and
contorted in any way whatever. But it still remained necessary to
determine two fundamental quantities; one which expressed the
power of the distance according to which the force varied; the other,
the 249 degree in which the force is affected by the obliquity of the
elements. One of the general causes of equilibrium, of which we
have spoken, gave a relation between these two quantities; 15 and as
the power was naturally, and, as it afterwards appeared, rightly
conjectured to be the inverse square, the other quantity also was
determined; and the general problem of electrodynamical action was
fully solved.
15
Communication to the Acad. Sc., June 10, 1822. See Ampère,
Recueil, p. 292.

If Ampère had not been an accomplished analyst, he would not

have been able to discover the condition on which the nullity of the
integral in this case depended. 16 And throughout his labors, we find
reason to admire, both his mathematical skill, and his steadiness of
thought; although these excellences are by no means accompanied
throughout with corresponding clearness and elegance of exposition
in his writings.
16 Recueil, p. 314.

Reception of Ampère’s Theory.—Clear mathematical conceptions,

and some familiarity with mathematical operations, were needed by
readers also, in order to appreciate the evidence of the theory; and,
therefore, we need not feel any surprise if it was, on its publication
and establishment, hailed with far less enthusiasm than so
remarkable a triumph of generalizing power might appear to
deserve. For some time, indeed, the greater portion of the public
were naturally held in suspense by the opposing weight of rival
names. The Amperian theory did not make its way without contention
and competition. The electro-magnetic experiments, from their first
appearance, gave a clear promise of some new and wide
generalization; and held out a prize of honor and fame to him who
should be first in giving the right interpretation of the riddle. In
France, the emulation for such reputation is perhaps more vigilant
and anxious than it is elsewhere; and we see, on this as on other
occasions, the scientific host of Paris springing upon a new subject
with an impetuosity which, in a short time, runs into controversies for
priority or for victory. In this case, M. Biot, as well as Ampère,
endeavored to reduce the electro-magnetic phenomena to general
laws. The discussion between him and Ampère turned on some
points which are curious. M. Biot was disposed to consider as an
elementary action, the force which an element of a voltaic wire
exerts upon a magnetic particle, and which is, as we have seen, at
right angles to their mutual distance; and he conceived that 250 the
equal reaction which necessarily accompanies this action acts
oppositely to the action, not in the same line, but in a parallel line, at
the other extremity of the distance; thus forming a primitive couple,
to use a technical expression borrowed from mechanics. To this
Ampère objected, 17 that the direct opposition of all elementary action
and reaction was a universal and necessary mechanical law. He
showed too that such a couple as had been assumed, would follow
as a derivative result from his theory. And in comparing his own
theory with that in which the voltaic wire is assimilated to a collection
of transverse magnets, he was also able to prove that no such
assemblage of forces acting to and from fixed points, as the forces of
magnets do act, could produce a continued motion like that
discovered by Faraday. This, indeed, was only the well-known
demonstration of the impossibility of a perpetual motion. If, instead of
a collection of magnets, the adverse theorists had spoken of a
magnetic current, they might probably interpret their expressions so
as to explain the facts; that is, if they considered every element of
such a current as a magnet, and consequently, every point of it as
being a north and a south point at the same instant. But to introduce
such a conception of a magnetic current was to abandon all the laws
of magnetic action hitherto established; and consequently to lose all
that gave the hypothesis its value. The idea of an electric current, on
the other hand, was so far from being a new and hazardous
assumption, that it had already been forced upon philosophers from
the time of Volta; and in this current, the relation of preceding and
succeeding, which necessarily existed between the extremities of
any element, introduced that relative polarity on which the success of
the explanations of the facts depended. And thus in this controversy,
the theory of Ampère has a great and undeniable superiority over the
rival hypotheses.
17 Ampère, Théorie, p. 154.
 CHAPTER VII.

Consequences of the Electrodynamic Theory.

I T is not necessary to state the various applications which were

soon made of the electro-magnetic discoveries. But we may notice
one 251 of the most important,—the Galvanometer, an instrument
which, by enabling the philosopher to detect and to measure
extremely minute electrodynamic actions, gave an impulse to the
subject similar to that which it received from the invention of the
Leyden Phial, or the Voltaic Pile. The strength of the voltaic current
was measured, in this instrument, by the deflection produced in a
compass-needle; and its sensibility was multiplied by making the
wire pass repeatedly above and below the needle. Schweigger, of
Halle, was one of the first devisers of this apparatus.

The substitution of electro-magnets, that is, of spiral tubes

composed of voltaic wires, for common magnets, gave rise to a
variety of curious apparatus and speculations, some of which I shall
hereafter mention.

[2nd Ed.] [When a voltaic apparatus is in action, there may be

conceived to be a current of electricity running through its various
elements, as stated in the text. The force of this current in various
parts of the circuit has been made the subject of mathematical
investigation by M. Ohm. 18 The problem is in every respect similar to
that of the flow of heat through a body, and taken generally, leads to
complex calculations of the same kind. But Dr. Ohm, by limiting the
problem in the first place by conditions which the usual nature and
form of voltaic apparatus suggest, has been able to give great
simplicity to his reasonings. These conditions are, the linear form of
the conductors (wires) and the steadiness of the electric state. For
this part of the problem Dr. Ohm’s reasonings are as simple and as
demonstrative as the elementary propositions of Mechanics. The
formulæ for the electric force of a voltaic current to which he is led
have been experimentally verified by others, especially Fechner, 19
Gauss, 20 Lenz, Jacobi, Poggendorf, and Pouillet.
18Die Galvanische Kette Mathematisch bearbeitet von Dr. G. S.
Ohm, Berlin, 1827.

19 Mass-bestimmungen über die Galvanische Kette. Leipzig,

1831.

20 Results of the Magnetic Association.

Among ourselves, Mr. Wheatstone has confirmed and applied the

views of M. Ohm, in a Memoir 21 On New Instruments and Processes
for determining the Constants of a Voltaic Circuit. He there remarks
that the clear ideas of electromotive forces and resistances,
substituted by Ohm for the vague notions of quantity and intensity
which have long been prevalent, give satisfactory explanations of the
most important difficulties, and express the laws of a vast number of
phenomena 252 in formulæ of remarkable simplicity and generality.
In this Memoir, Professor Wheatstone describes an instrument which
he terms Rheostat, because it brings to a common standard the
voltaic currents which are compared by it. He generalizes the
language of the subject by employing the term rheomotor for any
apparatus which originates an electric current (whether voltaic or
thermoelectric, &c.) and rheometer for any instrument to measure
the force of such a current. It appears that the idea of constructing
an instrument of the nature of the Rheostat had occurred also to
Prof. Jacobi, of St Petersburg.]
 21 Phil. Trans. 1843. Pt. 11.

The galvanometer led to the discovery of another class of cases in

which the electrodynamical action was called into play, namely, those
in which a circuit, composed of two metals only, became electro-
magnetic by heating one part of it. This discovery of thermo-
electricity was made by Professor Seebeck of Berlin, in 1822, and
prosecuted by various persons; especially by Prof. Cumming 22 of
Cambridge, who, early in 1823, extended the examination of this
property to most of the metals, and determined their thermo-electric
order. But as these investigations exhibited no new mechanical
effects of electromotive forces, they do not now further concern us;
and we pass on, at present, to a case in which such forces act in a
manner different from any of those already described.
22Camb. Trans. vol. ii. p. 62. On the Development of Electro-
Magnetism by Heat.

Discovery of Diamagnetism.

[2nd Ed.] [By the discoveries just related, a cylindrical spiral of wire
through which an electric current is passing is identified with a
magnet; and the effect of such a spiral is increased by placing in it a
core of soft iron. By the use of such a combination under the
influence of a voltaic battery, magnets are constructed far more
powerful than those which depend upon the permanent magnetism
of iron. The electro-magnet employed by Dr. Faraday in some of his
experiments would sustain a hundred-weight at either end.

By the use of such magnets Dr. Faraday discovered that, besides

iron, nickel and cobalt, which possess magnetism in a high degree,
many bodies are magnetic in a slight degree. And he made the
further very important discovery, that of those substances which are
not magnetic, many, perhaps all, possess an opposite property, in
virtue of which he terms them diamagnetic. The opposition is of this
253 kind;—that magnetic bodies in the form of bars or needles, if free
to move, arrange themselves in the axial line joining the poles;
diamagnetic bodies under the same circumstances arrange
themselves in an equatorial position, perpendicular to the axial line.
And this tendency he conceives to be the result of one more general;
that whereas magnetic bodies are attracted to the poles of a magnet,
diamagnetic bodies are repelled from the poles. The list of
diamagnetic bodies includes all kinds of substances; not only metals,
as antimony, bismuth, gold, silver, lead, tin, zinc, but many crystals,
glass, phosphorus, sulphur, sugar, gum, wood, ivory; and even flesh
and fruit.

It appears that M. le Bailli had shown, in 1829, that both bismuth

and antimony and bismuth repelled the magnetic needle; and as Dr.
Faraday remarks, it is astonishing that such an experiment should
have remained so long without further results. M. Becquerel in 1827
observed, and quoted Coulomb as having also observed, that a
needle of wood under certain conditions pointed across the magnetic
curves; and also stated that he had found a needle of wood place
itself parallel to the wires of a galvanometer. This he referred to a
magnetism transverse to the length. But he does not refer the
phenomena to elementary repulsive action, nor show that they are
common to an immense class of bodies, nor distinguish this
diamagnetic from the magnetic class, as Faraday has taught us to
do.
 I do not dwell upon the peculiar phenomena of copper which, in
the same series of researches, are traced by Dr. Faraday to the
combined effect of its diamagnetic character, and the electric
currents excited in it by the electro-magnet; nor to the optical
phenomena manifested by certain transparent diamagnetic
substances under electric action; as already stated in Book ix. 23 ]
~Additional material in the 3rd edition.~
23 See the Twentieth Series of Experimental Researches in
Electricity, read to the Royal Society, Dec. 18, 1845.
 CHAPTER VIII.

Discovery of the Laws of Magneto-Electric Induction.—Faraday.

I T was clearly established by Ampère, as we have seen, that

magnetic action is a peculiar form of electromotive actions, and
that, in 254 this kind of agency, action and reaction are equal and
opposite. It appeared to follow almost irresistibly from these
considerations, that magnetism might be made to produce electricity,
as electricity could be made to imitate all the effects of magnetism.
Yet for a long time the attempts to obtain such a result were fruitless.
Faraday, in 1825, endeavored to make the conducting-wire of the
voltaic circuit excite electricity in a neighboring wire by induction, as
the conductor charged with common electricity would have done, but
he obtained no such effect. If this attempt had succeeded, the
magnet, which, for all such purposes, is an assemblage of voltaic
circuits, might also have been made to excite electricity. About the
same time, an experiment was made in France by M. Arago, which
really involved the effect thus sought; though this effect was not
extricated from the complex phenomenon, till Faraday began his
splendid career of discovery on this subject in 1832. Arago’s
observation was, that the rapid revolution of a conducting-plate in the
neighborhood of a magnet, gave rise to a force acting on the
magnet. In England, Messrs. Barlow and Christie, Herschel and
Babbage, repeated and tried to analyse this experiment; but referring
the forces only to conditions of space and time, and overlooking the
real cause, the electrical currents produced by the motion, these
philosophers were altogether unsuccessful in their labors. In 1831,
Faraday again sought for electro-dynamical induction, and after
some futile trials, at last found it in a form different from that in which
he had looked for it. It was then seen, that at the precise time of
making or breaking the contact which closed the galvanic circuit, a
momentary effect was induced in a neighboring wire, but
disappeared instantly. 24 Once in possession of this fact, Mr. Faraday
ran rapidly up the ladder of discovery, to the general point of view.—
Instead of suddenly making or breaking the contact of the inducing
circuit, a similar effect was produced by removing the inducible wire
nearer to or further from the circuit; 25 —the effects were increased by
the proximity of soft iron; 26 —when the soft iron was affected by an
ordinary magnet instead of the voltaic wire, the same effect still
recurred; 27 —and thus it appeared, that by making and breaking
magnetic contact, a momentary electric current was produced. It was
produced also by moving the magnet; 28 —or by moving the wire with
reference to the magnet. 29 Finally, it was found that the earth might
supply the place of a magnet 255 in this as in other experiments; 30
and the mere motion of a wire, under proper circumstances,
produced in it, it appeared, a momentary electric current. 31 These
facts were curiously confirmed by the results in special cases. They
explained Arago’s experiments: for the momentary effect became
permanent by the revolution of the plate. And without using the
magnet, a revolving plate became an electrical machine; 32 —a
revolving globe exhibited electro-magnetic action, 33 the circuit being
complete in the globe itself without the addition of any wire;—and a
mere motion of the wire of a galvanometer produced an electro-
dynamic effect upon its needle. 34
24 Phil. Trans. 1832, p. 127, First Series, Art. 10.

25 Art. 18.

26 Art. 28.

27 Art. 37.
 28 Art. 39.

29 Art. 53.

30 Second Series, Phil. Trans. p. 163.

31 Art. 141.

32 Art. 150.

33 Art. 164.

34 Art. 171.

But the question occurs, What is the general law which determines
the direction of electric currents thus produced by the joint effects of
motion and magnetism? Nothing but a peculiar steadiness and
clearness in his conceptions of space, could have enabled Mr.
Faraday to detect the law of this phenomenon. For the question
required that he should determine the mutual relations in space
which connect the magnetic poles, the position of the wire, the
direction of the wire’s motion, and the electrical current produced in
it. This was no easy problem; indeed, the mere relation of the
magnetic to the electric forces, the one set being perpendicular to
the other, is of itself sufficient to perplex the mind; as we have seen
in the history of the electrodynamical discoveries. But Mr. Faraday
appears to have seized at once the law of the phenomena. “The
relation,” he says, 35 “which holds between the magnetic pole, the
moving wire or metal, and the direction of the current evolved, is very
simple (so it seemed to him) although rather difficult to express.” He
represents it by referring position and motion to the “magnetic
curves,” which go from a magnetic pole to the opposite pole. The
current in the wire sets one way or the other, according to the
direction in which the motion of the wire cuts these curves. And thus
he was enabled, at the end of his Second Series of Researches
(December, 1831), to give, in general terms, the law of nature to
which may be referred the extraordinary number of new and curious
experiments which he has stated; 36 —namely, that if a wire move so
as to cut a magnetic curve, a power is called into action which tends
to urge a magnetic current through the wire; and that if a mass move
so that its parts do not move in the same direction across the
magnetic curves, 256 and with the same angular velocity, electrical
currents are called into play in the mass.
35 First Series, Art. 114.

36 Art. 256–264.

This rule, thus simple from its generality, though inevitably

complex in every special case, may be looked upon as supplying the
first demand of philosophy, the law of the phenomena; and
accordingly Dr. Faraday has, in all his subsequent researches on
magneto-electric induction, applied this law to his experiments; and
has thereby unravelled an immense amount of apparent
inconsistency and confusion, for those who have followed him in his
mode of conceiving the subject.

But yet other philosophers have regarded these phenomena in

other points of view, and have stated the laws of the phenomena in a
manner different from Faraday’s, although for the most part
equivalent to his. And these attempts to express, in the most simple
and general form, the law of the phenomena of magneto-electrical
induction, have naturally been combined with the expression of other
laws of electrical and magnetical phenomena. Further, these
endeavors to connect and generalize the Facts have naturally been
clothed in the garb of various Theories:—the laws of phenomena
have been expressed in terms of the supposed causes of the
phenomena; as fluids, attractions and repulsions, particles with
currents running through them or round them, physical lines of force,
and the like. Such views, and the conflict of them, are the natural
and hopeful prognostics of a theory which shall harmonize their
discords and include all that each contains of Truth. The
fermentation at present is perhaps too great to allow us to see
clearly the truth which lies at the bottom. But a few of the leading
points of recent discussions on these subjects will be noticed in the
Additions to this volume.
 CHAPTER IX.

Transition to Chemical Science.

T HE preceding train of generalization may justly appear extensive,

and of itself well worthy of admiration. Yet we are to consider all
that has there been established as only one-half of the science to
which it belongs,—one limb of the colossal form of Chemistry. We
257 have ascertained, we will suppose, the laws of Electric Polarity;
but we have then to ask, What is the relation of this Polarity to
Chemical Composition? This was the great problem which,
constantly present to the minds of electro-chemical inquirers, drew
them on, with the promise of some deep and comprehensive insight
into the mechanism of nature. Long tasks of research, though only
subsidiary to this, were cheerfully undertaken. Thus Faraday 37
describes himself as compelled to set about satisfying himself of the
identity of common, animal, and voltaic electricity, as “the decision of
a doubtful point which interfered with the extension of his views, and
destroyed the strictness of reasoning.” Having established this
identity, he proceeded with his grand undertaking of electro-chemical
research.
37 Dec. 1832. Researches, 266.

The connexion of electrical currents with chemical action, though

kept out of sight in the account we have hitherto given, was never
forgotten by the experimenters; for, in fact, the modes in which
electrical currents were excited, were chemical actions;—the action
of acids and metals on each other in the voltaic trough, or in some
other form. The dependence of the electrical effect on these
chemical actions, and still more, the chemical actions produced by
the agency of the poles of the circuit, had been carefully studied; and
we must now relate with what success.

But in what terms shall we present this narration? We have

spoken of chemical actions,—but what kind of actions are these?
Decomposition; the resolution of compounds into their ingredients;
the separation of acids from bases; the reduction of bodies to simple
elements. These names open to us a new drama; they are words
which belong to a different set of relations of things, a different train
of scientific inductions, a different system of generalizations, from
any with which we have hitherto been concerned. We must learn to
understand these phrases, before we can advance in our history of
human knowledge.

And how are we to learn the meaning of this collection of words?

In what other language shall it be explained? In what terms shall we
define these new expressions? To this we are compelled to reply,
that we cannot translate these terms into any ordinary language;—
that we cannot define them in any terms already familiar to us. Here,
as in all other branches of knowledge, the meaning of words is to be
sought in the progress of thought; the history of science is our 258
dictionary; the steps of scientific induction are our definitions. It is
only by going back through the successful researches of men
respecting the composition and elements of bodies, that we can
learn in what sense such terms must be understood, so as to convey
real knowledge. In order that they may have a meaning for us, we
must inquire what meaning they had in the minds of the authors of
our discoveries.

And thus we cannot advance a step, till we have brought up our

history of Chemistry to the level of our history of Electricity;—till we