Week 1-3

Topic: Metal Processing

Processing metals depends on the type of iron-ore used. First, ore is physically

crushed and then exposed to a combination of heat, chemical and other physical

processes which makes it result into a liquid molten metal that can be poured and

shaped. As we know, iron-ore is obtained from beneath the earth and processed into pig

iron by removing most of the impurities. This whole process is carried out in a furnace.

Metal Processing Methods

The six basic methods of processing metals include the following:

1. Smelting:

2. Casting

3. Alloying;

4. Forming;

5. Shaping

6. Finishing.

1. Smelting- Blast Furnace

Smelting simply refers to the technique of removing impurities from iron ore. The blast furnace is a smelting
(burning) plant used for processing iron-ore into pig-iron. To smelt iron - ore in the blast furnace, other
chemicals like coke (which serves as fuel and reducing agent, it helps to remove oxygen from the iron ore
Fe2 O3 to produce Fe ) and limestone (which removes impurities) are added to the iron - ore so that most of
the impurities may be removed.

Further processing of pig - iron gives birth to steel. The furnace used for this purpose is

called the "Bessemer Converter".

Bessemer Converter: This is the furnace used for smelting pig- iron into steel by further burning off of
impurities in the right percentage. It was developed by Henry Bessemer. Since steel is categorized into three
groups namely:

Classes of Steel

Low Carbon Steel: The content of carbon in a low carbon steel is about 0.05% 0.3%.

Medium Carbon Steel: The carbon content is about 0.3% - 0.8%.

High Content Steel: Carbon content is 0.8% and above. It is usually very hard and it is used for making cutting
tools like files, punches, chisels, dyes, etc.

Other Methods: Other furnaces used in the production of steel are:

 The Basic Oxygen Furnace

 Electric-Are furnace
 Open-Hearth furnace

2. Casting

This is an archaic method of producing metal. In this method, molten metal is poured into a mould cavity,
which is cooled to get the content solidified. Afterward, the metal called casting is removed from the mould.

3. Alloying: This is the mixing of two or more metals to obtain an improved metal. This process is carried out so
as to improve the quality of certain metals in engineering.

Bronze = copper (78% to 959%) +tin(5 to 22%) +aluminum5 to 20%)

Brass = Copper (10 to 35%) + Zinc (5 to 22%)

Reasons why Alloying is Important

1. For strength.

2. Wear resistance.

3. It provides hardness.

4. Corrosion-resistance.

4. Forming: This is the method of processing metal either hot or cold into geometrical shapes by applying
compressive or tensile forces of deformation.

5. Shaping: This aspect of processing metal involves the use of the lathe machine to carry out bending, turning,
twisting and upsetting operations on metals.

6. Metal Finishing: This is the technique of giving metal work a protective coat, smooth edges and surfaces in
addition to an acceptable, improved final appearance. Some examples of metal finishing are buffing,
lacquering, spraying/painting, electroplating, copper spotting, scratching etc.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is iron-ore?

2. How is pig- iron produces from iron - ore

3. State at least five types of furnaces for producing steel.

4. State at least three classes of steel.

5. What is an alloy of metal?

6. State three importance of alloys.

7. State one advantage and disadvantage of the following processing methods:

(a). Forming

(b). Casting

(C). Alloying

(d). Shaping.

Topic: Processing of Clay

Ceramics are made of different products like clay, cement and concrete.

Pottery Making: The art of making objects from clay is called pottery. Examples are pots, tiles, sanitary wares,
cups, plates and bricks.

Processing of Pottery: To use clay in making any item, four different processes are involved. They are:

1. Excavation of Clay: Clay is usually excavated from the earth with a shovel. The clay is then processed so as to
remove air bubbles and sand particles, so that it can be moldable.

2.Moulding of Clay: This is the processing of clay to a particular shape. There are three basic methods
involved. They are:

The Pinch Method: This is the method of using the thumb, with the clay placed in the hollow of the palms
while the thumb presses the clay into shape.

2.Moulding of Clay: This is the processing of clay to a particular shape. There are three basic methods
involved. They are:

i. The Pinch Method: This is the method of using the thumb, and other fingers to shape the clay

ii. Use of Moulds: The moulds for bricks may be made of wood while the ones for sanitary wares and tiles are
metallic.

iii. Potter's wheel method: This is a device containing a flat disc which is spurned using either an electric motor
of manual me ans. As the clay spins on the disc the article is shaped using the fingers.

3.Firing: Firing of clay helps it to become hardened and durable. The kiln is usually used for this purpose.

4.Decoration: This is the art of using varnished or ceramic paint to draw patterns on the surface of any clay
product to beautify it.
Processing of Glass Products

Glass is processed from sand, soda and lime. These materials are mixed together and heated in a furnace at a
very high temperature to produce molten glass. At this state, it is then shaped and allowed to cool so as to
form a hard piece.

Classes and Types of Glass

The two main class of glass is:

1. Transparent glass

2. Translucent or Coloured glass.

The different types of glasses include the following:

i. Pyrex glass: This is a special type of glass used for making laboratory equipment.

ii. Safety glass: This is the type of glass used for making windscreen of automobiles. Rubber sheet is usually
placed at the core of this type of glass so as to avoid splinters from flying during impact.

iii. Plate glass: This type of glass is used for glazing doors and windows in building constructions.

iv. Reinforced glass: This is a type of glass that has meshes of wire embedded inside of it to give it improved
strength.

v. Fibre glass: This is a type of glass made to resist fire and heat effects. They are generally good as electrical
insulators.

vi. Bottle glass: This type of glass is often re ferred to as soda lime glass, used for bottling drinks and other
beverages. It is the cheapest kind of glass.

Stages Involved in Glass Processing

Stage (i). Crushing and Mixing: Solid materials like sand, soda, lime, potash and lead oxide together with
recycled glass are crushed and grounded into fine paste.

This paste is squeeze to remove any coarse particles.

Stage ii). Heating: This is carried out in a furnace to a temperature of about 1000'C for about 5 to 6 hours.
Meanwhile, additives and flux materials are added as the mixture is being stirred continuously. This process
turns the mixture into a plastic molten glass.

Stage ii). Forming: At this stage, the molten glass is forced into either a flat sheet form or a desired
geometrical shape.

Stage (iv). Annealing and Polishing: Annealing is a process of cooling glass slowly so that the molecules of the
molten glass crystallizes without cracking suddenly. Polishing on the other hand, is necessary to give the
cooled glass a high quality smooth surface.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
i. Identify the process involved in the production of the following:

i. clay

ii. gass.

2. Explain with diagrams the processes involved in the production of the

materials identified above.

3. Produce a simple clay, ceramics and glass household wares of your choice.

Processing of Plastics

Plastics are obtained from petroleum products called monomers. These monomers are used to produce resins
which are used to for making plastics.

Types of Plastics

1. Thermoplastics: These are plastics that can melt under heat and reshaped into other forms.

2. Thermoset: These are plastics that do not easily melt under heat. They are used as handles for pots and
enamel dishes.

The general principle in the processing of plastics involves the following:

Pre-heating the resin into a molten state. Forcing the molten plastic into a mould to acquire a desired shape.

Methods of Processing of Plastics

1. Injection Method: In this method, the resin is fed into a heating chamber through the hopper. A plunger is
then used to force the molten plastic into the required mould. This method can be used for making water
bottles.

2. Extrusion Moulding: This is the older version of the injection moulding. Instead of the plunger, a knob with
screw is used to force the molten plastic into the mould.

3. Compression Moulding: This is the method used for processing hollow pipes like biro cases, water pipes and
drainage pipes. This method makes use of two moulds at a time.

4. Vacuum Forming: This is the method used in the processing of plastic cups, buckets and bowls. A vacuum is
always created with the cavity of the mould. As air is sucked out of the cavity, pressure is created on the
plastic so as to take the shape of the mould.

5. Calendaring: This is the method used to produce long sheets of plastics like nylon and polythene products.
The plastic runs through a number of rollers.

Processing of Rubber

Rubber is an elastic material obtained from the latex of a rubber tree.

Types of Rubber
i). Natural rubber: This is the type mentioned above. Latex is a whitish liquid obtained from a rubber tree, used
for processing elastic materials.

(i). Synthetic or Artificial rubber: This is the type of rubber obtained from petroleum products. Artificial
(synthetic) rubber and natural rubber are processed through the following

stages:

Foremost, the rubber is softened by adding chemicals and mixing itnthoroughly to bring it to a mouldable
state.

It is then pre-heated in a chamber into a molten form.

The molten rubber is then forced in to a mould designed to take the shape of the article desired.

It should be noted that the methods used in the processing of plastics, is also the same method applied

in the processing of rubber.

Application of Rubber

1. Tyres

2. Soles for shoes

3. Foamed rubber products

4. Sports equipment

5. Footwear

6. Engine belts

7. Shock absorbers

Conveyor belts

9.Hose

10. Seals

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Identify three process involved in the production of plastics,

2. Identity four process involved in the production of rubber

3. Identify three process involved in the production of ceramics.

4. Explain with diagrams the processes involved in the production of the

above mentioned materials.

Week 5

Topic: Pictorial Drawings

Pictorial Drawings include

1. Isometric Drawing

2. Oblique Drawing

3. Orthographic Projection

4. Perspective Drawing

Week 4-5

Isometric Drawing

Definition:

Isometric drawing is defined as a three - dimensional drawing of solid objects. It is a pictorial method of
drawing. What you see is what you draw. The three dimensions are the length, width and height.

Isometric Axes

The term isometric axis means the lines formed by the 30 set square and the vertical line of any given plane or
block to be drawn. The lines that slant at 30 is called the receding lines. The vertical line is also drawn using
the side of the 30/60" set square.

The lines drawn are often referred to as projection lines. Apart from the vertical lines, all other lines are
inclined at 30" slant. It is always better to complete the drawing in construction lines (faint lines) first, check
that everything is correct before outlining the block given.

Steps Involved in Isometric Drawing

1. Drawing the Isometric Axes

After setting your paper on your board and drawing border lines and title
block, follow the steps below:

i. On the lower section of your drawing paper mark a small cross (4).

i. Using the 30"-60" set-square, supported on the T-square, draw the first vertical axis from the intersection of
the +.

ii. Turn the set square to the 30" slant with the edge intersecting at the + either to the right or left and draw
the first receding axis.

iv. Rotate the set-square until another edge rest as base on the T-square on the same intersection and draw
the second receding axis.

2. Outlining the Edges: Finally, using the HB pencil with mode rate pressure, thicken the outline of the given
block. You may erase the extra projected lines on your work since they may not be required as part of the
given block.

3. Dimensioning: This is the technique of adding the actual size (length, breadth and height) of any block given.

Examples:

1. 2.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define isometric drawing.

2. State the angle of projection in isometric drawing.

3. Draw the block shown below in isometric projection.

Week 6

Topic: Oblique Drawing

Definition: Oblique drawing is a 3-dimensional drawing of objects based on the oblique axes. It is based on the
same principle as isometric drawing.

Types of Oblique Drawing

1. Cavalier Projection: This is a situation where an oblique block is drawn full length, without alteration or
distortion of the original dimension.

2. Cabinet Projection: In this method, where the horizontal line is drawn full size while the 45 slant is drawn
half size.

Week 7-8

Topic: Orthographic Projection

Definition:

The word orthographic is coined from the word orthogonal (or perpendicular) and graphic (or view). As such,
orthographic projection can be defined as a two-dimensional drawing that shows different views of a
structure. It contains the vertical and the horizontal planes as shown below.
In orthographic projection, there are three basic views referred to as elevations.

These elevations are as follows:

i).The Plan: This is the view of an object as seen or projected from the top.

ii).Front elevation: This is the view of an object as seen or projected from the front side of the object or block.

iii).End / Side Elevation: This view is sometimes referred to as the auxiliary vertical plane in some text books. It
is the view showing the right or left side of any object when viewed from the front.

Angles of Projection

1. First Angle Projection: Where the plan of a structure is positioned below the quadrant. It is the British
system of drawing elevations.

2. Third angle projection: This is a condition where the plan of a structure is positioned above the quadrant
while the front view is below the plan.
Steps in Orthographic Projection and Worked Illustrations

(i).Make a sketch of the required views.

(ii).Draw both the vertical and the horizontal axis to intersect midway.

(iii).Determine the placing of the views.

(Iv).Begin drawing with either the plan or front views.

(v).From either of the views drawn above, project lines for the other view

(vi).Draw the reflector line at 45.

(vii).Project the horizontal lines from the front elevation.

(viii).Project the plan to meet the reflector line of the 45"

(ix).Take note of hidden details and outline the elevations to complete the job.

Week 9-10

Topic: Perspective Drawing

Definition: This is a drawing that gives the distant part of an object, like a building or road. The drawing tapers
to a point called the varnishing point (VP), as it appears to an observer of an object. This makes the outlook of
the distant object smaller than the real size.

Types of Perspective Drawing

1. One-Point Perspective Drawing: In this type of drawing, the projection lines converge at a particular point
known as the varnishing point. A drawing has one-point perspective when it contains only one vanishing point
on the horizon line.
This type of perspective is typically used for images of roads, railway tracks, hallways, or buildings viewed so
that the front is directly facing the viewer.

2. Two-Point perspective Drawing: This is a linear perspective in which parallel lines along the width and depth
of an object are represented as meeting at two separate points on the horizon that are 90 degrees apart as
measured from the common intersection of the lines of projection.
3. Three-Point Perspective Drawing: Three-point perspective is often used for buildings seen from above (or
below). In addition to the two vanishing points from before, one for each wall, there is now one for how the
vertical lines of the walls recede. For an object seen from above, this third vanishing point is below the
ground.

REVIEW QUESTION

1. Define perspective drawing and state the different types of perspective

drawing.

2. Use the internal structure of a room as viewed from an angle to explain one

point perspective drawing.

3. Construct a one-point perspective of a cube.