Chapter 5

Sensors for Transducers

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 1

This chapter will focus on
this part of the
instrumentation system

Engineering
Data processor Analysis
Conditioning
Transducer Amplifier Recorder
circuit

Process
Controller
Command Control
Power supply
generator

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 2

Transducers
• Electromechanical devices that convert a mechanical change into an
electrical signal
• Example: Strain gage on a link
• Converts change in load (or strain) to change in electrical resistance
• Sensors used in transducers include:
• Potentiometers
• Differential transformers
• Strain gages
• Capacitors
• Piezoelectric and piezoresistive sensors
• … and many more

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 3

5.2 Potentiometers
𝑣𝑠𝑤 𝑣1

• Used to measure displacement

• Used for static and quasi-static measurements 𝑣2
𝑥 𝑣𝑜
• 𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑖 , and thus 𝑥 = ℓ
ℓ 𝑣𝑖
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 : No current flows through meter
• Straight wire resistors are not feasible for 𝑣𝑠𝑤 = 𝑣𝑥 : No current flows through meter
i.e. No voltage drop through meter
most applications
• They have low resistance, and thus
• High power consumption
• Instead, we can use high resistance, wire-wound potentiometers

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 4

• Resistance increases in a stepwise manner as the wiper moves from
one turn to the adjacent turn
𝐿
• Resolution of potentiometer is
𝑛
• 𝐿: Length of coil
• 𝑛: number of turns
• Measures large displacement
• ≥ 10 mm (linear)
• ≥ 15 deg (angular)

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 5

5.3 Differential transformers
• Used to measure displacements
• Use variable inductance principle
• Most popular variable inductance principle for linear displacement
measurements is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 6

• LVDT consists of 3 symmetrically spaced coils wound onto an insulated bobbin
• A magnetic core moves through the spaced coils to provide a path for the magnetic flux
• The position of the core controls the mutual inductance between the primary and
secondary coils
• The secondary coils are connected in a series opposing circuit
• AC excitation applied to the primary coil
• Voltage induced in the two secondary coils
• If the core is centered between the two secondary coils
• Voltages induced in the secondary coils are equal but 180 deg out of phase
• 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
• 𝑣𝑜 is a linear function of core position
• Direction of motion can be determined from phase of 𝑣𝑜 relative to 𝑣𝑖
• Input frequency range from 50 to 25,000 Hz
• Sensitivity from 0.16 to 2.5 v/mm of displacement
Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 7
Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 8
5.4 Resistance strain gages
• Resistance strain gages are thin metal-foil grids that can be adhesively
bonded to the surface of a component or structure
• If component is loaded, strains develop, and resistance of the foil grid
changes
• Resistance (𝑅) of a uniform metallic conductor can be expressed as
𝜌𝐿
𝑅= , where
𝐴
• 𝜌: Specific resistance of metal
• 𝐿: Length of the conductor
• 𝐴: Cross-sectional area of the conductor

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• Sensitivity of metal (alloy) used for the conductor
𝑑𝑅/𝑅
𝑆𝐴 =
𝜖𝑎
•
𝑑𝑅
: Change in resistance We know that
𝑅 𝜌𝐿
𝑅= 𝐴
• 𝜖𝑎 : Axial strain
𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅 𝜕𝑅 Change in cross section area
• 𝑑𝑅 = 𝑑𝜌 + 𝑑𝐿+ 𝑑𝐴 resulting from applied load
𝜕𝜌 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐴
𝐿 𝜌 𝜌𝐿 Change in length of metal
= 𝑑𝜌 + 𝑑𝐿 − 2 𝑑𝐴 resulting from applied load
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝐿 𝜌 𝜌𝐿
𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐿 2 𝑑𝐴 Change in specific resistance
• = 𝐴
𝜌𝐿 + 𝐴
𝜌𝐿 − 𝐴
𝜌𝐿 resulting from applied load
𝑅
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐴
= + −
𝜌 𝐿 𝐴

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 𝑑𝐴
• Find
𝐴
• 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐴𝑓 − 𝐴0 𝑑𝑓 = 𝑑0 − 𝑑0 𝜈
𝑑𝐿
𝜋 𝜋 𝐿
= 𝑑𝑓2 − 𝑑02 = 𝑑0 − 𝑑0 𝜈
𝑑𝐿
4 4 𝐿
𝑑𝐿
𝜋 𝑑𝐿 2 = 𝑑0 1 − 𝜈
= 𝑑02 1−𝜈 −1 𝐿
4 𝐿
𝑑0
𝜋 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝑓
= 𝑑02 −𝜈 2−𝜈
4 𝐿 𝐿
𝜋 2 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿
𝑑𝐴 𝑑 −𝜈 2−𝜈
4 0
• = 𝐿
𝜋 2
𝐿
𝐴 𝑑
4 0
𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿
= −𝜈 2−𝜈
𝐿 𝐿
𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿 2 𝑑𝐿
= −2𝜈 + 𝜈 ≈ −2𝜈
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
Very small
Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 11
 𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐴
• = + −
𝑅 𝜌 𝐿 𝐴
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝐿
≈ + + 2𝜈 = + 1 + 2𝜈
𝜌 𝐿 𝐿 𝜌 𝐿
𝑑𝑅/𝑅 𝑑𝜌/𝜌
• 𝑆𝐴 = = + 1 + 2𝜈
𝜖𝑎 𝜖𝑎

• For strain that is in direction of grid (not

necessarily axial) is 𝜀, then
Δ𝑅
= 𝑆𝑔 𝜀
𝑅
where 𝑆𝑔 is the gage factor or calibration constant
for the gage
• 𝑆𝑔 < 𝑆𝐴 because the grid configuration of the gage with
transverse conductors is less responsive to axial strain than
a straight uniform conductor
Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 12
Example:
𝑅0 = 120 Ω, SA = 2.00, 𝜖𝑎 = 1000𝜇. Find Δ𝑅.
Solution:
𝑑𝑅/𝑅
𝑆𝐴 = and thus,
𝜖𝑎
Δ𝑅 = 𝑆𝐴 𝜖𝑎 𝑅
= 2.00 × 1000 × 10−6 × 120 = 0.24Ω

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 13

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 14
5.5 Capacitive sensors
• Capacitor: A device used to store electrical energy
• Consists of two metal plates separated by a distance ℎ
• When the two plates are connected to a voltage source, an electric
field between the two plates
𝜀𝐴
• Capacitance 𝐶 =
ℎ
• 𝐴: Area of plate
• 𝜀: Permittivity of the material between the plates
• ℎ: Distance between the plates

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 15

• Capacitive sensors use the same principle
• Consist of a target plate and a second plate
known as the sensor head
• The two plates are separated by an air gap of
thickness ℎ
𝑘𝐾𝐴
•𝐶=
ℎ
• 𝐶: Capacitance in picofarads (pF)
𝜋𝐷2
• 𝐴: Area of the sensor head 4
• 𝐾: relative dielectric constant for the medium
in the gap
• 𝑘: Proportionality constant
0.225, for dimensions in inches
𝑘=ቊ
0.00885 for dimensions in mm

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 16

• Assume that the separation between the head and the target change by Δℎ, thus
𝑘𝐾𝐴
𝐶 + Δ𝐶 =
ℎ + Δℎ
• Divide by 𝐶
𝑘𝐾𝐴
𝐶 + Δ𝐶 ℎ + Δℎ ℎ
= =
C 𝑘𝐾𝐴 ℎ + Δℎ
ℎ
• This can be written as
Δ𝐶 ℎ −Δℎ −Δℎ
= −1= =
𝐶 ℎ + Δℎ ℎ + Δℎ ℎ + Δℎ
• Divide by ℎ
Δ𝐶 −Δℎ/ℎ
=
𝐶 1+Δℎ/ℎ
• Nonlinear relationship between input to sensor (Δℎ) and output of sensor (Δ𝐶)!
• Need to avoid nonlinear input-output relationships
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• Let’s try another way to avoid nonlinear input-output relationship!
• Impedance for a capacitor
−𝚥
𝑍𝐶 =
𝜔𝐶
• With a capacitance change Δ𝐶 :
−𝚥
𝑍𝐶 + Δ𝑍𝐶 =
𝜔 𝐶 + Δ𝐶
• Divide by 𝑍𝐶
−𝚥
Δ𝑍𝐶 𝜔 𝐶 + Δ𝐶 𝐶 −Δ𝐶 −Δ𝐶/𝐶
= −𝚥 = −1= =
𝑍𝐶 𝐶 + Δ𝐶 𝐶 + Δ𝐶 1 + Δ𝐶/𝐶
𝜔𝐶

• Substitute from equation in last slide

−Δℎ/ℎ
Δ𝑍𝐶 − Δℎ
1 + Δℎ/ℎ
= =
𝑍𝐶 −Δℎ/ℎ ℎ
1+
1 + Δℎ/ℎ
• Capacitive impedance (𝑍𝐶 ) is linear in ℎ
• We can use capacitive impedance (𝑍𝐶 ) to measure displacement (Δℎ)
Δ𝑍𝐶 Δℎ 𝐷
• Relationship between and is linear if 0 < ℎ < , where 𝐷 is diameter of sensor head
𝑍𝐶 ℎ 4

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 18

• If a guard ring is used, the range increases to 𝐷/2
• Sensitivity:
Δ𝑍𝐶 𝑍𝐶−𝚥 1
𝑆= Δℎ
= = 𝜔𝐶ℎ
ℎ
= 𝜔𝐶ℎ
1 1
= 𝑘𝐾𝐴 = 𝜔𝑘𝐾𝐴
𝜔 ℎ
ℎ
• How to improve sensitivity?
• Reduce (𝐴). However, this will make linear range narrower
• Reduce (𝜔). However, this will limit frequency response

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5.6 Eddy-current sensors
• Eddy current: Loops of electrical current induced within conductors
by changing magnetic field in the conductor
• Eddy-current sensors: Measure distance between a sensor and an
electrically conducting surface

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• Sensor operation is based on eddy currents that are induced at the
conducting surface as a magnetic field from sensor intersects with the
surface of the conducting material
• Active coil generates magnetic field at a very high frequency (1 MHz)
• Eddy current produced is a function of the distance between the
active coil and the surface
• Produced Eddy current generates a magnetic field sensed by the coil
bridge
• As the distance between the sensor and the conducting surface
decreases, the eddy current value increases

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Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 22
 5.7: Piezoelectric Sensors
• Piezoelectric materials produce an electric charge when it is subjected to a force or pressure
• Examples of piezoelectric materials
• Single crystal quartz
• Polycrystalline barium titanate
• Piezoelectric materials contain molecules with
asymmetrical charge distributions
• Applied pressure on the piezoelectric material creates
relative displacement between the positive and negative
charges within the crystal Force applied→ Center of positive and
negative charges changes → Creates nonzero
electric charge

𝑣𝑜 : Output
Apply Crystal Relative displacement External charge voltage
pressure deforms between positive and produced 𝐶: capacitance
negative charges is created 𝑞 = 𝑣𝑜 𝐶 of piezoelectric
material
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• Relationship between (𝑞) and applied pressure (𝑝):
𝑞 = 𝑆𝑞 𝐴𝑝
𝑆𝑞 : Charge sensitivity of piezoelectric material (Table 5.3)
𝐴: Area of electrode

Example: 𝐴 = 10 𝑚𝑚2 , ℎ = 10 𝑚𝑚, 𝑝 = 2000𝑃𝑎

1 𝑘𝐾𝐴
• Since 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑞, 𝑞 = 𝑆𝑞 𝐴𝑝 and 𝐶 =
𝐶 ℎ
𝑆𝑞
𝑣𝑜 = ℎ𝑝 = 𝑆𝑣 ℎ𝑝
𝑘𝐾
where 𝑆𝑣 is voltage sensitivity
, we can write
Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh
Material: X-cut, length longitudinal crystal
Find 𝑞 and 𝑣𝑜
Solution: From Table 5.3: 𝑆𝑞 = 2.2 𝑝𝐶/𝑁 and 𝑆𝑣 =
0.055 𝑉. 𝑚/𝑁
𝑞 = 𝑆𝑞 𝐴𝑝 = 2.2 × 10−6 × 2 × 103 = 4.4 × 10−3 𝑝𝐶
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑆𝑣 ℎ𝑝 = 0.055 × 10 × 10−3 × 2 × 103 = 1.1 𝑉
24
5.8: Piezoresistive Sensors
• Fabricated from materials that exhibit a change in resistance if a pressure is applied
• Made from semiconductive materials (usually silicon)

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5.10: Resistance Temperature Detectors(RTDs)
• These sensors operate based on the change of metals resistance with temperature
• Conductor fabricated as a wire-wound coil or as a film or foil grid
• Change in resistance of the conductor with temperature
Δ𝑅
= 𝛾1 𝑇 − 𝑇0 + 𝛾2 𝑇 − 𝑇0 2 + ⋯ + 𝛾𝑛 𝑇 − 𝑇0 𝑛
𝑅0
𝑇0 : Reference temperature
𝑅0 : Reference resistance at 𝑇0
𝛾1 , … , 𝛾𝑛 : Temperature coefficients of resistance
• Often used in ovens and furnaces
• Inexpensive but accurate
• Platinum is widely used because it is:
• Most stable
• Least sensitive to contamination
• Can operate over a wide range of temperatures (4 deg K to 1064 deg K)
• Sensitivity of Platinum RTDs is 𝑆 = 0.390 Ω/𝑜 𝐶 for 𝑅 = 100 Ω at 0𝑜 𝐶

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 26

5.11: Thermistors
• Temperature sensors based on resistance change of the sensing element with temperature (like RTDs)
• Differs from RTDs because sensing element is fabricated from a semiconducting material (not a metal)
• Examples of semiconducting materials used
• Oxides of copper
• Cobalt
• Manganese
• Nickel
• Titanium

• Exhibit very large changes in resistance with temperature

• Resistance change with temperature can be describes by
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛
ln 𝜌 = 𝐴0 + + + ⋯+ 𝑛
𝜃 𝜃2 𝜃
𝜌: Specific resistance of the material
𝐴𝑖 : Material constants
𝜃: Absolute temperature

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 27

• Thermistors are widely used because of the following advantages:
• Can be small (0.005 in diameter), therefore they can help with
• Fast response
• Point sensing
• Have high resistance (no lead wire problems)
• Large output compared to RTDs
• Very rugged (tough) and thus can be used in applications
where shock and vibration are used
• Disadvantages of thermistors:
• Have nonlinear output with temperature

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 28

5.12: Thermocouples
• A thermocouple is a temperature sensor consisting of two dissimilar materials that are in thermal and
electrical contact
• As temperature changes, a potential (change in voltage) develops at interface of the two materials (Seebeck
effect)
• 𝐽1 is in contact with the body where temperature is to be measured
• 𝐽2 is connected to a reference (carefully controlled reference temperature)
• If 𝑇3 = 𝑇4 → output voltage not affected
• If 𝑇3 ≠ 𝑇4 → output voltage changes
• Advantages:
• Can be made very small
• Have fast response and can be used for point measurements
• Can cover wide range of temperatures
• Disadvantages:
• Nonlinear output for a wide range of temperatures
• Very low signal output
• Need to carefully control the reference temperature at 𝐽2

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 29

• Output voltage of a thermocouple junction
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑆𝐴/𝐵 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑆𝐴/𝐵 : Sensitivity of material combination A and B
𝑇1 : Temperature at 𝐽1(unknown temperature to be measured)
𝑇2 : Temperature at 𝐽2(reference temperature)

• Example: Find 𝑆𝐶ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑙/𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑙

𝑆𝐶ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑙/𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑙 = 𝑆𝐶ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑙/𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 − 𝑆𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑙/𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 = 25.8 − (−13.6)

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 30

Practice problems
• From Chapter 5 problems in the textbook
• 5.1, 5.2, 5.15, 5.17, 5.20, 5.27, 5.28, 5.29, 5.32, 5.44, 5.45

Dr. Khaled Aljanaideh 31