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About the Authors
HOWARD ANTON obtained his B.A. from Lehigh University, his M.A. from the
University of Illinois, and his Ph.D. from the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn (now part
of New York University), all in mathematics. In the early 1960s he was employed by the
Burroughs Corporation at Cape Canaveral, Florida, where he worked on mathematical
problems in the manned space program. In 1968 he joined the Mathematics Department
of Drexel University, where he taught and did research until 1983. Since then he has
devoted the majority of his time to textbook writing and activities for mathematical asso-
ciations. Dr. Anton was president of the Eastern Pennsylvania and Delaware Section of
the Mathematical Association of America, served on the Board of Governors of that orga-
nization, and guided the creation of its Student Chapters. He is the coauthor of a popular
calculus text and has authored numerous research papers in functional analysis, topology,
and approximation theory. His textbooks are among the most widely used in the world.
There are now more than 200 versions of his books, including translations into Spanish,
Arabic, Portuguese, Italian, Indonesian, French, and Japanese. For relaxation, Dr. Anton
enjoys travel and photography. This text is the recipient of the Textbook Excellence Award
by Textbook & Academic Authors Association.
CHRIS RORRES earned his B.S. degree from Drexel University and his Ph.D. from the
Courant Institute of New York University. He was a faculty member of the Department
of Mathematics at Drexel University for more than 30 years where, in addition to teach-
ing, he published research articles in solar engineering, acoustic scattering, population
dynamics, computer system reliability, geometry of archaeological sites, optimal animal
harvesting policies, and decision theory. He retired from Drexel in 2001 as a Professor
Emeritus of Mathematics, and then continued in a research position at the School of
Veterinary Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania for fourteen years where he did
mathematical modeling of animal epidemics. In addition to writing, he is now doing
mathematical consulting.
Dr. Rorres is a recognized expert on the life and work of Archimedes. His highly
acclaimed website, Archimedes Home Page, is a virtual book that has become an important
teaching tool for students around the world. Dr. Rorres has been featured in several televi-
sion documentaries (BBC and NOVA) about Archimedes. In 2013 Dr. Rorres organized a
conference—ARCHIMEDES IN THE 21st CENTURY: A World Conference at the Courant
Institute of Mathematical Sciences—and edited its proceedings, which were published in
2017.
ANTON KAUL received his B.S. from UC Davis and his M.S. and Ph.D. from Oregon
State University. He held positions at the University of South Florida and Tufts University
before joining the faculty at Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo in 2003, where he is currently a pro-
fessor in the Mathematics Department. In addition to his work on mathematics textbooks,
Dr. Kaul has done research in the area of geometric group theory and has published jour-
nal articles on Coxeter groups and their automorphisms. He is also an avid baseball fan
and old-time banjo player.
vi
Preface
We are proud that this book is the recipient of the Textbook • New Exercises — New exercises have been added
Excellence Award from the Text & Academic Authors Asso- with special attention to the expanded early introduc-
ciation. Its quality owes much to the many professors who tion to linear transformations.
have taken the time to write and share their pedagogical
expertise. We thank them all.
This 12th edition of Elementary Linear Algebra, Applications Hallmark Features
Version has a new contemporary design, many new exer-
cises, a new application on the mathematics of facial recog- • Interrelationships Among Concepts — One of our
nition, and some organizational changes suggested by the main pedagogical goals is to convey to the student
classroom experience of many users. However, the funda- that linear algebra is not a collection of isolated defi-
mental philosophy of this book has not changed. It provides nitions and techniques, but is rather a cohesive subject
an introductory treatment of linear algebra that is suitable with interrelated ideas. One way in which we do this
for a first undergraduate course. Its aim is to present the fun- is by using a crescendo of theorems labeled “Equiva-
damentals of the subject in the clearest possible way, with lent Statements” that continually revisit relationships
sound pedagogy being the main consideration. Although among systems of equations, matrices, determinants,
calculus is not a prerequisite, some optional material here vectors, linear transformations, and eigenvalues. To get
is clearly marked for students with a calculus background. a general sense of this pedagogical technique see The-
If desired, that material can be omitted without loss of con- orems 1.5.3, 1.6.4, 2.3.8, 4.9.8, 5.1.5, 6.4.5, and 8.2.4.
tinuity. Technology is not required to use this text. How- • Smooth Transition to Abstraction — Because the
ever, clearly marked exercises that require technology are transition from Euclidean spaces to general vector
included for those who would like to use MATLAB, Math- spaces is difficult for many students, considerable effort
ematica, Maple, or other software with linear algebra capa- is devoted to explaining the purpose of abstraction and
bilities. Supporting data files are posted on both of the fol- helping the student to “visualize” abstract ideas by
lowing sites: drawing analogies to familiar geometric ideas.
www.howardanton.com • Mathematical Precision — We try to be as mathe-
www.wiley.com/college/anton matically precise as is reasonable for students at this
level. But we recognize that mathematical precision is
Summary of Changes in this Edition something to be learned, so proofs are presented in a
patient style that is tailored for beginners.
Many parts of the text have been revised based on an exten- • Suitability for a Diverse Audience — The text is
sive set of reviews. Here are the primary changes: designed to serve the needs of students in engineering,
• New Application Section — A new section on the computer science, biology, physics, business, and eco-
mathematics of facial recognition has been added to nomics, as well as those majoring in mathematics.
Chapter 10. • Historical Notes — We feel that it is important to give
• Earlier Linear Transformations — Selected mate- students a sense of mathematical history and to con-
rial on linear transformations that was covered later in vey that real people created the mathematical theorems
the previous edition has been moved to Chapter 1 to and equations they are studying. Accordingly, we have
provide a more complete early introduction to the topic. included numerous “Historical Notes” that put various
Specifically, some of the material in Sections 4.10 and topics in historical perspective.
4.11 of the previous edition was extracted to form the
new Section 1.9, and the remaining material is now in
Section 8.6.
• New Section 4.3 Devoted to Spanning Sets — Sec-
About the Exercises
tion 4.2 of the previous edition dealt with both sub- • Graded Exercise Sets — Each exercise set begins with
spaces and spanning sets. Classroom experience has routine drill problems and progresses to problems with
suggested that too many concepts were being intro- more substance. These are followed by three categories
duced at once, so we have slowed down the pace and of problems, the first focusing on proofs, the second on
split off the material on spanning sets to create a new true/false exercises, and the third on problems requir-
Section 4.3. ing technology. This compartmentalization is designed
• New Examples — New examples have been added, to simplify the instructor’s task of selecting exercises for
where needed, to support the exercise sets. homework.
vii
viii PREFACE
• True/False Exercises — The true/false exercises are • MATLAB Linear Algebra Manual and Laboratory
designed to check conceptual understanding and log- Projects — This supplement contains a set of labora-
ical reasoning. To avoid pure guesswork, the students tory projects written by Prof. Dan Seth of West Texas
are required to justify their responses in some way. A&M University. It is designed to help students learn
• Proof Exercises — Linear algebra courses vary widely key linear algebra concepts by using MATLAB and is
in their emphasis on proofs, so exercises involv- available in PDF form without charge to students at
ing proofs have been grouped for easy identification. schools adopting the 12th edition of this text.
Appendix A provides students some guidance on prov- • Data Files — The data files needed for the MATLAB
ing theorems. Linear Algebra Manual and Lab Projects supplement.
• Technology Exercises — Exercises that require tech- • How to Open and Use MATLAB Files — Instruc-
nology have also been grouped. To avoid burdening the tional document on how to download, open, and use
student with typing, the relevant data files have been the MATLAB files accompanying this text.
posted on the websites that accompany this text.
• Supplementary Exercises — Each chapter ends with
a set of exercises that draws from all the sections in the
chapter. Supplementary Materials for
Instructors
• Instructor Solutions Manual — This supplement
provides worked-out solutions to most exercises in the
Supplementary Materials for Students text.
Available on the Web • PowerPoint Slides — A series of slides that display
important definitions, examples, graphics, and theo-
• Self Testing Review — This edition also has an excit- rems in the book. These can also be distributed to stu-
ing new supplement, called the Linear Algebra Flash- dents as review materials or to simplify note-taking.
Card Review. It is a self-study testing system based on • Test Bank — Test questions and sample examinations
the SQ3R study method that students can use to check in PDF or LaTeX form.
their mastery of virtually every fundamental concept in • Image Gallery — Digital repository of images from
this text. It is integrated into WileyPlus, and is available the text that instructors may use to generate their own
as a free app for iPads. The app can be obtained from the PowerPoint slides.
Apple Store by searching for: • WileyPLUS — An online environment for effective
Anton Linear Algebra FlashCard Review teaching and learning. WileyPLUS builds student con-
fidence by taking the guesswork out of studying and by
• Student Solutions Manual — This supplement providing a clear roadmap of what to do, how to do it,
provides detailed solutions to most odd-numbered and whether it was done right. Its purpose is to motivate
exercises. and foster initiative so instructors can have a greater
• Maple Data Files — Data files in Maple format for impact on classroom achievement and beyond.
the technology exercises that are posted on the websites • WileyPLUS Question Index — This document lists
that accompany this text. every question in the current WileyPLUS course and
• Mathematica Data Files — Data files in Mathemat- provides the name, associated learning objective, ques-
ica format for the technology exercises that are posted tion type, and difficulty level for each. If available, it
on the websites that accompany this text. also shows the correlation between the previous edi-
tion WileyPLUS question and the current WileyPLUS
• MATLAB Data Files — Data files in MATLAB format
question, so instructors can conveniently see the evolu-
for the technology exercises that are posted on the web-
tion of a question and reuse it from previous semester
sites that accompany this text.
assignments.
• CSV Data Files — Data files in CSV format for the
technology exercises that are posted on the websites
that accompany this text.
• How to Read and Do Proofs — A series of videos cre- A Guide for the Instructor
ated by Prof. Daniel Solow of the Weatherhead School
of Management, Case Western Reserve University, that Although linear algebra courses vary widely in content and
present various strategies for proving theorems. These philosophy, most courses fall into two categories, those
are available through WileyPLUS as well as the web- with roughly 40 lectures, and those with roughly 30 lec-
sites listed previously. There is also a guide for locating tures. Accordingly, we have created the following long and
the appropriate videos for specific proofs in the text. short templates as possible starting points for constructing
PREFACE ix
your own course outline. Keep in mind that these are just Reviewers
guides, and we fully expect that you will want to customize
them to fit your own interests and requirements. Neither of The following people reviewed the plans for this edition,
these sample templates includes applications, so keep that critiqued much of the content, and provided insightful ped-
in mind as you work with them. agogical advice:
Charles Ekene Chika, University of Texas at Dallas

Marian Hukle, University of Kansas
Long Template Short Template Bin Jiang, Portland State University
Chapter 1: Systems 8 lectures 6 lectures Mike Panahi, El Centro College
of Linear Equations
Christopher Rasmussen, Wesleyan University
and Matrices
Nathan Reff, The College at Brockport: SUNY
Chapter 2: 3 lectures 3 lectures
Determinants Mark Smith, Miami University
Chapter 3: Euclidean 4 lectures 3 lectures Rebecca Swanson, Colorado School of Mines
Vector Spaces R. Scott Williams, University of Central Oklahoma
Chapter 4: General 8 lectures 7 lectures Pablo Zafra, Kean University
Vector Spaces
Eigenvalues and
Special Contributions
Eigenvectors Our deep appreciation is due to a number of people who
Chapter 6: Inner 3 lectures 2 lectures have contributed to this edition in many ways:
Product Spaces
Prof. Mark Smith, who critiqued the FlashCard program
Diagonalization and and suggested valuable improvements to the text exposition.
Quadratic Forms Prof. Derek Hein, whose keen eye helped us to correct
Chapter 8: General 4 lectures 2 lectures some subtle inaccuracies.
Linear Susan Raley, who coordinated the production process and
Transformations whose attention to detail made a very complex project run
Chapter 9: Numerical 2 lectures 1 lecture smoothly.
Methods Prof. Roger Lipsett, whose mathematical expertise and
Chapter 10: detailed review of the manuscript has contributed greatly to
Applications of As Time Permits its accuracy.
Linear Algebra The Wiley Team, Laurie Rosatone, Terri Ward, Melissa
Total: 39 lectures 30 lectures Whelan, Tom Kulesa, Kimberly Eskin, Crystal Franks,
Laura Abrams, Billy Ray, and Tom Nery each of whom con-
tributed their experience, skill, and expertise to the project.
HOWARD ANTON
CHRIS RORRES
ANTON KAUL
Contents
1 Systems of Linear Equations and 5 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 291
Matrices 1 5.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 291
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 2 5.2 Diagonalization 301
1.2 Gaussian Elimination 11 5.3 Complex Vector Spaces 311
1.3 Matrices and Matrix Operations 25 5.4 Differential Equations 323
1.4 Inverses; Algebraic Properties of Matrices 40 5.5 Dynamical Systems and Markov Chains 329
1.5 Elementary Matrices and a Method for Finding
A−1 53
1.6 More on Linear Systems and Invertible Matrices 62
1.7 Diagonal, Triangular, and Symmetric Matrices 69
6 Inner Product Spaces 341
1.8 Introduction to Linear Transformations 76 6.1 Inner Products 341
1.9 Compositions of Matrix Transformations 90 6.2 Angle and Orthogonality in Inner Product
1.10 Applications of Linear Systems 98 Spaces 352
• Network Analysis 98 6.3 Gram–Schmidt Process; QR-Decomposition 361
• Electrical Circuits 100 6.4 Best Approximation; Least Squares 376
• Balancing Chemical Equations 103 6.5 Mathematical Modeling Using Least Squares 385
• Polynomial Interpolation 105 6.6 Function Approximation; Fourier Series 392
1.11 Leontief Input-Output Models 110
7 Diagonalization and Quadratic

2 Determinants 118 Forms 399
2.1 Determinants by Cofactor Expansion 118 7.1 Orthogonal Matrices 399

2.2 Evaluating Determinants by Row Reduction 126 7.2 Orthogonal Diagonalization 408
2.3 Properties of Determinants; Cramer’s Rule 133 7.3 Quadratic Forms 416
7.4 Optimization Using Quadratic Forms 429
7.5 Hermitian, Unitary, and Normal Matrices 436
3 Euclidean Vector Spaces 146
3.1 Vectors in 2-Space, 3-Space, and n-Space 146 8 General Linear

3.2 Norm, Dot Product, and Distance in Rn 158 Transformations 446
3.3 Orthogonality 172
8.1 General Linear Transformations 446
3.4 The Geometry of Linear Systems 183
8.2 Compositions and Inverse Transformations 459
3.5 Cross Product 190
8.3 Isomorphism 471
8.4 Matrices for General Linear Transformations 477
8.5 Similarity 487
8.6 Geometry of Matrix Operators 493
4 General Vector Spaces 202
4.1 Real Vector Spaces 202

4.2
4.3
Subspaces 211
Spanning Sets 220
9 Numerical Methods 509
4.4 Linear Independence 228 9.1 LU-Decompositions 509
4.5 Coordinates and Basis 238 9.2 The Power Method 519
4.6 Dimension 248 9.3 Comparison of Procedures for Solving Linear
4.7 Change of Basis 256 Systems 528
4.8 Row Space, Column Space, and Null Space 263 9.4 Singular Value Decomposition 532
4.9 Rank, Nullity, and the Fundamental Matrix 9.5 Data Compression Using Singular Value
Spaces 276 Decomposition 540
xi
xii CONTENTS
10 Applications of Linear Algebra 545 10.17 A Least Squares Model for Human Hearing 695
10.18 Warps and Morphs 701
10.1 Constructing Curves and Surfaces Through Specified 10.19 Internet Search Engines 710
Points 546 10.20 Facial Recognition 716
10.2 The Earliest Applications of Linear Algebra 551
10.3 Cubic Spline Interpolation 558 SUPPLEMENTAL ONLINE TOPICS
10.4 Markov Chains 568 • LINEAR PROGRAMMING - A GEOMETRIC APPROACH
10.5 Graph Theory 577 • LINEAR PROGRAMMING - BASIC CONCEPTS
10.6 Games of Strategy 587 • LINEAR PROGRAMMING - THE SIMPLEX METHOD
10.7 Forest Management 595 • VECTORS IN PLANE GEOMETRY
10.8 Computer Graphics 602 • EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES
10.9 Equilibrium Temperature Distributions 610 • THE ASSIGNMENT PROBLEM
10.10 Computed Tomography 619 • THE DETERMINANT FUNCTION
10.11 Fractals 629 • LEONTIEF ECONOMIC MODELS
10.12 Chaos 645 APPENDIX A Working with Proofs A1
10.13 Cryptography 658 APPENDIX B Complex Numbers A5
10.14 Genetics 669 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES A13
10.15 Age-Specific Population Growth 678
10.16 Harvesting of Animal Populations 687 INDEX I1
CHAPTER 1
Systems of Linear
Equations and Matrices
CHAPTER CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 2

1.2 Gaussian Elimination 11
1.3 Matrices and Matrix Operations 25
1.4 Inverses; Algebraic Properties of Matrices 40
1.5 Elementary Matrices and a Method for Finding A−1 53
1.6 More on Linear Systems and Invertible Matrices 62
1.7 Diagonal, Triangular, and Symmetric Matrices 69
1.8 Introduction to Linear Transformations 76
1.9 Compositions of Matrix Transformations 90
1.10 Applications of Linear Systems 98
• Network Analysis (Traffic Flow) 98
• Electrical Circuits 100
• Balancing Chemical Equations 103
• Polynomial Interpolation 105
1.11 Leontief Input-Output Models 110
Introduction
Information in science, business, and mathematics is often organized into rows and
columns to form rectangular arrays called “matrices” (plural of “matrix”). Matrices often
appear as tables of numerical data that arise from physical observations, but they occur
in various mathematical contexts as well. For example, we will see in this chapter that all
of the information required to solve a system of equations such as
5x + y = 3
2x − y = 4
is embodied in the matrix
5 1 3
[ ]
2 −1 4
and that the solution of the system can be obtained by performing appropriate opera-
tions on this matrix. This is particularly important in developing computer programs for
1
2 C HA PT E R 1 Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices
solving systems of equations because computers are well suited for manipulating arrays
of numerical information. However, matrices are not simply a notational tool for solving
systems of equations; they can be viewed as mathematical objects in their own right, and
there is a rich and important theory associated with them that has a multitude of practi-
cal applications. It is the study of matrices and related topics that forms the mathematical
field that we call “linear algebra.” In this chapter we will begin our study of matrices.
1.1 Introduction to Systems of

Linear Equations
Systems of linear equations and their solutions constitute one of the major topics that we
will study in this course. In this first section we will introduce some basic terminology
and discuss a method for solving such systems.
Linear Equations
Recall that in two dimensions a line in a rectangular xy-coordinate system can be repre-
sented by an equation of the form
ax + by = c (a, b not both 0)
and in three dimensions a plane in a rectangular xyz-coordinate system can be represented
by an equation of the form
ax + by + cz = d (a, b, c not all 0)
These are examples of “linear equations,” the first being a linear equation in the variables
x and y and the second a linear equation in the variables x, y, and z. More generally, we
define a linear equation in the n variables x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n to be one that can be expressed
in the form
a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + an x n = b (1)
where a1 , a2 , . . . , an and b are constants, and the a’s are not all zero. In the special cases
where n = 2 or n = 3, we will often use variables without subscripts and write linear equa-
tions as
a1 x + a2 y = b (2)
a1 x + a2 y + a3 z = b (3)
In the special case where b = 0, Equation (1) has the form
a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + an x n = 0 (4)
which is called a homogeneous linear equation in the variables x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n .
EXAMPLE 1 | Linear Equations
Observe that a linear equation does not involve any products or roots of variables. All vari-
ables occur only to the first power and do not appear, for example, as arguments of trigono-
metric, logarithmic, or exponential functions. The following are linear equations:
x + 3y = 7 x 1 − 2x 2 − 3x 3 + x 4 = 0
1
2 x − y + 3z = −1 x1 + x 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + x n = 1
The following are not linear equations:
x + 3 y2 = 4 3x + 2y − xy = 5
sin x + y = 0 √x 1 + 2x 2 + x 3 = 1
A finite set of linear equations is called a system of linear equations or, more briefly,
a linear system. The variables are called unknowns. For example, system (5) that follows
has unknowns x and y, and system (6) has unknowns x 1 , x 2 , and x 3 .
5x + y = 3 4x 1 − x 2 + 3x 3 = −1
(5–6)
2x − y = 4 3x 1 + x 2 + 9x 3 = −4
A general linear system of m equations in the n unknowns x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n can be written as
The double subscripting on
a11 x 1 + a12 x 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a1n x n = b1
the coefficients aij of the
a21 x 1 + a22 x 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a2n x n = b2 unknowns gives their loca-
.. .. .. .. (7)
. . . . tion in the system—the first
am1 x 1 + am2 x 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + amn x n = bm subscript indicates the equa-
tion in which the coefficient
A solution of a linear system in n unknowns x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x n is a sequence of n numbers
occurs, and the second
s1 , s2 , . . . , sn for which the substitution
indicates which unknown
x 1 = s1 , x 2 = s2 , . . . , x n = sn it multiplies. Thus, a12 is
in the first equation and
makes each equation a true statement. For example, the system in (5) has the solution multiplies x2 .
x = 1, y = −2
and the system in (6) has the solution
x 1 = 1, x 2 = 2, x 3 = −1
These solutions can be written more succinctly as
(1, −2) and (1, 2, −1)
in which the names of the variables are omitted. This notation allows us to interpret these
solutions geometrically as points in two-dimensional and three-dimensional space. More
generally, a solution
x 1 = s1 , x 2 = s2 , . . . , x n = sn
of a linear system in n unknowns can be written as
(s1 , s2 , . . . , sn )
which is called an ordered n-tuple. With this notation it is understood that all variables
appear in the same order in each equation. If n = 2, then the n-tuple is called an ordered
pair, and if n = 3, then it is called an ordered triple.
Linear Systems in Two and Three Unknowns

Linear systems in two unknowns arise in connection with intersections of lines. For exam-
ple, consider the linear system
a1 x + b1 y = c1
a2 x + b2 y = c2
in which the graphs of the equations are lines in the xy-plane. Each solution (x, y) of this
system corresponds to a point of intersection of the lines, so there are three possibilities
(Figure 1.1.1):
1. The lines may be parallel and distinct, in which case there is no intersection and con-
sequently no solution.
2. The lines may intersect at only one point, in which case the system has exactly one
solution.
3. The lines may coincide, in which case there are infinitely many points of intersection
(the points on the common line) and consequently infinitely many solutions.
y y y
x x x
No solution One solution Infinitely many

solutions
(coincident lines)
FIGURE 1.1.1
In general, we say that a linear system is consistent if it has at least one solution
and inconsistent if it has no solutions. Thus, a consistent linear system of two equa-
tions in two unknowns has either one solution or infinitely many solutions—there are
no other possibilities. The same is true for a linear system of three equations in three
unknowns
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3
in which the graphs of the equations are planes. The solutions of the system, if any, corre-
spond to points where all three planes intersect, so again we see that there are only three
possibilities—no solutions, one solution, or infinitely many solutions (Figure 1.1.2).
No solutions No solutions No solutions No solutions

(three parallel planes; (two parallel planes; (no common intersection) (two coincident planes
no common intersection) no common intersection) parallel to the third;
no common intersection)
One solution Infinitely many solutions Infinitely many solutions Infinitely many solutions
(intersection is a point) (intersection is a line) (planes are all coincident; (two coincident planes;
intersection is a plane) intersection is a line)
FIGURE 1.1.2
We will prove later that our observations about the number of solutions of linear sys-
tems of two equations in two unknowns and linear systems of three equations in three
unknowns actually hold for all linear systems. That is:
Every system of linear equations has zero, one, or infinitely many solutions. There are
no other possibilities.
EXAMPLE 2 | A Linear System with One Solution
Solve the linear system

x−y=1
2x + y = 6
Solution We can eliminate x from the second equation by adding −2 times the first equa-
tion to the second. This yields the simplified system
x−y=1
3y = 4
From the second equation we obtain y = 43 , and on substituting this value in the first equa-
tion we obtain x = 1 + y = 73 . Thus, the system has the unique solution
7 4
x= 3, y= 3
Geometrically, this means that the lines represented by the equations in the system intersect
at the single point ( 73 , 43 ). We leave it for you to check this by graphing the lines.
EXAMPLE 3 | A Linear System with No Solutions

x+ y=4
3x + 3 y = 6
tion to the second equation. This yields the simplified system
x+y= 4
0 = −6
The second equation is contradictory, so the given system has no solution. Geometrically,
this means that the lines corresponding to the equations in the original system are parallel
and distinct. We leave it for you to check this by graphing the lines or by showing that they
have the same slope but different y-intercepts.
EXAMPLE 4 | A Linear System with Infinitely Many Solutions

4x − 2y = 1
16x − 8 y = 4
tion to the second. This yields the simplified system
4x − 2y = 1
0=0
The second equation does not impose any restrictions on x and y and hence can be omitted.
Thus, the solutions of the system are those values of x and y that satisfy the single equation
4x − 2y = 1 (8)
Geometrically, this means the lines corresponding to the two equations in the original sys-
tem coincide. One way to describe the solution set is to solve this equation for x in terms of y to
In Example 4 we could have obtain x = 14 + 12 y and then assign an arbitrary value t (called a parameter) to y. This allows
also obtained parametric us to express the solution by the pair of equations (called parametric equations)
equations for the solutions 1
by solving (8) for y in terms x= 4 + 12 t, y=t
of x and letting x = t be the We can obtain specific numerical solutions from these equations by substituting numerical
parameter. The resulting
values for the parameter t. For example, t = 0 yields the solution ( 14 , 0), t = 1 yields the
parametric equations would
look different but would solution ( 34 , 1), and t = −1 yields the solution (− 14 , −1). You can confirm that these are
define the same solution set. solutions by substituting their coordinates into the given equations.
EXAMPLE 5 | A Linear System with Infinitely Many Solutions

x − y + 2z = 5
2x − 2y + 4z = 10
3x − 3 y + 6z = 15
Solution This system can be solved by inspection, since the second and third equations
are multiples of the first. Geometrically, this means that the three planes coincide and that
those values of x, y, and z that satisfy the equation
x − y + 2z = 5 (9)
automatically satisfy all three equations. Thus, it suffices to find the solutions of (9). We can
do this by first solving this equation for x in terms of y and z, then assigning arbitrary values
r and s (parameters) to these two variables, and then expressing the solution by the three
parametric equations
x = 5 + r − 2s, y = r, z = s
Specific solutions can be obtained by choosing numerical values for the parameters r and s.
For example, taking r = 1 and s = 0 yields the solution (6, 1, 0).
Augmented Matrices and Elementary Row Operations

As the number of equations and unknowns in a linear system increases, so does the com-
plexity of the algebra involved in finding solutions. The required computations can be
made more manageable by simplifying notation and standardizing procedures. For exam-
ple, by mentally keeping track of the location of the +’s, the x’s, and the =’s in the linear
system
a11 x 1 + a12 x 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a1n x n = b1
a21 x 1 + a22 x 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + a2n x n = b2
.. .. .. ..
. . . .
am1 x 1 + am2 x 2 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + amn x n = bm
we can abbreviate the system by writing only the rectangular array of numbers
As noted in the introduc-
a a12 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ a1n b1
tion to this chapter, the ⎡ 11 ⎤
term “matrix” is used in ⎢a21 a22 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ a2n b2 ⎥
⎢ . .. .. .. ⎥
mathematics to denote a ⎢ .. . . . ⎥
⎢ ⎥
rectangular array of num-
⎣am1 am2 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ amn bm ⎦
bers. In a later section we
will study matrices in detail, This is called the augmented matrix for the system. For example, the augmented matrix
but for now we will only be for the system of equations
concerned with augmented x 1 + x 2 + 2x 3 = 9 1 1 2 9
matrices for linear systems. 2x 1 + 4x 2 − 3x 3 = 1 is [2 4 −3 1]
3x 1 + 6x 2 − 5x 3 = 0 3 6 −5 0
Historical Note
The first known use of augmented matrices appeared between

200 B.C. and 100 B.C. in a Chinese manuscript entitled Nine Chapters
of Mathematical Art. The coefficients were arranged in columns
rather than in rows, as today, but remarkably the system was
solved by performing a succession of operations on the columns.
The actual use of the term augmented matrix appears to have been
introduced by the American mathematician Maxime Bôcher
in his book Introduction to Higher Algebra, published in 1907.
In addition to being an outstanding research mathematician and
an expert in Latin, chemistry, philosophy, zoology, geography,
meteorology, art, and music, Bôcher was an outstanding expositor
Maxime Bôcher of mathematics whose elementary textbooks were greatly appre-
(1867–1918) ciated by students and are still in demand today.
[Image: HUP Bocher, Maxime (1), olvwork650836]
The basic method for solving a linear system is to perform algebraic operations on
the system that do not alter the solution set and that produce a succession of increasingly
simpler systems, until a point is reached where it can be ascertained whether the system
is consistent, and if so, what its solutions are. Typically, the algebraic operations are:
1. Multiply an equation through by a nonzero constant.

2. Interchange two equations.
3. Add a constant times one equation to another.
Since the rows (horizontal lines) of an augmented matrix correspond to the equations in
the associated system, these three operations correspond to the following operations on
the rows of the augmented matrix:
1. Multiply a row through by a nonzero constant.

2. Interchange two rows.
3. Add a constant times one row to another.
These are called elementary row operations on a matrix.

In the following example we will illustrate how to use elementary row operations
and an augmented matrix to solve a linear system in three unknowns. Since a systematic
procedure for solving linear systems will be developed in the next section, do not worry
about how the steps in the example were chosen. Your objective here should be simply to
understand the computations.
EXAMPLE 6 | Using Elementary Row Operations
In the left column we solve a system of linear equations by operating on the equations in the
system, and in the right column we solve the same system by operating on the rows of the
augmented matrix.
x + y + 2z = 9 1 1 2 9
⎡ ⎤
2x + 4y − 3z = 1 ⎢2 4 −3 1⎥
⎢ ⎥
3x + 6 y − 5z = 0 ⎣3 6 −5 0⎦
Add −2 times the first equation to the second Add −2 times the first row to the second to
to obtain obtain
x + y + 2z = 9 1 1 2 9
⎡ ⎤
2y − 7z = −17 ⎢0 2 −7 −17⎥
⎢ ⎥
3x + 6 y − 5z = 0 ⎣3 6 −5 0⎦
Add −3 times the first equation to the third Add −3 times the first row to the third to
to obtain obtain
x + y + 2z = 9 1 1 2 9
⎡ ⎤
2y − 7z = −17 ⎢0 2 −7 −17⎥
⎢ ⎥
3 y − 11z = −27 ⎣0 3 −11 −27⎦
1 1
Multiply the second equation by 2 to obtain Multiply the second row by 2 to obtain
x + y + 2z = 9 1 1 2 9
⎡ ⎤
7
y− 2z = − 17
2
⎢0 1 − 72 − 17
2 ⎥
⎥
⎢
3 y − 11z = −27 ⎣0 3 −11 −27⎦
Add −3 times the second equation to the Add −3 times the second row to the third to
third to obtain obtain
x + y + 2z = 9 ⎡1 1 2 9⎤
y− 7
− 17 ⎢0 1 − 72 − 17 ⎥
2z = 2 ⎢ 2 ⎥
1 ⎢ ⎥
− 2z = − 32 0 0 − 12 − 32
⎣ ⎦
Multiply the third equation by −2 to obtain Multiply the third row by −2 to obtain
x + y + 2z = 9 1 1 2 9
⎡ ⎤
7
y− 2z = − 17
2
⎢0 1 − 27 − 17 ⎥
2 ⎥
⎢
z= 3 ⎣0 0 1 3⎦
Add −1 times the second equation to the first Add −1 times the second row to the first to
to obtain obtain
11 35 11 35
x + 2 z = 2 ⎡1 0 2 2 ⎤
7 ⎢ 17 ⎥
y− 2z = − 17
2 ⎢0 1 − 72 −2⎥
⎢ ⎥
z= 3
⎣0 0 1 3⎦
The solution in this example
can also be expressed as Add −11
2 times the third equation to the first Add − 11
2 times the third row to the first and
the ordered triple (1, 2, 3) 7
and times the third equation to the second 7
times the third row to the second to obtain
2 2
with the understanding that
to obtain
the numbers in the triple x =1 1 0 0 1
⎡ ⎤
are in the same order as y =2 ⎢0 1 0 2⎥
⎢ ⎥
the variables in the system, z=3 ⎣0 0 1 3⎦
namely, x, y, z.
The solution x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 is now evident.
Exercise Set 1.1
1. In each part, determine whether the equation is linear in x 1 , 2. In each part, determine whether the equation is linear in x
x 2 , and x 3 . and y.
a. x 1 + 5x 2 − √2 x 3 = 1 b. x 1 + 3x 2 + x 1 x 3 = 2 a. 21/3 x + √3y = 1 b. 2x 1/3 + 3√y = 1

𝜋
c. x 1 = −7x 2 + 3x 3 d. x −2
1 + x 2 + 8x 3 = 5
c. cos ( 𝜋7 )x − 4y = log 3 d. 7 cos x − 4y = 0
e. x 3/5
1
− 2x 2 + x 3 = 4 f. 𝜋x 1 − √2 x 2 = 71/3 e. xy = 1 f. y + 7 = x
3. Using the notation of Formula (7), write down a general linear 11. In each part, solve the linear system, if possible, and use the
system of result to determine whether the lines represented by the equa-
tions in the system have zero, one, or infinitely many points of
a. two equations in two unknowns.
intersection. If there is a single point of intersection, give its
b. three equations in three unknowns. coordinates, and if there are infinitely many, find parametric
c. two equations in four unknowns. equations for them.
4. Write down the augmented matrix for each of the linear sys- a. 3x − 2y = 4 b. 2x − 4y = 1 c. x − 2y = 0
tems in Exercise 3. 6x − 4y = 9 4x − 8 y = 2 x − 4y = 8
In each part of Exercises 5–6, find a system of linear equations in the 12. Under what conditions on a and b will the linear system have
unknowns x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , that corresponds to the given augmented no solutions, one solution, infinitely many solutions?
matrix.
2x − 3 y = a
2 0 0 3 0 −2 5
4x − 6 y = b
5. a. [3 −4 0] b. [7 1 4 −3]
0 1 1 0 −2 1 7 In each part of Exercises 13–14, use parametric equations to describe
the solution set of the linear equation.
0 3 −1 −1 −1 13. a. 7x − 5 y = 3
6. a. [ ]
5 2 0 −3 −6 b. 3x 1 − 5x 2 + 4x 3 = 7
3 0 1 −4 3 c. −8x 1 + 2x 2 − 5x 3 + 6x 4 = 1
⎡ ⎤
⎢−4 0 4 1 −3⎥ d. 3𝑣 − 8𝑤 + 2x − y + 4z = 0
b. ⎢
⎢−1 3 0 −2 −9⎥⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 −1 −2⎦ 14. a. x + 10 y = 2
b. x 1 + 3x 2 − 12x 3 = 3
In each part of Exercises 7–8, find the augmented matrix for the lin-
ear system. c. 4x 1 + 2x 2 + 3x 3 + x 4 = 20
d. 𝑣 + 𝑤 + x − 5 y + 7z = 0
7. a. −2x 1 = 6 b. 6x 1 − x 2 + 3x 3 = 4
3x 1 = 8 5x 2 − x 3 = 1 In Exercises 15–16, each linear system has infinitely many solutions.
9x 1 = −3 Use parametric equations to describe its solution set.
c. 2x 2 − 3x 4 + x 5 = 0
15. a. 2x − 3 y = 1
−3x 1 − x 2 + x 3 = −1
6x − 9 y = 3
6x 1 + 2x 2 − x 3 + 2x 4 − 3x 5 = 6
b. x 1 + 3x 2 − x 3 = −4
8. a. 3x 1 − 2x 2 = −1 b. 2x 1 + 2x 3 = 1 3x 1 + 9x 2 − 3x 3 = −12
4x 1 + 5x 2 = 3 3x 1 − x 2 + 4x 3 = 7 −x 1 − 3x 2 + x 3 = 4
7x 1 + 3x 2 = 2 6x 1 + x 2 − x 3 = 0
16. a. 6x 1 + 2x 2 = −8 b. 2x − y + 2z = −4
c. x 1 =1 3x 1 + x 2 = −4 6x − 3 y + 6z = −12
x2 =2 −4x + 2y − 4z = 8
x3 =3
In Exercises 17–18, find a single elementary row operation that will
9. In each part, determine whether the given 3-tuple is a solution create a 1 in the upper left corner of the given augmented matrix and
of the linear system will not create any fractions in its first row.
2x 1 − 4x 2 − x 3 = 1
−3 −1 2 4 0 −1 −5 0
x 1 − 3x 2 + x 3 = 1
17. a. [ 2 −3 3 2] b. [2 −9 3 2]
3x 1 − 5x 2 − 3x 3 = 1
0 2 −3 1 1 4 −3 3
a. (3, 1, 1) b. (3, −1, 1) c. (13, 5, 2) 2 4 −6 8 7 −4 −2 2

( 13 , 5, 2 e. (17, 7, 5) 18. a. [ 7 1 4 3] b. [ 3 −1 8 1]
2 2 )
d.
−5 4 2 7 −6 3 −1 4
10. In each part, determine whether the given 3-tuple is a solution
of the linear system In Exercises 19–20, find all values of k for which the given aug-
mented matrix corresponds to a consistent linear system.
x + 2y − 2z = 3
3x − y + z = 1
1 k −4 1 k −1
−x + 5 y − 5z = 5 19. a. [ ] b. [ ]
4 8 2 4 8 −4
a. ( 57 , 87 , 1) b. ( 57 , 87 , 0) c. (5, 8, 1)
3 −4 k k 1 −2
d. ( 57 , 10 2
, e. ( 57 , 22
, 2) 20. a. [ ] b. [ ]
7 7) 7 −6 8 5 4 −1 2
10 CH APT ER 1 Systems of Linear Equations and Matrices
21. The curve y = ax 2 + bx + c shown in the accompanying fig- 26. Suppose that you want to find values for a, b, and c such that
ure passes through the points (x 1 , y1 ), (x 2 , y2 ), and (x 3 , y3 ). the parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c passes through the points
Show that the coefficients a, b, and c form a solution of the (1, 1), (2, 4), and (−1, 1). Find (but do not solve) a system
system of linear equations whose augmented matrix is of linear equations whose solutions provide values for a, b,
x2 x1 1 y1 and c. How many solutions would you expect this system of
⎡ 1 ⎤ equations to have, and why?
⎢x 22 x2 1 y2 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
2 27. Suppose you are asked to find three real numbers such that
⎣x 3 x3 1 y3 ⎦
the sum of the numbers is 12, the sum of two times the first
plus the second plus two times the third is 5, and the third
y number is one more than the first. Find (but do not solve) a
y = ax 2 + bx + c
linear system whose equations describe the three conditions.
(x3, y3)
(x1, y1)
True-False Exercises
(x2, y2) TF. In parts (a)–(h) determine whether the statement is true or
x false, and justify your answer.
a. A linear system whose equations are all homogeneous
FIGURE Ex-21 must be consistent.
b. Multiplying a row of an augmented matrix through by

zero is an acceptable elementary row operation.
22. Explain why each of the three elementary row operations does
not affect the solution set of a linear system. c. The linear system
23. Show that if the linear equations
x− y=3
x 1 + kx 2 = c and x1 + l x 2 = d 2x − 2y = k
have the same solution set, then the two equations are identi-
cannot have a unique solution, regardless of the value of k.
cal (i.e., k = l and c = d).
24. Consider the system of equations d. A single linear equation with two or more unknowns
must have infinitely many solutions.
ax + b y = k
cx + dy = l e. If the number of equations in a linear system exceeds
ex + 𝑓y = m the number of unknowns, then the system must be
Discuss the relative positions of the lines ax + b y = k, inconsistent.
c x + d y = l, and ex + 𝑓y = m when
f. If each equation in a consistent linear system is multiplied
a. the system has no solutions. through by a constant c, then all solutions to the new sys-
tem can be obtained by multiplying solutions from the
b. the system has exactly one solution.
original system by c.
c. the system has infinitely many solutions.
g. Elementary row operations permit one row of an aug-
25. Suppose that a certain diet calls for 7 units of fat, 9 units of mented matrix to be subtracted from another.
protein, and 16 units of carbohydrates for the main meal, and
suppose that an individual has three possible foods to choose h. The linear system with corresponding augmented matrix
from to meet these requirements:
Food 1: Each ounce contains 2 units of fat, 2 units of 2 −1 4
[ ]
protein, and 4 units of carbohydrates. 0 0 −1
Food 2: Each ounce contains 3 units of fat, 1 unit of is consistent.
protein, and 2 units of carbohydrates.
Food 3: Each ounce contains 1 unit of fat, 3 units of Working with Technology
protein, and 5 units of carbohydrates.
T1. Solve the linear systems in Examples 2, 3, and 4 to see how
Let x, y, and z denote the number of ounces of the first, sec- your technology utility handles the three types of systems.
ond, and third foods that the dieter will consume at the main
meal. Find (but do not solve) a linear system in x, y, and z T2. Use the result in Exercise 21 to find values of a, b, and c for
whose solution tells how many ounces of each food must be which the curve y = ax 2 + b x + c passes through the points
consumed to meet the diet requirements. (−1, 1, 4), (0, 0, 8), and (1, 1, 7).
1.2 Gaussian Elimination 11
1.2 Gaussian Elimination

In this section we will develop a systematic procedure for solving systems of linear equa-
tions. The procedure is based on the idea of performing certain operations on the rows of
the augmented matrix that simplify it to a form from which the solution of the system can
be ascertained by inspection.
Considerations in Solving Linear Systems

When considering methods for solving systems of linear equations, it is important to dis-
tinguish between large systems that must be solved by computer and small systems that
can be solved by hand. For example, there are many applications that lead to linear sys-
tems in thousands or even millions of unknowns. Large systems require special tech-
niques to deal with issues of memory size, roundoff errors, solution time, and so forth.
Such techniques are studied in the field of numerical analysis and will only be touched
on in this text. However, almost all of the methods that are used for large systems are
based on the ideas that we will develop in this section.
Echelon Forms
In Example 6 of the last section, we solved a linear system in the unknowns x, y, and z by
reducing the augmented matrix to the form
1 0 0 1
[0 1 0 2]
0 0 1 3
from which the solution x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 became evident. This is an example of a matrix

that is in reduced row echelon form. To be of this form, a matrix must have the following
properties:
1. If a row does not consist entirely of zeros, then the first nonzero number in the row
is a 1. We call this a leading 1.
2. If there are any rows that consist entirely of zeros, then they are grouped together at
the bottom of the matrix.
3. In any two successive rows that do not consist entirely of zeros, the leading 1 in the
lower row occurs farther to the right than the leading 1 in the higher row.
4. Each column that contains a leading 1 has zeros everywhere else in that column.
A matrix that has the first three properties is said to be in row echelon form. (Thus,
a matrix in reduced row echelon form is of necessity in row echelon form, but not
conversely.)
EXAMPLE 1 | Row Echelon and Reduced Row Echelon Form
The following matrices are in reduced row echelon form.

0 1 −2 0 1
1 0 0 4 1 0 0 ⎡ ⎤
⎢0 0 0 1 3⎥ 0 0
[0 1 0 7], [0 1 0], ⎢0 , [ ]
⎢ 0 0 0 0⎥⎥ 0 0
0 0 1 −1 0 0 1
⎣0 0 0 0 0⎦
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regular field-work; until then no labour is required of them, except,
perhaps, occasionally they are charged with some light kind of duty,
such as frightening birds from corn. When first sent to the field, one
quarter of an able-bodied hand’s days work is ordinarily allotted to
them, as their task.
From the settlement, we drove to the “mill”—not a flouring mill,
though I believe there is a run of stones in it—but a monster barn,
with more extensive and better machinery for threshing and storing
rice, driven by a steam-engine, than I have ever seen used for grain
before. Adjoining the mill-house were shops and sheds, in which
blacksmiths, carpenters, and other mechanics—all slaves, belonging
to Mr. X.—were at work. He called my attention to the excellence of
their workmanship, and said that they exercised as much ingenuity
and skill as the ordinary mechanics that he was used to employ in
New England. He pointed out to me some carpenter’s work, a part of
which had been executed by a New England mechanic, and a part
by one of his own hands, which indicated that the latter was much
the better workman.
I was gratified by this, for I had been so often told, in Virginia, by
gentlemen anxious to convince me that the negro was incapable of
being educated or improved to a condition in which it would be safe
to trust him with himself—that no negro-mechanic could ever be
taught, or induced to work carefully or nicely—that I had begun to
believe it might be so.
We were attended through the mill-house by a respectable-looking,
orderly, and quiet-mannered mulatto, who was called, by his master,
“the watchman.” His duties, however, as they were described to me,
were those of a steward, or intendant. He carried, by a strap at his
waist, a very large number of keys, and had charge of all the stores
of provisions, tools, and materials of the plantations, as well as of all
their produce, before it was shipped to market. He weighed and
measured out all the rations of the slaves and the cattle;
superintended the mechanics, and made and repaired, as was
necessary, all the machinery, including the steam-engine.
In all these departments, his authority was superior to that of the
overseer. The overseer received his private allowance of family
provisions from him, as did also the head-servant at the mansion,
who was his brother. His responsibility was much greater than that of
the overseer; and Mr. X. said he would trust him with much more
than he would any overseer he had ever known.
Anxious to learn how this trustworthiness and intelligence, so
unusual in a slave, had been developed or ascertained, I inquired of
his history, which was briefly as follows.
Being the son of a favourite house-servant, he had been, as a child,
associated with the white family, and received by chance something
of the early education of the white children. When old enough, he
had been employed, for some years, as a waiter; but, at his own
request, was eventually allowed to learn the blacksmith’s trade, in
the plantation shop. Showing ingenuity and talent, he was afterwards
employed to make and repair the plantation cotton-gins. Finally, his
owner took him to a steam-engine builder, and paid $500 to have
him instructed as a machinist. After he had become a skilful
workman, he obtained employment as an engineer; and for some
years continued in this occupation, and was allowed to spend his
wages for himself. Finding, however, that he was acquiring
dissipated habits, and wasting his earnings, Mr. X. eventually
brought him, much against his inclinations, back to the plantations.
Being allowed peculiar privileges, and given duties wholly flattering
to his self-respect, he soon became contented; and, of course, was
able to be extremely valuable to his owner.
I have seen another slave-engineer. The gentleman who employed
him told me that he was a man of talent, and of great worth of
character. He had desired to make him free, but his owner, who was
a member of the Board of Brokers, and of Dr. ——’s Church, in New
York, believed that Providence designed the negro race for slavery,
and refused to sell him for that purpose. He thought it better that he
(his owner) should continue to receive two hundred dollars a year for
his services, while he continued able to work, because then, as he
said, he should feel responsible that he did not starve, or come upon
the public for a support, in his old age. The man himself, having light
and agreeable duties, well provided for, furnished with plenty of
spending money by his employer, patronized and flattered by the
white people, honoured and looked up to by those of his own colour,
was rather indifferent in the matter; or even, perhaps, preferred to
remain a slave, to being transported for life to Africa.
The watchman was a fine-looking fellow: as we were returning from
church, on Sunday, he had passed us, well dressed and well
mounted, and as he raised his hat, to salute us, there was nothing in
his manner or appearance, except his colour, to distinguish him from
a gentleman of good breeding and fortune.
When we were leaving the house, to go to church, on Sunday, after
all the white family had entered their carriages, or mounted their
horses, the head house-servant also mounted a horse—as he did
so, slipping a coin into the hands of the boy who had been holding
him. Afterwards, we passed a family of negroes, in a light waggon,
the oldest among them driving the horse. On my inquiring if the
slaves were allowed to take horses to drive to church, I was informed
that in each of these three cases, the horses belonged to the
negroes who were driving or riding them. The old man was infirm,
and Mr. X. had given him a horse, to enable him to move about. He
was probably employed to look after the cattle at pasture, or at
something in which it was necessary, for his usefulness, that he
should have a horse: I say this, because I afterwards found, in
similar cases on other plantations, that it was so. But the watchman
and the house servant had bought their horses with money. The
watchman was believed to own three horses; and, to account for his
wealth, Mr. X.’s son told me that his father considered him a very
valuable servant, and frequently encouraged his good behaviour with
handsome gratuities. He receives, probably, considerably higher
wages, in fact (in the form of presents), than the white overseer. He
knew his father gave him two hundred dollars at once, a short time
ago. The watchman has a private house, and, no doubt, lives in
considerable luxury.
Will it be said, “therefore, Slavery is neither necessarily degrading
nor inhumane?” On the other hand, so far as it is not, there is no
apology for it. It is possible, though not probable, that this fine fellow,
if he had been born a free man, would be no better employed than
he is here; but, in that case, where is the advantage? Certainly not in
the economy of the arrangement. And if he were self-dependent, if,
especially, he had to provide for the present and future of those he
loved, and was able to do so, would he not necessarily live a
happier, stronger, better, and more respectable man?
After passing through tool-rooms, corn-rooms, mule-stables, store-
rooms, and a large garden, in which vegetables to be distributed
among the negroes, as well as for the family, are grown, we walked
to the rice-land. It is divided by embankments into fields of about
twenty acres each, but varying somewhat in size, according to the
course of the river. The arrangements are such that each field may
be flooded independently of the rest, and they are subdivided by
open ditches into rectangular plats of a quarter acre each. We first
proceeded to where twenty or thirty women and girls were engaged
in raking together, in heaps and winrows, the stubble and rubbish left
on the field after the last crop, and burning it. The main object of this
operation is to kill all the seeds of weeds, or of rice, on the ground.
Ordinarily it is done by tasks—a certain number of the small divisions
of the field being given to each hand to burn in a day; but owing to a
more than usual amount of rain having fallen lately, and some other
causes, making the work harder in some places than others, the
women were now working by the day, under the direction of a
“driver,” a negro man, who walked about among them, taking care
that they left nothing unburned. Mr. X. inspected the ground they had
gone over, to see whether the driver had done his duty. It had been
sufficiently well burned, but not more than a quarter as much ground
had been gone over, he said, as was usually burned in task-work,—
and he thought they had been very lazy, and reprimanded them. The
driver made some little apology, but the women offered no reply,
keeping steadily and, it seemed, sullenly, on at their work.
In the next field, twenty men, or boys, for none of them looked as if
they were full-grown, were ploughing, each with a single mule, and a
light, New-York-made plough. The soil was friable, the ploughing
easy, and the mules proceeded at a smart pace; the furrows were
straight, regular, and well turned. Their task was nominally an acre
and a quarter a day; somewhat less actually, as the measure
includes the space occupied by the ditches, which are two to three
feet wide, running around each quarter of an acre. The ploughing
gang was superintended by a driver, who was provided with a watch;
and while we were looking at them he called out that it was twelve
o’clock. The mules were immediately taken from the ploughs, and
the plough-boys mounting them, leapt the ditches, and cantered off
to the stables, to feed them. One or two were ordered to take their
ploughs to the blacksmith, for repairs.
The ploughmen got their dinner at this time: those not using horses
do not usually dine till they have finished their tasks; but this, I
believe, is optional with them. They commence work, I was told, at
sunrise, and at about eight o’clock have breakfast brought to them in
the field, each hand having left a bucket with the cook for that
purpose. All who are working in connection, leave their work
together, and gather about a fire, where they generally spend about
half an hour. The provisions furnished, consist mainly of meal, rice,
and vegetables, with salt and molasses, and occasionally bacon,
fish, and coffee. The allowance is a peck of meal, or an equivalent
quantity of rice per week, to each working hand, old or young,
besides small stores. Mr. X. says that he has lately given a less
amount of meat than is now usual on plantations, having observed
that the general health of the negroes is not as good as formerly,
when no meat at all was customarily given them. (The general
impression among planters is, that the negroes work much better for
being supplied with three or four pounds of bacon a week.)
Leaving the rice-land, we went next to some of the upland fields,
where we found several other gangs of negroes at work; one entirely
of men engaged in ditching; another of women, and another of boys
and girls, “listing” an old corn-field with hoes. All of them were
working by tasks, and were overlooked by negro drivers. They all
laboured with greater rapidity and cheerfulness than any slaves I
have before seen; and the women struck their hoes as if they were
strong, and well able to engage in muscular labour. The expression
of then faces was generally repulsive, and their ensemble anything
but agreeable. The dress of most was uncouth and cumbrous, dirty
and ragged; reefed up, as I have once before described, at the hips,
so as to show their heavy legs, wrapped round with a piece of old
blanket, in lieu of leggings or stockings. Most of them worked with
bare arms, but wore strong shoes on their feet, and handkerchiefs
on their heads; some of them were smoking, and each gang had a
fire burning on the ground, near where they were at work, by which
to light their pipes and warm their breakfast. Mr. X. said this was
always their custom, even in summer. To each gang a boy or girl was
also attached, whose business it was to bring water for them to
drink, and to go for anything required by the driver. The drivers would
frequently call back a hand to go over again some piece of his or her
task that had not been worked to his satisfaction, and were
constantly calling to one or another, with a harsh and peremptory
voice, to strike harder, or hoe deeper, and otherwise taking care that
the work was well done. Mr. X. asked if Little Sam (“Tom’s Sue’s
Sam”) worked yet with the “three-quarter” hands, and learning that
he did, ordered him to be put with the full hands, observing that
though rather short, he was strong and stout, and, being twenty
years old, well able to do a man’s work.
The field-hands are all divided into four classes, according to their
physical capacities. The children beginning as “quarter hands,”
advancing to “half-hands,” and then to “three-quarter hands;” and,
finally, when mature, and able-bodied, healthy, and strong, to “full
hands.” As they decline in strength, from age, sickness, or other
cause, they retrograde in the scale, and proportionately less labour
is required of them. Many, of naturally weak frame, never are put
among the full hands. Finally, the aged are left out at the annual
classification, and no more regular field-work is required of them,
although they are generally provided with some light, sedentary
occupation. I saw one old woman picking “tailings” of rice out of a
heap of chaff, an occupation at which she was probably not earning
her salt. Mr. X. told me she was a native African, having been
brought when a girl from the Guinea coast. She spoke almost
unintelligibly; but after some other conversation, in which I had not
been able to understand a word she said, he jokingly proposed to
send her back to Africa. She expressed her preference to remain
where she was, very emphatically. “Why?” She did not answer
readily, but being pressed, threw up her palsied hands, and said
furiously, “I lubs ’ou, mas’r, oh, I lubs ’ou. I don’t want go ’way from
’ou.”
The field-hands are nearly always worked in gangs, the strength of a
gang varying according to the work that engages it; usually it
numbers twenty or more, and is directed by a driver. As on most
large plantations, whether of rice or cotton, in Eastern Georgia and
South Carolina, nearly all ordinary and regular work is performed by
tasks: that is to say, each hand has his labour for the day marked out
before him, and can take his own time to do it in. For instance, in
making drains in light, clean meadow land, each man or woman of
the full hands is required to dig one thousand cubic feet; in swamp-
land that is being prepared for rice culture, where there are not many
stumps, the task for a ditcher is five hundred feet: while in a very
strong cypress swamp, only two hundred feet is required; in hoeing
rice, a certain number of rows, equal to one-half or two-thirds of an
acre, according to the condition of the land; in sowing rice (strewing
in drills), two acres; in reaping rice (if it stands well), three-quarters of
an acre; or, sometimes a gang will be required to reap, tie in
sheaves, and carry to the stack-yard the produce of a certain area,
commonly equal to one fourth the number of acres that there are
hands working together. Hoeing cotton, corn, or potatoes; one half to
one acre. Threshing; five to six hundred sheaves. In ploughing rice-
land (light, clean, mellow soil) with a yoke of oxen, one acre a day,
including the ground lost in and near the drains—the oxen being
changed at noon. A cooper, also, for instance, is required to make
barrels at the rate of eighteen a week. Drawing staves, 500 a day.
Hoop poles, 120. Squaring timber, 100 ft. Laying worm-fence, 50
panels per hand. Post and rail do., posts set 2½ to 3 ft. deep, 9 ft.
apart, nine or ten panels per hand. In getting fuel from the woods,
(pine, to be cut and split,) one cord is the task for a day. In “mauling
rails,” the taskman selecting the trees (pine) that he judges will split
easiest, one hundred a day, ends not sharpened.
These are the tasks for first-class able-bodied men; they are
lessened by one quarter for three quarter hands, and proportionately
for the lighter classes. In allotting the tasks, the drivers are expected
to put the weaker hands where (if there is any choice in the
appearance of the ground, as where certain rows in hoeing corn
would be less weedy than others,) they will be favoured.
These tasks certainly would not be considered excessively hard, by
a Northern labourer; and, in point of fact, the more industrious and
active hands finish them often by two o’clock. I saw one or two
leaving the field soon after one o’clock, several about two; and
between three and four, I met a dozen women and several men
coming home to their cabins, having finished their day’s work.
Under this “Organization of Labour,” most of the slaves work rapidly
and well. In nearly all ordinary work, custom has settled the extent of
the task, and it is difficult to increase it. The driver who marks it out,
has to remain on the ground until it is finished, and has no interest in
over-measuring it; and if it should be systematically increased very
much, there is danger of a general stampede to the “swamp”—a
danger the slave can always hold before his master’s cupidity. In
fact, it is looked upon in this region as a proscriptive right of the
negroes to have this incitement to diligence offered them; and the
man who denied it, or who attempted to lessen it, would, it is said,
suffer in his reputation, as well as experience much annoyance from
the obstinate “rascality” of his negroes. Notwithstanding this, I have
heard a man assert, boastingly, that he made his negroes habitually
perform double the customary tasks. Thus we get a glimpse again of
the black side. If he is allowed the power to do this, what may not a
man do?
It is the driver’s duty to make the tasked hands do their work well. If,
in their haste to finish it, they neglect to do it properly, he “sets them
back,” so that carelessness will hinder more than it will hasten the
completion of their tasks.
In the selection of drivers, regard seems to be had to size and
strength—at least, nearly all the drivers I have seen are tall and
strong men—but a great deal of judgment, requiring greater capacity
of mind than the ordinary slave is often supposed to be possessed
of, is certainly needed in them. A good driver is very valuable and
usually holds office for life. His authority is not limited to the direction
of labour in the field, but extends to the general deportment of the
negroes. He is made to do the duties of policeman, and even of
police magistrate. It is his duty, for instance, on Mr. X.’s estate, to
keep order in the settlement; and, if two persons, men or women, are
fighting, it is his duty to immediately separate them, and then to
“whip them both.”
Before any field of work is entered upon by a gang, the driver who is
to superintend them has to measure and stake off the tasks. To do
this at all accurately, in irregular-shaped fields, must require
considerable powers of calculation. A driver, with a boy to set the
stakes, I was told, would accurately lay out forty acres a day, in half-
acre tasks. The only instrument used is a five-foot measuring rod.
When the gang comes to the field, he points out to each person his
or her duty for the day, and then walks about among them, looking
out that each proceeds properly. If, after a hard day’s labour, he sees
that the gang has been overtasked, owing to a miscalculation of the
difficulty of the work, he may excuse the completion of the tasks; but
he is not allowed to extend them. In the case of uncompleted tasks,
the body of the gang begin new tasks the next day, and only a
sufficient number are detailed from it to complete, during the day, the
unfinished tasks of the day before. The relation of the driver to the
working hands seems to be similar to that of the boatswain to the
seamen in the navy, or of the sergeant to the privates in the army.
Having generally had long experience on the plantation, the advice
of the drivers is commonly taken in nearly all the administration, and
frequently they are, de facto, the managers. Orders on important
points of the plantation economy, I have heard given by the
proprietor directly to them, without the overseer’s being consulted or
informed of them; and it is often left with them to decide when and
how long to flow the rice-grounds—the proprietor and overseer
deferring to their more experienced judgment. Where the drivers are
discreet, experienced, and trusty, the overseer is frequently
employed merely as a matter of form, to comply with the laws
requiring the superintendence or presence of a white man among
every body of slaves; and his duty is rather to inspect and report
than to govern. Mr. X. considers his overseer an uncommonly
efficient and faithful one, but he would not employ him, even during
the summer, when he is absent for several months, if the law did not
require it. He has sometimes left his plantation in care of one of the
drivers for a considerable length of time, after having discharged an
overseer; and he thinks it has then been quite as well conducted as
ever. His overseer consults the drivers on all important points, and is
governed by their advice.
Mr. X. said, that though overseers sometimes punished the negroes
severely, and otherwise ill-treated them, it is their more common fault
to indulge them foolishly in their disposition to idleness, or in other
ways to curry favour with them, so they may not inform the proprietor
of their own misconduct or neglect. He has his overseer bound to
certain rules, by written contract; and it is stipulated that he can
discharge him at any moment, without remuneration for his loss of
time and inconvenience, if he should at any time be dissatisfied with
him. One of the rules is, that he shall never punish a negro with his
own hands, and that corporeal punishment, when necessary, shall
be inflicted by the drivers. The advantage of this is, that it secures
time for deliberation, and prevents punishment being made in
sudden passion. His drivers are not allowed to carry their whips with
them in the field; so that if the overseer wishes a hand punished, it is
necessary to call a driver; and the driver has then to go to his cabin,
which is, perhaps, a mile or two distant, to get his whip, before it can
be applied.
I asked how often the necessity of punishment occurred?
“Sometimes, perhaps, not once for two or three weeks; then it will
seem as if the devil had got into them all, and there is a good deal of
it.”
As the negroes finish the labour required of them by Mr. X., at three
or four o’clock in the afternoon, they can employ the remainder of the
day in labouring for themselves, if they choose. Each family has a
half-acre of land allotted to it, for a garden; besides which, there is a
large vegetable garden, cultivated by a gardener for the plantation,
from which they are supplied, to a greater or less extent. They are at
liberty to sell whatever they choose from the products of their own
garden, and to make what they can by keeping swine and fowls. Mr.
X.’s family have no other supply of poultry and eggs than what is
obtained by purchase from his own negroes; they frequently, also,
purchase game from them. The only restriction upon their traffic is a
“liquor law.” They are not allowed to buy or sell ardent spirits. This
prohibition, like liquor laws elsewhere, unfortunately, cannot be
enforced; and, of late years, grog shops, at which stolen goods are
bought from the slaves, and poisonous liquors—chiefly the worst
whisky, much watered and made stupefying by an infusion of
tobacco—are clandestinely sold to them, have become an
established evil, and the planters find themselves almost powerless
to cope with it. They have, here, lately organized an association for
this purpose, and have brought several offenders to trial; but, as it is
a penitentiary offence, the culprit spares no pains or expense to
avoid conviction—and it is almost impossible, in a community of
which so large a proportion is poor and degraded, to have a jury
sufficiently honest and intelligent to permit the law to be executed.
A remarkable illustration of this evil has lately occurred. A planter,
discovering that a considerable quantity of cotton had been stolen
from him, informed the patrol of the neighbouring planters of it. A
stratagem was made use of, to detect the thief, and, what was of
much more importance—there being no question but that this was a
slave—to discover for whom the thief worked. A lot of cotton was
prepared, by mixing hair with it, and put in a tempting place. A negro
was seen to take it, and was followed by scouts to a grog-shop,
several miles distant, where he sold it—its real value being nearly
ten dollars—for ten cents, taking his pay in liquor. The man was
arrested, and, the theft being made to appear, by the hair, before a
justice, obtained bail in $2,000, to answer at the higher court. Some
of the best legal counsel of the State has been engaged, to obtain, if
possible, his conviction.
This difficulty in the management of slaves is a great and very
rapidly increasing one. Everywhere that I have been, I have found
the planters provoked and angry about it. A swarm of Jews, within
the last ten years, has settled in nearly every Southern town, many
of them men of no character, opening cheap clothing and trinket
shops; ruining, or driving out of business, many of the old retailers,
and engaging in an unlawful trade with the simple negroes, which is
found very profitable.[30]
The law which prevents the reception of the evidence of a negro in
courts, here strikes back, with a most annoying force, upon the
dominant power itself. In the mischief thus arising, we see a striking
illustration of the danger which stands before the South, whenever
its prosperity shall invite extensive immigration, and lead what would
otherwise be a healthy competition to flow through its channels of
industry.
This injury to slave property, from grog-shops, furnishes the grand
argument for the Maine Law at the South.[31]
Mr. X. remarks that his arrangements allow his servants no excuse
for dealing with these fellows. He has a rule to purchase everything
they desire to sell, and to give them a high price for it himself. Eggs
constitute a circulating medium on the plantation. Their par value is
considered to be twelve for a dime, at which they may always be
exchanged for cash, or left on deposit, without interest, at his
kitchen.
Whatever he takes of them that he cannot use in his own family, or
has not occasion to give to others of his servants, is sent to town to
be resold. The negroes do not commonly take money for the articles
he has of them, but the value of them is put to their credit, and a
regular account kept with them. He has a store, usually well supplied
with articles that they most want, which are purchased in large
quantities, and sold to them at wholesale prices; thus giving them a
great advantage in dealing with him rather than with the grog-shops.
His slaves are sometimes his creditors to large amounts; at the
present time he says he owes them about five hundred dollars. A
woman has charge of the store, and when there is anything called
for that she cannot supply, it is usually ordered, by the next
conveyance, of his factors in town.
The ascertained practicability of thus dealing with slaves, together
with the obvious advantages of the method of working them by
tasks, which I have described, seem to me to indicate that it is not so
impracticable as is generally supposed, if only it was desired by
those having the power, to rapidly extinguish Slavery, and while
doing so, to educate the negro for taking care of himself, in freedom.
Let, for instance, any slave be provided with all things he will
demand, as far as practicable, and charge him for them at certain
prices—honest, market prices for his necessities, higher prices for
harmless luxuries, and excessive, but not absolutely prohibitory,
prices for everything likely to do him harm. Credit him, at a fixed
price, for every day’s work he does, and for all above a certain easily
accomplished task in a day, at an increased price, so that his reward
will be in an increasing ratio to his perseverance. Let the prices of
provisions be so proportioned to the price of task-work, that it will be
about as easy as it is now for him to obtain a bare subsistence.
When he has no food and shelter due to him, let him be confined in
solitude, or otherwise punished, until he asks for opportunity to earn
exemption from punishment by labour.
When he desires to marry, and can persuade any woman to marry
him, let the two be dealt with as in partnership. Thus, a young man
or young woman will be attractive somewhat in proportion to his or
her reputation for industry and providence. Thus industry and
providence will become fashionable. Oblige them to purchase food
for their children, and let them have the benefit of their children’s
labour, and they will be careful to teach their children to avoid waste,
and to honour labour. Let those who have not gained credit while
hale and young, sufficient to support themselves in comfort when
prevented by age or infirmity from further labour, be supported by a
tax upon all the negroes of the plantation, or of a community.
Improvidence, and pretence of inability to labour, will then be
disgraceful.
When any man has a balance to his credit equal to his value as a
slave, let that constitute him a free man. It will be optional with him
and his employer whether he shall continue longer in the relation of
servant. If desirable for both that he should, it is probable that he will;
for unless he is honest, prudent, industrious, and discreet, he will not
have acquired the means of purchasing his freedom.
If he is so, he will remain where he is, unless he is more wanted
elsewhere; a fact that will be established by his being called away by
higher wages, or the prospect of greater ease and comfort
elsewhere. If he is so drawn off, it is better for all parties concerned
that he should go. Better for his old master; for he would not refuse
him sufficient wages to induce him to stay, unless he could get the
work he wanted him to do done cheaper than he would justly do it.
Poor wages would certainly, in the long run, buy but poor work; fair
wages, fair work.
Of course there will be exceptional cases, but they will always
operate as cautions for the future, not only to the parties suffering,
but to all who observe them. And be sure they will not be suffered,
among ignorant people, to be lost. This is the beneficent function of
gossip, with which wise and broad-working minds have nothing to
do, such not being benefitted by the iteration of the lessons of life.
Married persons, of course, can only become free together. In the
appraisement of their value, let that of their young children be
included, so that they cannot be parted from them; but with regard to
children old enough to earn something more than their living, let it be
optional what they do for them.
Such a system would simply combine the commendable elements of
the emancipation law of Cuba,[32] and those of the reformatory
punishment system, now in successful operation in some of the
British penal colonies, with a few practical modifications. Further
modifications would, doubtless, be needed, which any man who has
had much practical experience in dealing with slaves might readily
suggest. Much might be learned from the experience of the system
pursued in the penal colonies, some account of which may be seen
in the report of the Prisoners’ Aid Society of New York, for 1854, or in
a previous little work of my own. I have here only desired to suggest,
apropos to my friend’s experience, the practicability of providing the
negroes an education in essential social morality, while they are
drawing towards personal freedom; a desideratum with those who do
not consider Slavery a purely and eternally desirable thing for both
slave and slave-master, which the present system is calculated, as
far as possible, in every direction to oppose.
Education in theology and letters could be easily combined with such
a plan as I have hinted at; or, if a State should wish to encourage the
improvement of its negro constituent—as, in the progress of
enlightenment and Christianity, may be hoped to eventually occur—a
simple provision of the law, making a certain standard of proficiency
the condition of political freedom, would probably create a natural
demand for education, which commerce, under its inexorable higher-
laws, would be obliged to satisfy.
I do not think, after all I have heard to favour it, that there is any good
reason to consider the negro, naturally and essentially, the moral
inferior of the white; or, that if he is so, it is in those elements of
character which should for ever prevent us from trusting him with
equal social munities with ourselves.
So far as I have observed, slaves show themselves worthy of trust
most, where their masters are most considerate and liberal towards
them. Far more so, for instance, on the small farms of North Carolina
than on the plantations of Virginia and South Carolina. Mr. X.’s
slaves are permitted to purchase fire-arms and ammunition, and to
keep them in their cabins; and his wife and daughters reside with
him, among them, the doors of the house never locked, or windows
closed, perfectly defenceless, and miles distant from any other white
family.
Another evidence that negroes, even in slavery, when trusted, may
prove wonderfully reliable, I will subjoin, in a letter written by Mr.
Alexander Smets, of Savannah, to a friend in New York, in 1853. It is
hardly necessary to say, that the “servants” spoken of were negroes,
and the “suspicious characters,” providentially removed, were
whites. The letter was not written for publication:—
“The epidemic which spread destruction and desolation
through our city, and many other places in most of the
Southern States, was, with the exception of that of 1820,
the most deadly that was ever known here. Its appearance
being sudden, the inhabitants were seized with a panic,
which caused an immediate sauve qui peut seldom
witnessed before. I left, or rather fled, for the sake of my
daughters, to Sparta, Hancock county. They were
dreadfully frightened.
“Of a population of fifteen thousand, six thousand, who
could not get away, remained, nearly all of whom were
more or less seized with the prevailing disease. The
negroes, with very few exceptions, escaped.
“Amidst the desolation and gloom pervading the deserted
streets, there was a feature that showed our slaves in a
favourable light. There were entire blocks of houses,
which were either entirely deserted—the owners in many
instances having, in their flight, forgotten to lock them up
—or left in charge of the servants. A finer opportunity for
plunder could not be desired by thieves; and yet the city
was remarkable, during the time, for order and quietness.
There were scarcely any robberies committed, and as
regards fires, so common in the winter, none! Every
householder, whose premises had escaped the fury of the
late terrific storm, found them in the same condition he
had left them. Had not the yellow fever scared away or
killed those suspicious characters, whose existence is a
problem, and who prowl about every city, I fear that our
city might have been laid waste. Of the whole board of
directors of five banks, three or four remained, and these
at one time were sick. Several of the clerks were left, each
in the possession of a single one. For several weeks it
was difficult to get anything to eat; the bakers were either
sick or dead. The markets closed, no countryman dared
venture himself into the city with the usual supplies for the
table, and the packets had discontinued their trips. I shall
stop, otherwise I could fill a volume with the occurrences
and incidents of the dismal period of the epidemic.”
On most of the large rice plantations which I have seen in this
vicinity, there is a small chapel, which the negroes call their prayer-
house. The owner of one of these told me that, having furnished the
prayer-house with seats having a back-rail, his negroes petitioned
him to remove it, because it did not leave them room enough to pray.
It was explained to me that it is their custom, in social worship, to
work themselves up to a great pitch of excitement, in which they yell
and cry aloud, and finally, shriek and leap up, clapping their hands
and dancing, as it is done at heathen festivals. The back-rail they
found to seriously impede this exercise.
Mr. X. told me that he had endeavoured, with but little success, to
prevent this shouting and jumping of the negroes at their meetings
on his plantation, from a conviction that there was not the slightest
element of religious sentiment in it. He considered it to be engaged
in more as an exciting amusement than from any really religious
impulse. In the town churches, except, perhaps, those managed and
conducted almost exclusively by negroes, the slaves are said to
commonly engage in religious exercises in a sober and decorous
manner; yet, a member of a Presbyterian church in a Southern city
told me, that he had seen the negroes in his own house of worship,
during “a season of revival,” leap from their seats, throw then arms
wildly in the air, shout vehemently and unintelligibly, cry, groan, rend
their clothes, and fall into cataleptic trances.
On almost every large plantation, and in every neighbourhood of
small ones, there is one man who has come to be considered the
head or pastor of the local church. The office among the negroes, as
among all other people, confers a certain importance and power. A
part of the reverence attaching to the duties is given to the person;
vanity and self-confidence are cultivated, and a higher ambition
aroused than can usually enter the mind of a slave. The self-respect
of the preacher is also often increased by the consideration in which
he is held by his master, as well as by his fellows; thus, the
preachers generally have an air of superiority to other negroes; they
acquire a remarkable memory of words, phrases, and forms; a
curious sort of poetic talent is developed, and a habit is obtained of
rhapsodizing and exciting furious emotions, to a great degree
spurious and temporary, in themselves and others, through the
imagination. I was introduced, the other day, to a preacher, who was
represented to be quite distinguished among them. I took his hand,
respectfully, and said I was happy to meet him. He seemed to take
this for a joke, and laughed heartily. He was a “driver,” and my friend
said—
“He drives the negroes at the cotton all the week, and Sundays he
drives them at the Gospel—don’t you, Ned?”
He commenced to reply in some scriptural phrase, soberly; but
before he could say three words, began to laugh again, and reeled
off like a drunken man—entirely overcome with merriment. He
recovered himself in a moment, and returned to us.
“They say he preaches very powerfully, too.”
“Yes, massa! ’kordin’ to der grace—yah! yah!”
And he staggered off again, with the peculiar hearty negro guffaw.
My friend’s tone was, I suppose, slightly humorous, but I was grave,
and really meant to treat him respectfully, wishing to draw him into
conversation; but he had got the impression that it was intended to
make fun of him, and generously assuming a merry humour, I found
it impossible to get a serious reply.
A majority of the public houses of worship at the South are small,
rude structures of logs, or rough boards, built by the united labour or
contributions of the people of a large neighbourhood or district of
country, and are used as places of assembly for all public purposes.
Few of them have any regular clergymen, but preachers of different
denominations go from one to another, sometimes in a defined
rotation, or “circuit,” so that they may be expected at each of their
stations at regular intervals. A late report of the Southern Aid Society
states that hardly one-fifth of the preachers are regularly educated
for their business, and that “you would starve a host of them if you
debarred them from seeking additional support for their families by
worldly occupation.” In one presbytery of the Presbyterian Church,
which is, perhaps, the richest, and includes the most educated body
of people of all the Southern Churches, there are twenty-one
ministers whose wages are not over two hundred and fifty dollars
each. The proportion of ministers, of all sorts, to people, is estimated
at one to thirteen hundred. (In the Free States it is estimated at one
to nine hundred.) The report of this Society also states, that “within
the limits of the United States religious destitution lies comparatively
at the South and South-west; and that from the first settlement of the
country the North has preserved a decided religious superiority over
the South, especially in three important particulars: in ample supply
of Christian institutions; extensive supply of Christian truth; and
thorough Christian regimen, both in the Church and in the
community.” It is added that, “while the South-western States have
always needed a stronger arm of the Christian ministry to raise them
up toward a Christian equality with their Northern brethren, their
supply in this respect has always been decidedly inferior.” The
reason of this is the same with that which explains the general
ignorance of the people of the South: The effect of Slavery in
preventing social association of the whites, and in encouraging
vagabond and improvident habits of life among the poor.
The two largest denominations of Christians at the South are the
Methodists and Baptists—the last having a numerical superiority.
There are some subdivisions of each, and of the Baptists especially,
the nature of which I do not understand. Two grand divisions of the
Baptists are known as the Hard Shells and the Soft Shells. There is
an intense rivalry and jealousy among these various sects and sub-
sects, and the controversy between them is carried on with a
bitterness and persistence exceeding anything which I have known
at the North, and in a manner which curiously indicates how the
terms Christianity, piety, etc., are misapplied to partisanship and
conditions of the imagination.
A general want of essential reverence of character seems to be
evidenced in the frequent familiar and public use of expressions of
rare reverence, and in high-coloured descriptions of personal
feelings and sentiments, which, if actual, can only be among a man’s
dearest, most interior and secret, stillest, and most uncommunicable
experiences. Men talk in public places, in the churches, and in bar-
rooms, in the stage-coach, and at the fireside, of their personal
communions with the Deity, and of the mutations of their harmony
with His Spirit, just as they do about their family and business
matters. The familiar use of Scripture expressions by the negroes, I
have already indicated. This is not confined to them. A dram-seller
advertises thus:—
“‘FAITH WITHOUT WORKS IS DEAD.’
IN order to engage in a more ‘honorable’ business, I offer
for sale, cheap for cash, my stock of
LIQUORS, BAR-FIXTURES, BILLIARD TABLE, &c., &c.
If not sold privately, by the 20th day of May, I will sell the
same at public auction. ‘Shew me thy faith without thy
works, and I will shew thee my faith by my works.’
E. KEYSER.”
At a Sunday dinner-table, at a village inn in Virginia, two or three
men had taken seats with me, who had, as they said, “been to the
preachin’.” A child had been baptized, and the discourse had been a
defence of infant baptism.
“I’m damned,” said one, “ef he teched on the primary significance of
baptism, at all—buryin’ with Jesus.”
“They wus the weakest arguments for sprinklin’ that ever I heerd,”
said another—a hot, red-faced, corpulent man—“and his sermon
was two hours long, for when he stopped I looked at my watch. I
thought it should be a lesson to me, for I couldn’t help going to sleep.
Says I to Uncle John, says I—he sot next to me, and I whispered to
him—says I, ‘When he gits to Bunker Hill, you wake me up,’ for I see
he was bound to go clean back to the beginnin’ of things.”
“Uncle John is an Episcopalian, aint he?”
“Yes.”
“Well, there aint no religion in that, no how.”
“No, there aint.”
“Well now, you wouldn’t think it, but I’ve studied into religion a heap
in my life.”
“Don’t seem to have done you much good.”

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(eBook PDF) Elementary Linear

Algebra: Applications Version 12th

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Elementary linear algebra : Metric version Eighth

(eBook PDF) Elementary Linear Algebra 11th Edition

Instructor's Solutions Manual for Elementary Linear

(eBook PDF) Elementary Linear Algebra 7th Edition by

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(eBook PDF) Linear Algebra with Applications 10th

Charles Ekene Chika, University of Texas at Dallas

7 Diagonalization and Quadratic

2.1 Determinants by Cofactor Expansion 118 7.1 Orthogonal Matrices 399

3 Euclidean Vector Spaces 146

3.1 Vectors in 2-Space, 3-Space, and n-Space 146 8 General Linear

4.1 Real Vector Spaces 202

1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations 2

1.1 Introduction to Systems of

EXAMPLE 1 | Linear Equations

The following are not linear equations:

Linear Systems in Two and Three Unknowns

No solution One solution Infinitely many

No solutions No solutions No solutions No solutions

EXAMPLE 2 | A Linear System with One Solution

Solve the linear system

EXAMPLE 3 | A Linear System with No Solutions

Solve the linear system

EXAMPLE 4 | A Linear System with Infinitely Many Solutions

Solve the linear system

EXAMPLE 5 | A Linear System with Infinitely Many Solutions

Solve the linear system

Augmented Matrices and Elementary Row Operations

The first known use of augmented matrices appeared between

1. Multiply an equation through by a nonzero constant.

1. Multiply a row through by a nonzero constant.

These are called elementary row operations on a matrix.

EXAMPLE 6 | Using Elementary Row Operations

Exercise Set 1.1

a. x 1 + 5x 2 − √2 x 3 = 1 b. x 1 + 3x 2 + x 1 x 3 = 2 a. 21/3 x + √3y = 1 b. 2x 1/3 + 3√y = 1

a. (3, 1, 1) b. (3, −1, 1) c. (13, 5, 2) 2 4 −6 8 7 −4 −2 2

b. Multiplying a row of an augmented matrix through by

1.2 Gaussian Elimination

Considerations in Solving Linear Systems

from which the solution x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 became evident. This is an example of a matrix

EXAMPLE 1 | Row Echelon and Reduced Row Echelon Form

The following matrices are in reduced row echelon form.

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