ECV 4507 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II

Content:
Pavement types: flexible and rigid. Stresses in flexible pavements and wheel load
characteristics. Design methods: empirical and analytical methods, Road Note (RN) 29,
and RN 31, standards from the public sector. Construction techniques; cut and fill,
surfacing, drainage systems. Base construction; stabilization using cement, lime, and
bitumen, labour intensive techniques, stage construction, construction materials;
aggregates, bitumen. Introduction to road maintenance and construction plant.

Compiled by S. Zimbu 1|Page

 1 PAVEMENT TYPES
Based upon the structural behaviour of materials used in construction pavements are
broadly categorised into

1. Rigid Pavements
2. Flexible Pavements

The choice between flexible and rigid pavements should be made on considerations
of the likely cost of both construction and maintenance, the pavement life and effect
on road user costs.
1.1 Flexible Pavement
Flexible pavements are composed of a series of granular layers topped by a relatively
thin high-quality bituminous wearing course. In flexible pavements vertical load of
traffic is transmitted to the lower layers by grain to grain transfer. Thus, if a lower
layer gets deformed the surface of the pavement also gets deformed.

Primarily the flexible pavement is composed of the following layers

i. Wearing course
ii. Road base
iii. Sub base
iv. Sub grade

Wearing course /Surfacing

This is the surface on which the motorists ride on. The bituminous surfacing should
be waterproof, provide a skid resistant surface and not necessarily have to perform a
load spreading function as this can be done by the underlying structural layers.

In addition, the surfacing protects the layers below it from the effects of natural
elements as well as from disintegrating effects caused by vehicle skidding and braking
on the runway.

The surfacing is the most expensive of all the layers and is normally kept as thin as
possible commensurate with the stresses that it can withstand.

Compiled by S. Zimbu 2|Page

Road base
This is a layer of high stability and density. Its principal purpose is to distribute or
spread the stresses created by the wheel loads acting on the wearing course so that the
stresses are transmitted to the subgrade.

The base may be composed of gravel, crushed stones or granular materials treated
with stabilizing materials such as cement, lime, fly ash
Sub base
This layer can be considered as an extension of the road base layer. It may or may not
be included. This layer will normally consist of a material of lower quality than that
used in road bases such as unprocessed natural gravel, gravel sand.

It is used in areas where the subgrade layer is extremely poor or where a construction
table is needed or where the subbase materials are much cheaper than the base course
materials.

The base and sub base layers are evaluated by plate bearing test and the CBR test
Sub grade
This is the foundation layer of the pavement structure that must support all the loads
which come onto the pavement without excessive deformation.

This is the upper layer of the natural soil which may be undisturbed local material or
may be soil excavated elsewhere and placed as fill. In either case it is compacted
during construction to give added strength.

The pavement design assumes the subgrade strength as the basis for designing the
pavements. If the strength properties of the subgrade are inferior to the expected ones
it is given suitable treatment to impart improvements in its performance.

The CBR test, plate bearing test triaxial compression test are some of the methods used
to evaluate the strength of the subgrade layer

Compiled by S. Zimbu 3|Page

1.2 Rigid Pavement
The rigid pavements are made from cement concrete which may be plain, reinforced
or prestressed.

Rigid pavements have slab action and are capable of transmitting the wheel loads to
wider areas.

The main difference between rigid and flexible pavements in the structural behaviour
is that the critical condition of stress in rigid pavement is the maximum flexural stress
occurring in the slab due to the wheel load and temperature changes whereas in
flexible pavements it is the distribution of compressive stresses to lower layers and
lastly over the subgrade.

The rigid pavements do not get deformed to the shape of the lower surface as it can
bridge minor variations of the lower layer.

Cement concrete pavements slab serves as wearing course as well as an effective base
course. Though this is not preferred thus a good base or/and subbase layer is
provided under the cement course to increase the pavement life and for economic
sense in the long run.
Advantages of Rigid Pavements
i. the reduced maintenance requirement over the design life of the pavement may
term rigid pavements economical.
ii. Reduced vehicle operating cost as rigid pavements will deteriorate much less
as compared to flexible pavements
iii. Local materials are used in the construction of rigid pavements
iv. they can be built by labour-based methods using skills and technology learned
in the building trade.

Compiled by S. Zimbu 4|Page

However, the benefits associated with concrete roads will only be obtained if they are
well constructed; if not, remedial works are much costlier than for bituminous roads
and vehicle operating costs on a very deteriorated concrete road are likely to be high.

Compiled by S. Zimbu 5|Page

 2 TRAFFIC

The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic, results from both the magnitude
of the wheel loads and the frequency the load is applied.
For pavement design purposes it is necessary to consider not only the total number of
vehicles that will use the road but also the wheel loads normally expressed as the axle
load.
Small cars and similar sized vehicles can be ignored and only the total number and
the axle loading of the heavy vehicles that will use the road during its design life need
to be considered (In this context, heavy vehicles are defined as those having an
unladen weight of 3000 kg or more)
In some circumstances, particularly for lightly trafficked roads, construction traffic
can be a significant component of overall traffic loading and the designs should take
this into account.

A major factor in pavement design is the cumulative number of equivalent standard

axles in design period.
Equivalence Factors

The damage that vehicles do to a road depends very strongly on the axle loads of the
vehicles. For pavement design purposes the damaging power of axles is related to a
'standard' axle of 80kN

The relationship below converts all single axle loads to equivalent standard axles

Ls 4.5
E.F= ( )
80
Where

E.F is the equivalent factor

Ls is the load on a single axle in kN

The relationship between the load and the Equivalent factor is a power relationship.
Doubling the axle load will not result in doubling the damage but increase the
equivalent factor by almost 22 times.
Evaluation of Traffic for Design Purpose

This is determined by

i. Estimating the average daily number of each type of commercial vehicle that
will use the road in both directions during the first year of study. Distinction
should be made between cars, light goods vehicles, buses, medium goods and
heavy goods vehicles and their respective number of axles.
ii. Estimating the initial daily number of standard axles. This is obtained by
multiplying the average daily numbers of commercial vehicles by their

Compiled by S. Zimbu 6|Page

 appropriate equivalence factor then summing up the number of standard axles
of all the vehicle types.
iii. Estimating the cumulative number of standard axles. To estimate the total
number of axles to be catered for in the design it is necessary to forecast annual
growth rate of traffic in the design period.
At the end of the design period the pavement will not be completely worn out
but will need to be strengthened so that it can continue to carry traffic
satisfactorily for a further period.
A design period of between 10 to 20 years is appropriate. A pavement design
period between 10-20 years also reduces the problem of forecasting uncertain
traffic trends for long periods into the future.
The cumulative number of standard axles, T over the chosen design period N
in years is obtained by
(1 + 𝑖)𝑁 − 1
T=365𝑡1
𝑖
Where

.t1 is the average daily number of standard axles in the first year after opening

. i is the annual growth rate expressed as a decimal fraction

. N is design period

In Kenya the following traffic categories have been established

Table 1: Traffic Classes

Class Cumulative number of Standard Axles

T1 25 Million-60 Million
T2 10 Million-25 Million
T3 3Million-10 Million
T4 1 Million-3 Million
T5 0.25 Million-1 Million
(Extracted from Roads Design Manual Part III:1987)

Compiled by S. Zimbu 7|Page

 3 CLIMATE

Climatic conditions have an influence on the road performance and should be

considered by the design engineer.
[ASSIGNMENT]

Compiled by S. Zimbu 8|Page

 4 THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM

4.1 Pavement Drainage

The road subgrade should be protected form surface water and ground water

Water can reach the subgrade in three ways

i. As a result of rain penetrating the carriageway surface

ii. Infiltration of groundwater
iii. From the sides when side drains are blocked

The road surface must be constructed with a camber or crossfall to shed off rainwater
(usually 2.5%)

The subgrade should be raised at least 1m above the local water table to prevent it
being soaked by the groundwater or subsoil drains be constructed to lower the water
table

The drainage within the pavement layers is also essential since the strength of the
subgrade depends on the moisture content during the most likely adverse conditions

Shoulders provide lateral support for the pavement layers but should be sealed to
prevent ingress of water at the edge of the pavement

Shoulders should also have a crossfall of 4% or 5%

The surface water from the surrounding ground is prevented from reaching road
pavement by side ditch (drain) if on a cut

A cut off ditch is also constructed above deep cuts to collect the runoff water and
which is then directed down the cut slope through discharge channel

On embankments water is collected by a kerb or channel down the embankment

through discharge channel usually lined up to toe ditches which remove water from
the vicinity of embankment

The road should have a minimum vertical gradient of 0.5 to allow water flow along
the side ditch.
4.2 The Culverts
Culverts help in discharging surface water runoff from the road

There are three types of culverts which discharge the surface water runoff

i. Cross culverts- these are constructed across the road at the lowest point along
vertical alignment to cross the runoff water to the natural drainage channel
ii. Interceptor culverts- these intercept the runoff from one side of the road to the
other side thereby reducing the volume of the runoff to avoid erosion of the
drain especially where there are long and steep grades

Compiled by S. Zimbu 9|Page

iii. Access culverts – these are culverts which are constructed across the side
ditches to give access to properties along the road.

Compiled by S. Zimbu 10 | P a g e
 5 SUBGRADE

5.1 Introduction
In highway construction the following desirable properties are expected from the
subgrade:

i. It should remain stable in adverse conditions

ii. It should be incompressible
iii. It should have good drainage properties. This is essential to avoid excessive
retention of moisture by the soil
iv. Under severe conditions soils should not swell. Swelling of soils encourages
differential expansion thus differential strength
v. It should be compactible. this ensures a higher dry density and strength under
a given amount of compaction

The strength of road subgrades is commonly assessed in terms of the California

Bearing Ratio (CBR) and this is dependent on the type of soil, its density, and its
moisture content.

For designing the thickness of a road pavement, the strength of the subgrade should
be taken as that of the soil at a moisture content equal to the wettest moisture condition
likely to occur in the subgrade after the road is opened to traffic.

It is essential that the subgrade, whether in cut or fill, is compacted and shaped as
per the design requirements

Subgrade soils in Kenya are grouped into the following 6 bearing strength classes
Table 2: Subgrade bearing strength classes

Soil Class CBR Range Median

S1 2-5 3.5
S2 5-10 7.5
S3 7-13 10
S4 10-18 14
S5 15-30 22.5
S6 30
(Extracted from Kenya Roads Design Manual Part III:1987)

From the table above no allowance is made for soils with a CBR value less than 2
because this is technically and economically out of question. Soils in that category
comprises of weak saturated expansive soils, saturated fine silts or compressible soils.

Compiled by S. Zimbu 11 | P a g e
Soils in class S1 should be avoided. Where practicable such poor soils should be
excavated and replaced with improved subgrades

The values of CBR in the table above categories overlap. For any section of the road
no individual result shall be lower than the lowest value of the range for the selected
subgrade class.
5.2 Determining the subgrade design strength
The subgrade strength shall be determined as follows

i. In areas where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 500mm, CBR shall be
measured after 4-day soak
ii. In dry areas where mean annual rainfall is less than 500mm, the subgrade
strength may be evaluated in terms of CBR measured at optimum moisture
content.
5.3 Subgrade Compaction
Uniformity of compaction is of prime importance in preventing uneven settlement.

The upper 300mm of subgrade should be compacted to a dry density of at least 100%
MDD (standard compaction) in cuttings

All improved subgrade shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 100% MDD
(Standard Compaction)

Compactions of higher values present advantages such as improved bearing strength

and reduction in permeability.
5.4 Subgrade Requirements for Pavement Design
5.4.1 Materials Suitable for Pavement Support
Subgrade materials should comply to the following

CBR at 100% MDD and 4-day soak should be more than 5 while the swell should be
less than 2%. Organic matter should be less than 3% by weight.

This implies that an improved subgrade should is required in soils in class S1.
5.4.2 Improved Subgrade
The advantages of an improved subgrade include

i. Increases the bearing strength

ii. Protects the upper layers of earthwork against adverse weather conditions
(protection against soaking and shrinking)
iii. Facilitates movement of construction traffic
iv. Reduces variations in the subgrade bearing strength
v. Prevents pollution of the subbase by plastic fines from the natural subgrade
5.4.3 Influence of Improved Subgrade on Subgrade Strength
Where a sufficient thickness of improved subgrade is placed, the overall subgrade
bearing strength is increased to that of a higher class and subbase thickness may be
Compiled by S. Zimbu 12 | P a g e
reduced accordingly. Table below extracted from the Kenya Roads manual shows the
variations
Table 3: Minimum Thickness of Improved Subgrade Required

Strength class of Improved Subgrade New class of sub

Native subgrade Material strength Minimum grade bearing
soils class thickness required strength
S2 400 S2
350 S2
S3
425 S3
S1
275 S2
S4 325 S3
450 S4
S3 300 S3
S2 200 S3
S4
350 S4
S4 300 S4
S3 150 S4
S5
350 S5
(Extracted from Kenya Roads Design Manual Part III:1987)

5.4.4 Lime Treated Subgrade

Treatment of subgrade materials with lime may be considered where

i. The available materials are highly plastic and no better material is economically
available
ii. where the subgrade soils are excessively wet and cannot be dried out because
of adverse weather conditions. Treatment with lime may allow construction to
proceed on a stronger subbase.

Compiled by S. Zimbu 13 | P a g e
 6 PAVEMENT MATERIALS
6.1 Subbase Materials
6.1.1 Natural Gravels
Natural gravel for subbase shall have a CBR value of at least 30% at 95% MDD after
4-day soak

The maximum plasticity Index of such material depends on the climate and type of
road base to be placed. PI of up to 25 may be tolerated in areas where the mean annual
rainfall is less than 500mm. while PI should not exceed 15 in wet areas

Examples of locally occurring natural gravels in Kenya include:

Lateritic gravels, quartzitic gravels, calcareous gravels, soft stones, coral rug and
conglomerate.
6.1.2 Clayey and Silty Sands
These are suitable as subbase materials if their CBR value at 95% MDD and 4-day soak
is at least 30%

The plasticity index of these materials is of utmost importance and should be between
5-20 in dry areas and between 5-12 in wet areas
6.1.3 Cement and Lime Improved Materials
Natural gravels and clayey sands which do not meet the subbase requirements may
be improved by treatment with cement or lime.

Materials with low plasticity can be treated with cement while plastic materials with
a percentage of fines exceeding 15% and a PI exceeding 10% can be treated with lime.

After treatment curing shall be carried out by covering the surface with either
approved plastic sheeting, moist soil or keeping the surface damp by applying a light
spray of water.
6.1.4 Graded Crushed Stone
May be used where no suitable natural gravel is available. Graded crushed stones are
graded based on their hardness and crushing ratio.
6.1.5 Soft Stone
Where soft stone is to be used as a subbase material it should

i. Have a LAA less than 70%

ii. PI on fines from LAA test classified as non-plastic
iii. PI of material passing the 0.425mm sieve from the as dug material be maximum
15%
iv. CBR at 95%MDD after 4day soak min 60%

Compiled by S. Zimbu 14 | P a g e
6.2 Base Materials
6.2.1 Natural Gravels
Shall have a CBR of at least 80 at 95% MDD after 4-day soak

The compaction moisture should be between 80-105% OMC

Natural material meeting the above criteria are scarce. In Kenya a few quartz and coral
gravels have been found adequate

Due to the scarcity of the natural gravel fulfilling the above requirements, mechanical
stabilization of unsuitable natural gravels by mixing with sand to reduce plasticity is
done.

Natural gravels are not suitable for traffic class T1 and T2 since they are prone to
attrition
6.2.2 Cement and Lime Improved Materials
Improvement consists treating materials with a comparatively small amount of
cement or lime so that the engineering properties of the materials are improved i.e.
higher bearing strength and lower plasticity

Improved materials will be evaluated using the CBR

A mechanical spreader should be used for spreading the lime/cement in order to

obtain fair distribution

After the improvement of the material curing should be done.

No vehicle shall be allowed on the cement improved layer for the first 7 days after
compaction

Cement and lime improved material are not suitable for traffic class T1 and T2
6.2.3 Cement Stabilised Materials
Stabilisation consists of treating materials with a sufficient amount of cement so that
their cohesion is considerably increased and significant rigidity is obtained

Strength criterion for stabilized materials is the Unconfined Compressive Strength

and a minimum UCS of 1800kN/m2 is required

Cement stabilised materials are suitable for all traffic classes but uneconomical for T4
and T5

Compaction should be completed within 2hrs after mixing and protection against
evaporation done within 4hrs

No vehicle shall be allowed on the cement improved layer for the first 7 days after
compaction

Other materials that can be used as base materials include: -

Compiled by S. Zimbu 15 | P a g e
 i. Graded Crushed Stones
ii. Sand Bitumen Mixes
iii. Dense Bitumen Macadam
iv. Dense Emulsion Macadam
v. Lean Concrete
6.3 Types of Bitumen
6.3.1 Straight run bitumen
This is bitumen that has been distilled to a definite viscosity or penetration without
further treatment.

Straight run bitumen has to be processed before it can be used. This is done by heating
or addition of flux. On cooling or evaporation of the diluent the bitumen reverts to its
original properties.
6.3.2 Cut Backs bitumen
This is bitumen whose viscosity has been reduced by the addition of volatile diluents.
Volatile diluents may include kerosene and boiling light oils. Cutbacks are fluid
binders that can be poured or sprayed at relatively low temperatures.

Based on the relative speed of the solvent fraction’s evaporation, cutback bitumen are
divided into three types:
i. Rapid Curing (R.C):
Rapid curing cutback is a combination of light diluents of high volatility
solvents, generally in the white spirit, gasoline or naphtha boiling point range
common examples include RC-70, RC-250, RC-800, RC-3000. The value given
by numbers 70, 250, 800, and 3,000 represents the kinematic viscosity of the
bitumen given in centistokes. The solvent concentration of rapid curing asphalt
is 15-45% of the volume of bitumen used.
ii. Medium Curing (M.C)
They are prepared by using the medium volatile solvents like kerosene.
Examples include MC-30, 70, 250, 800, 3000. The degree of evaporation in the
medium curing cutback asphalt is intermediate because the kerosene is
intermediate volatile liquid as compared to the naphtha and diesel. The degree
of liquidity depends on the proportion in which the kerosene is mixed in the
asphalt cement. is used in the flexible pavements for surface dressing, prime
coating, and tack coating.
iii. Slow Curing (S.C)
Manufactured when bitumen is fluxed with a high boiling point light oil which
contains little or no volatile constituent. Examples SC-30, 70, 250, 800, 3000.
They are primarily used in road-mixing and dust suppressant applications.
6.3.3 Emulsions
Bitumen emulsions consist primarily of bitumen, water, and an emulsifying agent.
They should be stable enough for pumping, mixing, and prolonged storage. While the

Compiled by S. Zimbu 16 | P a g e
emulsifying agent keeps the bitumen globules apart prior to its application, the
emulsion should “break” (i.e. the process of the asphalt cement separating from the
water) rapidly upon contact with aggregate in a mixer or after spraying on the
roadbed. When the water has evaporated, the bitumen residue performs its function
with the original adhesion, durability, and water-resistance of the original product.

The particles are imparted with an ionic charge which makes them repel each other.
Within cationic emulsions the imparted charge is positive, while the charge is negative
in anionic emulsions. When the emulsion is sprayed onto the road surface, the charged
ions are attracted to opposite charges on the surface, causing the emulsion to begin
‘breaking’ with the bitumen particles starting to coalesce together. The breaking
process is complete when the film of bitumen is continuous. Bitumen emulsions are
graded in terms of their stability or rate of break on a scale of 1 to 4, with 1 signifying
the greatest stability (stable = rapid acting). Rate of break depends on the composition
of the emulsion and the rate at which the emulsion evaporates. The grading of the
aggregate onto which the emulsion is applied is also important to the rate of break.
Dirty aggregates accelerate it, as will porous or dry road surfaces. Cationic emulsions
tend to break more rapidly than ionic ones. The UK code, BS 434 (BSI, 1984), also
designates cationic emulsions as K and ionic as A. Therefore, K3 denotes a slow acting
cationic emulsion, K2 a medium acting one and K1 a rapid acting one.
6.4 Surfacing
6.4.1 Prime Coat and Tack Coat
A prime coat is a thin layer of low viscosity bitumen sprayed onto an adsorbent
surface.

The main purpose of the prime coat is to

i. Promote adhesion between the road base and the bituminous surfacing by
precoating the surface of the road base
ii. It creates a waterproof layer, thus protecting road base against detrimental
effects of rainfall and light traffic
iii. It helps seal the surface pores in the road base thus reducing adsorption of the
first spray of surface dressing bitumen
iv. It helps bind finer particles of aggregates together in the surface of the road
base

Most common prime coating binders are the low viscosity, medium curing cutbacks
such as MC 30 and MC 70

MC30 is suitable for all types of materials while MC70 is suitable in open textured
materials such as graded crushed stones.

The surface is dampened before a prime coat is applied to helps supress dust and
allow primer to spread easily

The rate of application of the primer is usually between 0.8 to 1.2 litres/m2

Compiled by S. Zimbu 17 | P a g e
A tack coat is a light application of bituminous binder to a bituminous or concrete
surface or previously primed surface.

The main purpose of the tack coat is to assist bonding of a new surface to an existing
pavement layer.

Common types of tack coats include

• Rapid curing cutbacks RC250,800,3000

• Medium curing cutbacks MC 250,800,3000
Rate of spray ranges between 0.3 to 0.8litres/m2
6.4.2 Surface Dressing
Common types of surface dressing are a single surfacing dressing and double surface
dressing, triple surface dressing.

Surface dressing can be used as a definitive surface under light and medium traffic or
as an economical first surfacing under heavy traffic

In the case of double surface dressing, the quality will be greatly enhanced if traffic is
allowed to run on the first dressing for a minimum of 2-3 weeks before the second
surface dressing is applied. This will allow chippings of the first dressing to adopt a
stable interlocking mosaic. The chippings in the second seal are to be half the size of
the first seal

A surface dressing applied to the shoulders of paved roads can be effective method of
improving drainage and reducing erosion and pavement edge damage.

Common types of binders used in surface dressing include

• Cationic emulsion K1-60 preferred binder in cool and wet climatic conditions
with temperatures ranging from 18-45 degrees
• Medium curing cutback MC 3000 preferred in hot and dry areas temperature
ranging from 35-60 degrees and
• Medium curing cut-back 800/1400

The choice on the type of binder depends on the climatic conditions

Good quality surface dressing will depend on the chippings characters

• Chippings which are dusty should not be used without washing and blowing
off the dust
• Wet chippings should not be used with cutback or straight run bitumen
without the addition of an adhesion agent
• Chippings failing the flakiness index should not be used for first seals.

6.4.3 Asphalt concrete

This is a premix used for surfacing. This is well graded mixture of coarse aggregates,
fine aggregates and filler bound together with straight run bitumen.

Compiled by S. Zimbu 18 | P a g e
The choice of surfacing will be governed by the structural requirements, road safety
and materials availability.

For heavy traffic T1 and T2 asphalt concrete is preferred while surface dressing will
be preferred for light and medium traffic class T3, T4 and T5 owing to cost and
performance (flexibility, impervious and skid resistance)

Compiled by S. Zimbu 19 | P a g e
 7 STANDARD PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
The Kenya Roads Design Manual provides 14 standard types of pavements that can
be adopted in the design of road pavements.

In the development of the pavement structures

i. The selection of pavement types is based on

a. Base material has not been placed over sophisticated subbase material
b. It is unsafe to place expensive bound material on natural materials
which are often deformable and heterogeneous
ii. Under graded crushed stones, cement stabilized gravel and lean concrete it
may be technically and economically advantageous to use cement or lime
improved materials of base quality as subbase
iii. Sand bitumen mix should only be used where no granular material can be
found
iv. Under heavy traffic T1 and T2 natural gravels and cement or lime improved
materials can not be used as base materials
v. Use of asphalt concrete surfacing is necessary for heavy traffic T1 and T2
7.1.1 Method of Use of Standard Pavements
i. Determine the subgrade strength
Study of alignment soils will enable homogeneous sections to be defined in
terms of bearing strength. In the case of improved subgrade, the new strength
shall be adopted
ii. Determine the traffic class
Study on the initial traffic flows and axle load distribution, choice of design
period and estimation of traffic growth rate will permit calculation of
cumulative number of standard axles and traffic class can be determined
iii. Study of available road making materials and selecting possible pavement
types
Knowledge on types and characteristics of available pavement material will
allow the selection of one or more pavement
iv. Economic and technical evaluation and final choice of standard pavement
Knowledge of subgrade strength class and traffic class will determine the
selection of appropriate pavement type
Cost of each possible standard pavement structure shall then be estimated
v. Finalizing the pavement design and preparation of special specification
Final refinements to the pavement design, consideration shall be given to local
conditions e.g. climate, drainage and any peculiar requirement specific to the
project.

Compiled by S. Zimbu 20 | P a g e
Example
Consider a pavement to be designed for the following conditions

Climate: equatorial with two rainy seasons. Mean annual rainfall is 1500mm

Subgrade: the subgrade is red coffee soil. Its CBR at 100%MDD (Standard
Compaction) after 4-day soak varies between 7 and 12

No soil of higher bearing strength can be found near the alignment and therefore no
improved subgrade can be placed

Road making materials field and laboratory tests have shown lateritic gravel near the
alignment but due to its plasticity and strength need to be treated with 4% cement and
2% lime to meet requirements. graded crushed stones and surface dressing chippings
are locally available.

Traffic

Traffic count and axle load survey have shown the initial daily number of commercial
vehicle equivalence factor will be as follows

Vehicle Type Equivalence factor per vehicle

30 Buses 80
160 MGV 140
15HGV 170
The economy is projected to grow at an annual rate of 7.5% and design period is 15
years.
Solution

From the Roads manual the subgrade can be classified as S3 CBR between 7-12
Traffic count
Standard axles= (30 × 1) + (160 × 1) + (15 × 4) = 250
(1 + 𝑖)𝑁 − 1
T=365𝑡1
𝑖
(1 + 0.075)15 − 1
T=365 × 250 = 2.38𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛
0.075
Traffic class T4

Available pavement types 3,7,9

Compiled by S. Zimbu 21 | P a g e