The Palace and the City

The Mughal Empire, once a symbol of grandeur and power in India, experienced a dramatic
shift in its fortunes during the first half of the 19th century. Despite the declining fortunes, the
later Mughals attempted to maintain their imperial court culture.

In the early 19th century, the Mughal Empire had significantly declined, losing territories to
regional powers and maintaining only nominal authority centered at the Red Fort in Delhi.
Despite its weakened state, the British held a respectful regard for the Red Fort, recognizing
it as the emperor's residence, a place of sanctity to be approached with reverence. Since the
late 17th century, the Shahjahanabad palace-fortress symbolized the supreme authority of the
Mughal emperor.

Within the palace, the emperor's authority was absolute, beyond the jurisdiction of the
Company's courts. It functioned as a self-contained city where not only Bahadur Shah's large
family but also descendants of previous emperors lived alongside their families. Around the
1850s, nearly 3,000 members of the Timurid family resided there, amidst a larger city
population of 130,682. Additionally, the palace housed a diverse population including
servants, guards, artists, beggars, and others, making it challenging to ascertain exact
numbers.

The palace was intricately linked to Delhi's social and cultural life, situated centrally in the
bustling old town, symbolizing the emperor's extensive influence. Apart from the palace, the
emperor owned numerous villages and lavish gardens in Delhi's rural and urban areas.
Additionally, the last two emperors frequently visited Qutb, maintaining a secondary imperial
residence named Zafar Mahal in Mehrauli, complete with a Diwan-e Khas mirroring the Red
Fort's darbars. This extension of imperial lifestyle also included Metcalfe establishing a
retreat named 'Dil-Koosha' at Qutb.

Jama Masjid and its surrounding shops in Chandni Chowk were also under the emperor's
domain, generating significant annual income and reflecting his economic prowess. Any
issues concerning the mosque were initially brought to the emperor's attention, highlighting
his central role in managing the affairs of his domain.
Bahadur Shah, the emperor of Delhi, wielded significant influence over the city's affairs.
Locals often sought his intervention in resolving issues. For example, when washermen faced
restrictions, they appealed directly to him, initially met with his expression of helplessness
but later saw his active intervention upon verifying the problem. Similarly, a kabab-seller
sought the emperor's assistance when asked to relocate his stall. These instances highlight
Bahadur Shah's perception as a mediator with British authorities, despite cautions from his
advisors about legal boundaries.

His accessibility and willingness to address minor conflicts contrasted with the bureaucratic
nature of Company officials, making him a popular figure among those seeking redressal.
This engagement showcased his public role and upheld aristocratic norms, although his
influence was primarily confined to Delhi, where his actions were closely observed and
discussed, reinforcing his image as a guardian and cultured leader.

The Mughal emperor maintained strict control over ceremonial traditions, showing little
tolerance for innovation or equality with the governor-general. Since 1827, no governor-
general was granted an audience due to this rigid stance, making visiting the emperor a
significant event for Europeans, reflecting unchanged ceremonial practices.

Bishop Heber's disdain for the court's grandeur was evident, although he participated in the
presentation ceremony before Akbar Shah. This attitude mirrored colonial arrogance, as seen
in his attempt to trivialize the symbolic nazar gesture. In contrast, Fanny Parkes offered a
more respectful account of the royal family's reception.

By the 1830s, many Company officials opposed the nazar ritual, viewing it as reinforcing the
emperor's sovereign status. Lord Hastings eventually ended the practice, but other high
officials continued until Lord Ellenborough temporarily suspended it. Despite these shifts, the
court respected the House of Timur's sentiments, maintaining protocol during Bahadur Shah's
lifetime.

Officials in major cities like Calcutta, Agra, and Delhi collaborated to avoid conveying
London's orders to the emperor, although nazar payments were still recorded in the
Company's accounts, totaling about Rs. 10,000 annually, added to the emperor's pishkash.
This issue masked a deeper struggle over sovereignty, with Company officials aiming to
undermine the emperor's authority, which they believed was long overdue.
Tipu Sultan's assertion of authority independent of the Mughal emperor was evident in
symbolic actions like omitting Shah Alam's name from coins and inserting his own in the
khutba, breaking from tradition. This resistance among people against the move reflected the
deep respect for the Mughal name's legitimacy, even in remote regions like Adoni.

However, despite these changes, the emperor's sanction remained crucial for princely rulers
seeking legitimacy over former Mughal territories. Recognition by the British East India
Company became essential, but traditional ties with the emperor persisted, as seen in princely
rulers seeking khilats and sending nazranas to Bahadur Shah, highlighting enduring personal
and political bonds despite shifting landscapes.

Bahadur Shah Zafar's significance lies in his dual roles: one as a key figure in Delhi's literary
circles before the 1857 uprising and the other as a central figure during the events of the
revolt. His reign saw Urdu's rise as a literary language, nurturing renowned poets like Mirza
Ghalib, Momin Khan Momin, and Sheikh Ibrahim Zauq. Zafar's poetic talents were evident
even before his reign, with early poems dating back to the era of Shah Alam.

Zafar's close relationship with Zauq and Ghalib showcased his influence in the literary world.
Ghalib, already esteemed as a premier Urdu poet, benefited from Zafar's support, gaining
financial stability and recognition. This collaboration culminated in Ghalib's court
appointment in 1850, solidifying their mentor-mentee bond and contributing to Urdu
literature's development during that era.

Ghalib's role at the palace was based on his proficiency in Persian rather than his poetic
prowess, although he gained fame as an Urdu poet in the 1840s. His historical writings,
including those on the Timurids, were primarily motivated by financial gain rather than a
genuine interest in history.

Bahadur Shah's commissioning of historical works reflects his concern about his legacy
beyond poetry. His collaboration with Ghalib on a historical narrative, emphasizing his
lineage from Akbar, reveals his desire to secure a significant place in history. The planned
history was to cover the Timurids up to Humayun in one part and Bahadur Shah's era from
Akbar's reign to his own times in another, highlighting his connection to the illustrious
Mughal lineage.

Ghalib's critique of Syed Ahmed Khan's work, although harsh, stemmed from his frustration
with his own responsibilities. He found little intellectual stimulation in praising historical
figures like Akbar and his successors. Instead, he admired the advancements of modern
science, marveling at the power of steam, the speed of the telegraph, and innovations like
street lighting in cities like London. Ghalib championed Western civilization's focus on 'Laws
and Rules' over the outdated principles of Akbar's era.

Ghalib found significance in his role as ustad, editing the emperor's poems despite
reservations about court duties and Emperor Zafar's poetry. This position provided vital
financial support and social status, crucial under colonial constraints limiting opportunities
for intellectuals. The court's modest patronage was a lifeline for Ghalib and others in similar
straits, offering solace and support.

In the colonial era, Ghalib declined a teaching position at Delhi College, recognizing it as
unsuitable for his talents. The college, established during Bahadur Shah's reign, aimed to
impart modern science and mathematics knowledge in Urdu, contributing to Delhi's
intellectual and cultural growth. Translations by the Delhi Vernacular Translation Society,
operating under the college, facilitated this educational endeavor.

Master Ram Chandra, a prominent mathematician at Delhi College, played a pivotal role in
spreading western scientific knowledge through translations, journalism, and teaching. His
approach emphasized using Urdu as a pedagogical tool, highlighting an alternative path to
modernity that valued indigenous scholarship alongside western learning. However, this path
faced challenges under colonial dominance, as scholars like Ram Chandra advocated for a
return to Arabic scholarship to enrich contemporary knowledge.

Bahadur Shah's daily routines mirrored the diminishing authority of the Mughal dynasty,
transitioning from grandeur to a more routine aristocratic life. His mornings often started with
countryside rides along the Yamuna for exercise and hunting, fostering informal ties with
British officials over shared activities and commodities.
Within the palace, Bahadur Shah engaged in leisurely pursuits like chess, painting, and
historical studies, reflecting a shift from imperial responsibilities to personal interests. These
activities, along with his patronage of poets like Ghalib, highlighted a focus on cultural and
intellectual pursuits rather than state affairs.

His participation in religious festivals and interactions with diverse religious figures
showcased a pragmatic approach to spirituality amidst a backdrop of declining imperial
influence. Bahadur Shah's flexibility in handling religious controversies, such as Dr. Chiman
Lal's conversion, demonstrated a blend of traditional authority and adaptability in an era
marked by the waning power of the Mughal emperors.

Despite the challenges of declining fortunes, the later Mughals made concerted efforts to
preserve their imperial court culture and lifestyle. This resilience was evident in their
continued patronage of art, literature, and cultural activities, such as Bahadur Shah's
participation in festivals and visits to significant sites like Qutb. Their attempts to maintain a
semblance of the grandeur and refinement associated with the Mughal court reflected a deep-
seated commitment to their heritage and identity, even in the face of colonial dominance and
financial hardships. These efforts not only preserved aspects of Mughal cultural richness but
also highlighted the enduring spirit of a dynasty striving to uphold its traditions amidst
changing times.