Human Resource Management

Introduction and meaning

What is Human Resource Management?

Human Resource Management or staffing is the management function that deals with
the recruitment, training and development of members of an organization.

People, the human resources, are the most important resource of an organization. It is
people who work in the organization, they supply talent, creativity and drive and thus
staffing is an important function in the management process.

The success of an organization depends entirely on the people who undertake to

accomplish the organization tasks. Managers who have realized this great importance
of the staffing function have taken it as their biggest challenge and embarked on human
resource planning as an important activity.

The Human Resource Management Process.

This important activity is a process. It is a series of steps that are performed on a

continuous basis to keep the organization supplied with the right people in the right
positions at the right time.

The steps include:-

1. Human Resource Planning

2. Recruitment
3. Selection
4. Induction and orientation
5. Training and development
6. Performance appraisal
7. Transfers
8. Separations.

Human Resource Planning

This is a process of planning for the human resource needs of an organization to ensure
that the personnel needs are constantly met. This is achieved through demand and
supply analysis. Demand analysis involves analysis of internal factors such as the
current and expected skills requirements, vacancies, departmental expansions and
reductions. Of course this depends on the plans of the organization which detail out
production and demand of the product or service the organization sales. Supply
involves analysis of factors external to the organization such as the labour market.
Through this analysis, plans are formulated that help in availing staff requirements in an
organization.

Objectives of Human Resource Planning.

The main objective is to ensure that the organization is continuously supplied with the
right people at the right time, more specifically;-

a) Planning for future needs.

How many people with what abilities will be required in the foreseeable future?
b) Planning for future balance.
How many people are expected to stay with the organization?
c) Planning for recruitment, selection and layoff
d) Planning for development. Training and development of individuals.

Forecasting and Human Resource Audit:

These are the central elements in human resource planning.

Forecasting

Forecasting is making projections as to the future human resource requirements of the

organization. It is an attempt to assess the future personnel. The various categories of
personnel that the organization will require to maintain its growth and exploit future
opportunities. Thus, forecasting tries to determine the number, type and quality of
people that will be needed to perform the various duties, what the responsibilities will
be, the skills and knowledge that will be required.

It is based on planned production and sales forecasts made by the organization in its
strategic plan.

Human Resource Audit:

This assesses the organization’s current human resources and comes after forecasting.
It involves appraising the skills and performance of each individual in the organization
and addresses two questions. Do the organization members have the appropriate skills
for their jobs? Are they performing effectively? Answers to these questions will enable
the planners to match the organization’s personnel strengths and weaknesses against
future requirements.
Recruitment:

Meaning and type

Recruitment is concerned with the accumulation of a pool of job candidates in line with
the human resource plan. Ordinarily, recruitment is seen as the whole process of
employing a person but this is not the case. Recruitment is the identification of people
required for the organization and setting in process their being brought into the
organization. Recruitment can be general or specialized.

a) General recruitment is done when the organization needs a group of workers

usually in lower categories of employees.
b) Specialized recruitment is used mainly for higher level executives or specialists
and here candidates receive special/personalized attention.

The Recruitment process

Recruitment is a series of steps which when followed may lead to identification of the
right people. This is not necessarily followed by all organizations.

a) Job and Position Description

The first step in the recruitment process is the development of a written statement of
content and location (organization chart) of each job. At the operative level, the
statement is called job description, while at the managerial level, the statement is called
position description. The description will list the title, duties and responsibilities for each
job/position.

b) Hiring specification

It is the next stage in the recruitment process. This specification defines the
background, experience and personal characteristics an individual must have in order to
perform effectively in the position.

c) Sourcing

Once the job/position description has been done, then the sources of the personnel
must be identified. These may be any one of the organizations itself, competing
organizations, newspapers and journals, colleges/schools and universities and labour
pools.

i) The organization itself.

Where an organization wants to fill a higher position it may encourage lower
level managers to apply for the position and compete for it.
 ii) Competing organization
Other organizations in the same industry can be a source of personnel. These
are usually poached or attracted by offering better remuneration packages.

iii) Newspapers and journals

An organization may advertise its requirements in the mass media. It can be
either local newspapers or specialized journals. The general public or the
specified target market will then respond to such an advertisement

iv) Colleges /Universities

Some organizations require people with certain specific knowledge and such
people can be obtained straight from college or universities. Many
organizations go to these institutions directly to source possible employees.

v) Labour pools or employment exchanges

In many countries, governments arrange a place where those without
employment go and register indicating what their abilities are. These are
pools of people or exchange where those who want employees may go to
look for people and those looking for employment go to seek vacancies.

Selection:

Selection involves evaluating and choosing among the different candidates. It is also a
process that involves mutual decision making where the company decides whether or
not to make a job offer and the job candidate decides whether or not to accept the job.
However, the decision will usually be one sided if the candidate is of a highly
specialized and competitive nature or where there is high unemployment.

Steps in the Selection Process:

There is no standard procedure and the process varies from one organization to
another usually depending on the nature of the job. However, generally the process
follows a seven step sequence.

a) The Application
This is the first step in selection. The organization receives an application from a
prospective candidate.

In some organizations, they have their own application forms, in others, applications
write letters of application. The application serves the following purposes:
 (i) It formally indicates that the applicant desires the job/position in response to
an advertisement or simply expresses the applicant’s interest in an
organization.
(ii) It provides the organization with the basic information about the applicant that
enables the organization to evaluate the applicant and relate him to the
position.
(iii) It becomes part of the organization’s personnel information if the applicant is
hired.

b) The initial Screening

This is used to make a quick evaluation of the applicant’s suitability for the particular
job. It may be by way of short-listing where by those without the hiring specifications
are left out.

c) Oral or written interview

This is the attempt to judge the applicants ability to learn on the job or whether he
has the required skill e.g. testing mechanical aptitudes and skills. This interview may
or may not be held depending on the practice of the organization.

d) Reference checks
The truthfulness of a candidate’s curriculum vitae or application form is checked and
further information is sought from referees or previous employers to verify
information submitted by applicants. Reference checks also facilitate provision of
independent assessment of applicants’ abilities.

e) Physical examination
This is designed to ensure that the candidate can perform effectively in the position
for which he is applying and establish a health record for the employee.

f) Job offer
If the applicant successfully passes through these selection stages and continues to
indicate his desire for employment, a job offer may be made. The offer is in form of
an appointment letter which he has to accept or reject depending on the terms.
Acceptance usually reflects mutual agreement.

INDUCTION AND ORIENTATION

Once a person has accepted the job or position and joins the organization he must be
inducted or oriented into the organisaiton. Induction and orientation are designed to
provide a new employee with the information he needs in order to perform his job
comfortably and effectively. Induction and orientation usually gives information relating
to, the daily work routine, review of the organization’s history, goals and mission,
products and how the employee’s job contributes to the organization’s needs and a
detailed presentation of the organization’s policies, work rules and employee benefits.

Because new employees usually have anxiety on entry, effective induction and
orientation programmes are deliberately aimed at reducing the anxiety.

In some organizations like government, new employees may be given induction courses
where they are familiarized with government regulations, rules and procedures.

Training and Development:

In every new job situation, the need for training i.e. very evident. New employees or
individuals who are being promoted usually require new skills. Besides, to improve
effectiveness of experienced employees it is also essential that continuous training of
the employees is done. It is important that organizations have continuous policies of
training and retraining employees and do not have to wait to see gaps in performance
before it is done.

In ordinary usage, the term training is used to refer to all programmes aimed at
providing knowledge, improving skills or changing attitudes. However, the term
“Training” in management literature is used most often to refer to teaching of technical
skills to non-managerial personnel, while “Management Development” or these days
“Executive Development” is used to refer to improvement of the human relations and
conceptual skills of managers.

Determining Training Needs.

How do you find out that people actually need training besides the fact that all people
must be trained?

(a) Organizational Analysis

This involves the determination of whether the organization is achieving its goals or
not. If it is not, it is probable that there is a problem with the people in the
organization. An analysis of each department within the organization will reveal the
non performing department and an examination of various resources in the
department may ultimately show what resources are not performing. It is possible
that is the people who don’t have the knowledge or skills to do a good job. This may
be corrected through training.

(b) Analysis of job requirements

 Job analysis reveals those skills required for a certain job. Comparison of job
requirements with skills of the incumbent will reveal gaps if any that call for training.

(c) Survey of Human Resources

In the survey, employees are requested to describe the problems they are
experiencing in the work and the possible solutions. May be training could be the
solution.

(d) Performance appraisal

Performance appraisal which is the continuous assessment of the performance of
employees in an organization will reveal whether the particular employee requires
training or not.

Different Approaches to Training:

There are different training programmes that can be used in an organization once
training needs have been ascertained. These are for both newly recruited people and
those where training gaps have need identified and they include, on-the-job and off-the
–job training methods.

a) On-the-job method
i) Coaching
Coaching is sitting beside somebody and being shown what to do. Either how
to write a voucher, post books or even operate a machine. The coach
narrates the procedures and the trainee undertakes the task while the coach
supervises the trainee closely.

ii) Job Rotations

This is commonly used for new employees to familiarize them with different
aspects of a department or organizations. Employees are rotated in a series
of jobs thereby enabling them to learn different aspects about the job and
different skills. Actual learning however is through coaching.

iii) Internship
This is common in medical schools for fresh doctor graduates. This combines
on-the-job training with classroom instruction. Fresh graduates are given
training in different parts of the job by working along with knowledgeable and
skilled employees and the practical training is supplemented by lectures.

iv) Apprenticeship
 This is common with artisan jobs like blacksmiths and carpentry, an employee
is trained under the guidance of a highly skilled co-worker.. again here,
learning takes place through coaching

b) Off-the-job
i) Vestibule training
This is usually outside the actual workplace though it may be within the
organization. It stimulates actual working conditions normally with actual
equipment but in a different place. The intention is usually to remove fresh
employees away from the work environment pressures to facilitate learning. It
has also the advantage of having highly skilled trainers instructing different
people which may not be possible on the real on-the –job situation. Besides,
where expensive machinery is involved training unskilled workers on actual
machines may be costly.

Management Development Programmes:

Managers move from one level to another and as they do, they require more skills both
human and conceptual skills to handle the problems they face at those higher levels.
One way of enabling managers acquire the skills is through experience. Let them try out
the experience with different decisions. This can be time consuming as it is costly.
There are now specialized programmes aimed at developing managers. They are at
times referred to as Executive Development programmes. They are at times programme
centered which are administered to managers irrespective of individual difference or can
be manager centered which are tailored to fit particular problems and requirements of
targeted managers. Training gaps must be identified before a programme is designed.
Like training programmes there are both on-the –job and off-the-job programmes.

Different approaches to management Development:

a) On-the-job methods
Because tailoring of training to individual or group needs to managers is easier on-
the-job, than on off-the-job, then on-the-job methods are preferred in Management
Development.
On-the-job is called modeling (or imitation). Imitating the behavior of an outstanding
manager is one of the easiest and best ways to learn good managerial habits even
watching a poor manager can teach one a few things to avoid.

On –the job methods include

i) Coaching.
This is the training of a subordinate by his or her immediate superior. It involves
as already seen, sitting besides a person and being shown what to do. This is the
 most effective technique though many managers are either unable or unwilling to
coach their subordinates.

ii) Job Rotation

This involves shifting managers from position to position so that they may
broaden their experience and familiarize themselves with various aspects of the
operations of an organization. Rotation is really no a method as such, as actual
training is still done by coaching. It simply facilitates training.

iii) Training Positions

Trainees are given staff posts immediately under a manager, often with the title
of “assistant to” or “management trainee”. Assignments give trainees a chance to
work with and model themselves after outstanding managers who might
otherwise have little contact with them.

iv) Planned work activities

This involves giving trainees important work assignments as a means for
developing their experience and ability. Trainees may be asked to head a task
force or participate in an important committee meeting. In this way, they may gain
an insight into how organizations operate and also improve their human relations
skills

b) Off-the-job method

Off-the-job management development techniques remove individuals from the stressors

and on-going demands of the work place, enabling them to focus fully on the learning
experience. Besides, trainees are given a chance to meet people from other
departments or organizations exposing them to useful new ideas and experiences.

Off- the-job approaches are similar to those mentioned under training and include some
form of classroom instruction which are supplemented with case studies, role playing
and business games or simulations and films.

Performance Appraisal:

Performance appraisal is the continuous process of evaluating or assessing the

performance of subordinates and providing information or a feedback about how well or
poorly hey are performing. This is a very important task of a manager yet is one that
most managers acknowledge, is difficult to discharge, this is so because it is not easy to
judge a subordinate’s performance accurately, besides conveying the judgment
constructively and painlessly.

Types of Appraisal

The process of appraisal can be either formal or informal or both.

Informal appraisal is conducted on a day-to-day basis. The manager spontaneously

mentions that a particular piece of work was performed well or poorly. Informal appraisal
quickly encourages desirable performance and discourages undesirable performance
before it is ingrained.

Formal or systematic appraisal occurs semi-annually or annually on a formal basis.

This may involve use of various techniques that have been developed for the purpose.

FORMAL APPRAISAL APPROACHES.

(a) Superior’s rating of subordinates. This is the most common

(b) A group of superiors rating subordinates-second most frequent approach. A
series of managers appraise a subordinate. It is more effective but time
consuming.
(c) A group of peers rating a colleague, the individual is rated separately by co-
workers on the same level.
(d) Subordinates rating of bosses, not common in business organizations but in
schools, Colleges and Universities.

Objectives of appraisal:

a) To let subordinates know formally how their performance is being rated

b) To identify subordinates who deserve raises
c) To identify subordinates who require training
d) To identify subordinates who are candidates for promotion
e) To improve performance.

What to Appraise:

Generally appraisals are concentrated on individuals’ personal characteristics such as

intelligence, decisiveness, creativity and ability to get along with others. These are
behavioral aspects. But employees are also appraised on how they perform their tasks.

Problems of Appraisal:

Some studies have found that formal appraisal by managers is often ineffective in
improving the performance of subordinates. Individuals who are given criticism about
their performance tend to become defensive and resentful. Their performance after
appraisal tends to decline. To correct this problem there are suggestions by researchers
that the manager and the individual should set performance goals together and then
together evaluate progress towards these goals.

Promotions, Transfers, Demotions and separations:

Promotions.

Promotion is the most significant way to recognize superior performance. There is a lot
of controversy about whether promotion should be on the basis of seniority or purely on
merit. Of course merit is most objective as merit will consider ability of a person.
Seniority on the other hand considers age in the organization. Merit has been preferred
by many managers.

Transfers:

This is the moving of a person from one department/job to another. It serves a number
of purposes including;

- Giving people broader experience as part of their development

- Filling vacancies arising in other parts of the organization
- Separating employees where management feels that by staying together their
performance is reduced.

Demotions and Separations:

If a manager proves ineffective in a given position, he may be transferred or asked to

go for training or further development or be fired. A transfer may be demotion, or shift to
another same level position or even a promotion to a position impressive in title but with
less reasonability.

Demotion is not frequently used as the former peers and subordinates find continuing
relationship difficult after a demotion.