Periodic-1

1. In N.B.
2. Christian Humanism: -
A. As Humanism Spread
i. Scholars in Northern Europe – More interested in the history of Christianity.
ii. Humanist ideas + Religious ideas = Christian Humanism
iii. Many northern scholars felt-church=corrupt+no longer true to the spirit of Jesus
a. Began to call for Church Reforms.
b. Desiderius Erasmus(1466-1536)-A Dutch priest=Most important of these
Scholars
3.
A. Albrecht Durer:-
i. Famous Northern (Renaissance) Artist – Germany
ii. Studied Anatomy – Like Italian Artists
iii. Drew objects in great detail – Like Northerners
iv. Lower of nature
a. Drew a patch of weeds so clearly 2day scientists-identify plant species.
v. Created The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
a. 1597-1598
b. It is a woodcut(Print made from a detailed carving in a block of wood).
vi. Also created-Rel paintings for Churches.
vii. Most Famous for Prints(Work of art reproduced from an Original).
a. Carved image into metal sheet/wooden block
b. Covered img with ink and pressed a sheet of paper down onto it
c. Img transferred to paper
d. Sold it at fairs&markets
B. Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) – Dutch Priest – Most Important Northernz Scholar
i. Believed-Humans had free will – Could choose the path in their lives that would
lead them to Salvation when they died.
ii. This did not mean – People reach Salvation without God’s Help.
iii. Humans had the Power to decide how they wanted to live, but they still needed
God.
iv. 1509-Published book, “The Praise of Folly”- criticised corrupt clergy (PPL who
work for/in Church).
v. Also wanted to get rid of church rituals he considered meaningless.
vi. Instead of Rituals – Emphasized devotion to God + Teachings of Jesus.
C. Francis Rabelais – Greatest Renaissance French writer
i. Also Doctor+Priest
ii. Best known for his writings
iii. Wrote a series of Novels about characters-Gargantua&Pantaguel
iv. Through his characters’ actions
a. Mocked values – Middle Ages + events that happened to him in his own life.
D. William Shakespeare (1564-1616) – English Writer(Considered the greatest)
 i. Wrote poems
ii. Famous for plays
iii. Wrote more than 30:-
a. Comedies
b. Tragedies
c. Histories
iv. Late 1500s – Early 1600s
a. London Audiences packed theatres to see them
v. Responsible for more than 2000 eng words
a. Invented common phrases like “fair play” & common words such as
“lonely”
E. Jan van Eyck – Painter
i. Among his works
a. Many religious scenes
ii. Worked with Oil Paints
a. A new invention
iii. Colours in his Paintings
a. Seem to glow from within
4. In N.B.
5.
A. Sandro Botticelli – Painter from Florence
i. Showed respect for people in his artworks
ii. Many of his paintings
a. Scenes from Roman Myths
iii. Painted everyone in great detail, whether: -
a. Ancient gods
b. Saints
c. Angels
d. Farmers
B. Filipo Brunelleschi – Florence Architect
i. Designed a huge dome for a Cathedral in Florence
a. But ran into a problem
 The dome that he wanted to build was so big – heavy for Cathedral’s walls to
support.
b. To solve this problem
 Built the dome out of 2 thin, light layers instead of one thick heavy one.
C. Leonardo Da Vinci – Florence Sculptor, Painter, Architect, Inventor & Engineer, Also Town
Planner & Map Maker; One of the 2 best Italian Renaissance Artists
i. Like many artists during the Renaissance – Created works with religious themes
a. Most Famous – The Last Supper
 Jesus eating a meal with his Apostles
ii. His work included nonreligious stuff as well
a. Both Nature and Machines fascinated him.
b. Detailed drawings of plants, animals & machines filled his sketchbooks
 iii. To make his art more real – Studied Anatomy (Structure of Human Bodies)
a. Dissected Dead bodies to see how bones+muscles worked
iv. His paintings also show emotions-which was common during the Renaissance
a. Ex. Mona Lisa – Smile
v. His quest to learn more about anatomy benefited more than just his art
a. Left illustrated set of unpublished papers that show his learnings about human
body
b. Found that heart not liver – controlled blood flow
c. Also described medical conditions such as – Hardening of the Arteries &
Cirrhosis (Liver disease)
d. His observations – led to further advancements in Anatomy&Med
D. Michelangelo – One of the 2 Best Italian Renaissance artists
i. Had many talents
a. Designed Buildings
b. Wrote Poetry
c. Carved Sculptures
d. Painted Magnificent Pictures
ii. Most famous work
a. His paintings that cover ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican
b. The muscular human figures in this painting-remind viewer of Greek/Roman
Statues
 Collection of smaller paintings on plaster panels
 These plasters-show religious imagery from the Bible
 Ex. Some figures represent God&Adam
 Another scene – Noah escaping the Epic Flood
c. He also sculpted David.
 This marble statue now in a museum in Florence
 Other Artists – David in Victory over Goliath
 Michelangelo – David before war
E. Titan – Italian Painter
i. His work – reflects in the past
ii. Like Botticelli
a. Often painted scenes from Classical Myths
iii. For Venice’s Churches
a. Painted colourful scenes from Christian teachings
6. In the Sci-Rev
A. People realised that
i. Science starts with Observation
ii. Scientists observe, or look at the world
iii. By observing the world, they can identify facts about it
iv. Previously ppl believed stuff based on faith, belief and/or culture, now(in Sci-
Rev) based on observation&experimentation
 v. A famous scientist(Henri Poincaré) once said, “Science is built up with facts, as a
house is with stones. But a collection of facts is no more a science than a pile of
stones is a house.”
vi. With the facts they observe(theories), scientists (of Sci-Rev) develop
explanations on them and test them.
a. If experiment results keep showing something that makes sense – Theory is
kept
b. Else they try to make new theories
c. In this way, Scientists learn more about the world
vii. Scientific Knowledge based on – Observation, facts and logical ideas/theories
about them
viii. Before Sci-Rev this method of gaining knowledge – uncommon
7. Ptolemy-Greek Thinker
A. Ancient astronomer
i. Studied the skies
ii. Recorded his observations + offered theories to explain what he saw
B. Geographer
i. Made the best maps of his time.
ii. Based on observations of the real world.
C. Rationalist
i. People who looked at the world in a reasonable&logical way.
ii. Aristotle, Ptolemy, Plato etc – Rationalists/Greek Rationalists
D. How he was proven wrong
i. Christopher Columbus
a. Used Ptolemy’s map to reach Asia
b. Instead reached a new continent – North America
c. North America was not there on Ptolemy’s map
 Ptolemy was wrong
ii. Nicolaus Copernicus
a. Studied Ptolemy’s theories+writings
b. Had written that Earth-Centre of Universe + Sun&other Planets orbited Earth
 For 1400 years people believed this.
c. As Copernicus studied movements of Planets
 Realised Ptolemy made less and less sense
 If planets-orbited Earth – they would have to be moving in very complex
patterns
d. Hence-Tried a different explanation for his observation in Sky
 Planets-Orbit Sun
 Realised complex patterns – not necessary for his fact to make sense
 Simple circular orbits would explain the planets’ movements.
8. Newton’s description of the Universe: -
A. The Universe – Huge Machine
B. Within the Machine – All objects follow the laws he identified
9. Greek Thinkers-Expressed ideas that today we’d call Scientific
 A. Aristotle-Philosopher
i. Wrote about
a. Astronomy
b. Geography
c. Many other fields
ii. Greatest contribution to science
a. People should observe the world carefully and draw logical conclusions abt
what they see.
B. Ptolemy, Aristotle, and other Greek thinkers - rationalists(people who look at the world
in a rational/reasonable+logical way
i. During ren
a. Europeans studied the wrks of Greek rationalists
b. As a result, began to view the world in a rational way
c. Began to think like Scientists
10. Alchemy-Alchemist:Experimented with natural Substances
A. Best known for trying to change Metal-Gold
i. Although failed, succeeded in using experiments to learn more about how
nature worked.
B. Effect on Sci-Rev
i. Showed the importance of Experimenting.
11. Reasons for conflict between Science and the Church
A. The new Science was contradicting Church teachings
i. For ex. Copernicus – Heliocentric(Sun center, Earth Revolved) while Church
teaching – Geocentric(Earth Centre of universe).
B. Church feared that when people learnt stuff that contradicted Church teachings, they
would start questioning everything the Church does.
i. This might weaken the Church
ii. Ppl might even start to doubt key elements of faith of Christianity
iii. Feared that this would undermine the Church’s influence.
C. The Trial of Galileo
i. Conflict between Science and The Church – illustrated in this trial
ii. Galileo published book that supp Planets move around the Sun
a. He was put on trial by – Inquisition
b. Church officials insisted – Galileo publicly reject his findings and accept Church
teaching pf Geocentric Model
c. Under threat of torture he agreed
d. Still, legend has it that as Galileo left his trial, he murmured “And yet it does
move.”
e. Although remembered for opposing this Church teaching
 Galileo-devout Catholic
 Believed that experimentation was a search for an understanding of God’s
creation.
12. Religion promoting Knowledge:-
A. European Scholars – Study Ancient Greek writings bec of wrk of others
 i. Muslim Scholars
a. Translated Greek writings – Arabic
 Studied them for centuries + added their own ideas
b. Later the Arabic Versions - translated into Latin which was read in Europe
ii. Jews
a. Scholar Maimonides
 Studied+wrote abt Aristotle
 Tried to unite his work with Jewish ideas
iii. Christianity
a. Scholar Thomas Aquinas
 Tried to unite the work of Aristotle with Christian ideas
b. Other Christian Scholars
 Studied Greek ideas-Europe’s Universities
B. The Catholic Church
i. Encouraged Learning
ii. Helped pay for Scientific Research
iii. Sent Priests to study at universities
iv. The Church
a. Supported the teaching of Math&Science
13. Galileo Galilei – One of the most important scientists of the Sci-Rev
A. 1st person to study sky with Telescope
i. With it – discovered craters&Mts on Moon + That Moons orbit Jupiter
B. Interested in more than Astronomy
i. Mechanics(study of objects & Motion)
C. Biggest contribution to the development of science
i. Instead of just observing things-Set up experiments to test what he observed.
ii. First scientist to routinely use Experiments to test his theories
a. For this remembered as Father of Experimental Science
D. 1593
i. Invented thermometer
a. Abt 50 years later, an Italian doctor developed more accurate model than
Galileo’s.
E. 1609
i. Invented telescope
a. Originally invented by a Dutch lens maker, Hans Lippershy in 1608
b. Galileo built a much-improved telescope which used for his imp astro
discoveries.
14. Torricelli
A. 1643
i. Invented Barometer
a. Scientific Instrument – measure air pressure
b. Used to help forecast weather
15. Renaissance influence on Sci-Rev
A. Study of Greek&Roman Ideas
 i. During the Renaissance Europeans studied Greek&Roman works
a. After studying works of Greek Rationalists – Europeans also learnt+Spread
Rationalism, which improved Sci-Rev focus of Observation+Experimentation
ii. The European Renaissance Scholars eagerly read+studied the works of Greek
Rationalists
a. Viewed them as authorities
b. But later some of their were proved wrong which led to the discovery of more
accurate versions(and the more accurate versions of them if required), other
new stuff, and the Spread of the Scientific Revolution
B. Humanism
i. The Growth of Humanism during Ren – Helped lead to the Sci-Rev
ii. Humanist artists+writers spent much of their time studying Natural World.
a. This interest in Natural World carried forward into the Sci-Rev
16. Isaac Newton(1642-1727)
A. Early Life and Education
i. Born Jan 4, 1643 England
ii. Studied at Trinity College, Cambridge
a. B.A.(Bachelor of Arts) – 1665
b. M.A.(Master of Arts) – 1668
B. Key Contributions
i. The Three Laws of Motion
a. Object in motion remains in motion unless an external force acts on it and an
Object in rest remains in rest unless an external force acts on it.
b. F=MA
c. Every Action has an Equal and Opposite Reaction
ii. Gravity
iii. Calculus
a. Mathematical study of continuous change
b. Advanced form of mathematics that scientists use to solve complex problems.
iv. Studied&Simplified work of earlier scientists. He
a. Reviewed everything Scientists had been learning
b. Coupled it with his own observations and ideas
c. Synthesized his observations with others’ to formulate theories
d. Identified four laws that described how the physical world worked(Three laws of
motion + Gravity)
v. Proposed that universe=huge machine, withing this machine all objects follow
the laws he identified
vi. In short, he explained how the Physical world worked
vii. His work Became foundation of all Scientific Study until 1900s
viii. Discoveries=Remarkable
a. But not made by himself
b. Learned from other scientists + built upon their knowledge
c. In his correspondence with another Scientist wrote “If I have seen further, it is
by standing on the shoulders of giants”.
 ix. Interested in learning about light-Conducted about a series of experiments
a. In his time most ppl assumed light was white
b. Issac Newton proved light is actually made u of all the colors of the rainbow
c. His research on light
 Basis of invention of Reflecting Telescope(The type of Telescope found in most
large observatories today)
x. He published “Principia Mathematica” in 1687
a. Describes Newton’s Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation
b. Provides Mathematical framework for understanding the motion of celestial
bodies, including planets&comets
c. Classical Mechanics & Calculus
C. Conclusion

Issac Newton’s discoveries left a permanent mark on our understanding of Science and the
Universe with his discoveries.
 Periodic-2

Mod-22 L-3

1. Francis Bacon – Eng philosopher (1561-1626)

A. Thought that
i. Scientists should observe the world and gather data about, or info, about it
ii. Scientists can conduct experiments to gather data
iii. Scientists can develop theories to explain their data and then test them through
more experiments
B. Read the works of the great sci of the Sci-Rev
i. Extremely impressed with what he had read
ii. Noted how these scientists
a. Using
 Observations
 Facts
 Experiments
 Theories
Were revealing the truth about how nature worked
C. Argued that science
i. Should be pursued in a systematic fashion
D. Tried to get the king of England to provide $ for Sci research
E. Wrote
i. If Science were pursued consistently and logically, then human knowledge would
continually advance over the years
F. 1605
i. Published his ideas in a book – The Advancement of Learning
2. René Descartes – French Philosopher (1596-1650)
A. Another thinker who made great contributions to the establishment of science
B. Believed that
i. Nothing should be accepted true if it isn’t proven true
a. Different from the belief that most European scholars had been supporting for
generations
 Believed that knowledge begins with faith
b. Descartes believed that knowledge begins with doubt
 ii. The natural world operates like a machine and follows basic physical laws.(Like
Isaac Newton)
iii. Individual existence is the one acceptable truth. “I think therefore I am.”
C. Descartes emph that ppl must use clear thinking and reason to establish proof
3. The Scientific Method
A. Tdy Scientists
i. Use a procedure called Sci-Method
B. Step-by-step method for performing experiments and other Sci-reasearch
i. Combines
a. Bacon’s idea
 Systematic Scientific process
b. Descartes’s insistence on
 Proof and Clear reasoning
c. Work of other scientists
ii. Using Sci-Method
a. Scientists have learned
 More abt the Uni in few hundred years since Sci-Rev than 1000s of years that
came before
b. Because of this the basics of The Scientific Method
 Observation
 Experimentation
are considered the main principles of modern Science
iii. Six basic steps in the Scientific Method
a. 1. Stating the problem – Often a question that begins with why
2. Gathering information – Reading what other Scientists have written and
making observations
3. Forming a hypothesis – A Hypothesis is a solution that the scientist proposes
to solve the problem
4. Testing the hypothesis by performing experiments
5. Recording and analysing data gathered from experiments
6. Drawing conclusions from the data collected
b. After Scientists have concluded their experiment, they typically publish their
results. This sharing of ideas is very important for 2 reasons: -
 First, Publishing results let other scientists try to reproduce the experiments. By
reproducing the experiments, Scientists can determine whether the results are
the same. If they are, they can be reasonably sure that the results are accurate.
If not, a new hypothesis can be formed and tested.
 Second, Publishing results spread Scientific knowledge. This opens up the
exchange of ideas. Sir Issac Newton did not just publish his work but also
exchanged many letters with other scientists.
4. Science&Govt
A. Some of the most important effects of the Sci-Rev – nothing to do with science at all
B. When philosophers began applying scientific thought to other areas of human life
i. Came up with some startling new ideas
 C. The Power of Reason
i. By the end of the Sci-Rev
a. One thing had become clear to many European thinkers
 Human reason/logical thought was a powerful tool
 After all, scientists using reason had made many disc abt the Uni in a relatively
short time
b. Since reason proved to be a way to learn some of nature’s great secrets, might
reason also be used to solve the problems facing ppl
c. Philosophers decided to use reason when they considered society’s probs like
poverty, war, etc
d. The use of reason to consider probs of the society led philosophers to look at
the world in a new way.
 Thought they could use reason to determine how to improve society
D. Democratic Ideas
i. One way in which Scientists thought they could improve Society
a. By changing its Govt
ii. Scientists’ use of reason and logic during Sci-Rev helped pave the way for the
beg of democratic thought in Europe.
iii. As scientist like Sir Issac Newton studied the world
a. Disc laws that governed nature
b. In time some Scientists began to think – there must be laws that governed
human behaviour as well.
c. Once ppl learned what these laws were
 The Scientists argued – they(the laws) could improve their(ppl’s) lives and
societies
iv. But the idea that ppl’s lives were governed by laws had a deeper meaning as
well
a. If all ppl governed by same laws then it stood to reason that all ppl must be
equal.
b. This idea of equality = fundamental step in the dev of Democratic ideas in
Europe
5. Advances in Medicine
A. Before Sci-Rev Drs approached med treatment very differently from how they do tdy
i. Their understanding of the Human Body was not based on Sci Observations
ii. Believed that health depended on keeping the body in balance
a. Ex. If a patient had a cold, a doctor might place hot cups on the skin to restore
the balance
B. During Sci-Rev
i. The field of med changed thanks to the Sci-Method
a. Ppl began to question the accepted wisdom abt medicine and the human body
ii. William Harvey – One Physician who realized there was much to learn
a. Conducted exp to learn how the Human Circulatory system worked
b. Asked many Q and concluded that prev beliefs abt the circ system are X.
c. Bec of his discoveries
  Drs changed the way they treated patients
iii. The Sci-Rev also led to other Med discoveries
a. Van Leeuwenhoek’s innovative use of microscope allowed Scientists to see
things inside the Human Body that had not been visible before.
b. They were also able to use microscope to analyse cells.
6. Sci&Rel
A. The Roman Catholic Church was a powerful force in Europe during the time of the
Sci-Rev. The birth&growth of Sci led to conflict between Scientists and the Church
B. Reasons for Conflict – There were 2 related parts to the conflict between Sci & the
Church: -
i. The New Science was putting forth ideas that contradicted Church teachings.
a. Ex. Copernicus’s idea that Earth orbited the Sun – Contradicted Church's
teaching that Earth=Centre of the Universe
ii. Related to the first. When ppl contr the Church’s teachings, they weakened the
Church
a. Church officials – afraid that questioning even one Church teaching might lead
to more and more questions abt the Church.
b. Ppl might even start to dbt key elements of faith
c. Church officials feared this would undermine the Church’s influence
C. The trial of Galileo – Conflict between Sci&Church was illustrated in this trial
i. Galileo published a book
a. Book-Supp the view that the planets orbit the sun.
ii. For this put on trial by the Inquisition (Church court that investigated ppl who
questioned Church authority)
iii. Church officials insisted that Galileo publicly reject his findings + accept Catholic
teachings that Earth=Centre of the Universe+did not move
a. Under torture agreed.
b. Still legend has it that as Galileo left his trial he muttered, “And yet it does
move.”
iv. Although he is remembered for opposing this Church teaching, Galileo-Devout
Catholic.
v. He believed that experimentation=search for an understanding of God’s
Creation.
D. Knowledge&Belief
i. Many of the scientists (mostly in the book) held similar views to Galileo’s.
ii. For the Scientists of the Sci-Rev – Sci and Trad Reli beliefs could exist at the same
time
iii. Nicolaus Coppernicius – Served as a Church Official
iv. Sir Issac Newton – Saw a close connection between Sci and Rel
a. Ex. Newton believed that all forces in nature were actions directed by God
v. Bacon too was a rel man
a. Wrote that Knowledge “is a rich storehouse for the glory of the Creator.”
b. Unlike Newton, stressed the separation of Reason and Faith.
c. He argued that Rel leaders shouldn’t try to explain Sci matters and vice versa.
 vi. Despite conflicts
a. Sci developed rapidly after the Sci-Rev
b. Scientists made and continued to make countless discoveries
c. Sci Knowledge has changed the human life dramatically and touches our life
every day.
d. Therefore, the Sci-Rev ranks as one of the most influential events in history

7. Summary

The scientific method became the standard method for all scientific study. New philosophies based
on scientific thinking would later influence government. However, scientific teachings would
sometimes conflict with religious teachings.

Mod 23 L-1

1. Desire&Opportunity to Explore
A. 1400s – An interest in discovery+exploration grew in Europe
i. Improvements in navigational tools, cartography & Shipbuilding allowed sailors
to go farther than they had ever been before
ii. These innovations encouraged/pushed sailors to explore new places
iii. We can think of these explorations as push factors
a. Because they provided the opportunity to explore the oceans
B. Some Europeans
i. Also had a desire to explore the oceans and other new places
ii. We can think of these reasons to explore as pull factors
a. Because they drew explorers toward new land and experiences
C. Reasons to Explore
i. Resources
a. Asian Spices
 Italy+Egypy controlled trade routes to Asia – Charged high prices for spices
 Pepper cost more than gold
 Many countries wanted to find a route to Asia – could get spices without having
to buy from Italian or Egyptian traders
ii. Religion – Pull factor
a. European Christians – wanted to convert more ppl to their religion to counter
the spread of Islam in Eurasia+Africa
iii. Curiosity – Imp pull factor/motivation for exploration
a. Many ppl read stories of Marco Polo’s travels + Other explorers’ adventures
b. Learned abt new lands and creatures – Became curious abt the World.
D. Advances in Technology
i. Whatever the reasons – couldn’t have gone very far without advances in tech.
ii. One obstacle to exploration – vast distance across the Atlantic Ocean
iii. The following inventions helped improve Sea Exploration
 a. Sailors started using the Astrolabe(Star Map) and the Compass to find routes
they could flow to reach faraway places and return safely home
b. Another tool called a Sextant – Helped Sailors find their position at sea. It allows
celestial objects to be measured relative to the horizon, rather than relative to
the instrument. Framed at 60 degrees, hence named Sextant – Latin word for
1/6.
c. Hourglass – Type of clock – Showed how fast a ship sailed
d. More accurate maps – Allowed sailor to sail from one port to another without
having to stay right along the coast
iv. Before these advances
a. Most Sailors avoided the open sea out of fear they might not find their way
back to land
v. These innovations
a. Push factors – Encouraged sailors to go farther than they ever had before
vi. One advancement in Shipbuilding mainly by the Portuguese
a. Caravels
 Used triangular sails that unlike traditional square sails – allowed ships to sail
against wind
 Replacing Oars (Rowing boat stick) in the ship’s sides with a rudder at the back
of the ship – Improved steering of the ships
 The new ships helped the Portuguese sailors take the lead in exploring
2. Portuguese and Spanish Explorations
A. Prince Henry the Navigator – A man who never went on any seas voyages, Responsible
for much of Portugal’s success on the seas
i. Built an observatory and a navigation school to teach sailors how to find their
way
ii. Also paid ppl to sail on voyages of exploration
B. Spanish sailors later followed the Portuguese example of exploration around the world
C. Africa
i. Even with new tech – travel on the open sea remained scary&dangerous
ii. Despite the dangers
a. Portuguese explorers sailed south on their ships
 Set successful trading posts along the way in various places
 These included present-day African nations:-
Sierra
Leone
 Ghana
iii. 1488
a. Ship led by Bartolomeu Dias
 Succeeded in sailing around southern tip of Africa
 The Crew – tired and afraid of raging seas forced Dias to turn back
 However they had found a way around Africa
iv. 1498
a. Vasco da Gama
 Sailed around Africa
 Landed on the west coast of India
 A sea route to Asia had been found
D. A “New World”
i. Imagination, daring & a few mistakes – enabled Portuguese and Spanish sailors
to discover the Americas
a. They thought these lands were a “New World”
ii. Christopher Columbus – Italian (Genoa) sailor – Thought reach Asia by sail west
a. Told his idea to Spanish Monarchs – Ferdinand+Isabella
b. Promised them
 Great Riches
 New Territory
 Catholic Converts
c. Took him sev years to convince them
 Isabella eventually agreed to pay for his journey
d. August 1492
 Set sail with 88 men + 3 small Ships
The Niña
The Pinta
The Santa Maria
e. October 12 1492
 He&his tired crew landed on a small island in the Bahamas
f. Columbus’s mistake
 Thought he reached Asia
 At the time Europeans called Asia Indies
 So Columbus called the ppl who lived on the island – Indians
g. Columbus made 3 more voyages to America during his lifetime
h. Established 1st Spanish Settler colony in the Americas + Encouraged others to
come in his letters to Spain
i. First settler colony La Isabela was located in the present-day Dominican Republic
j. Spanish colonists forced American Indians to work for them
 Also took gold+other resources from the region
k.Columbus never set foot on mainland NA
l. Columbus never realised – he had found a land unknown to Europeans
 He died on 20/5/1506 still believing that he had reached Asia
E. Pedro Cabrel – Tried to sail around Africa
 i. Sailed to far west
a. Landed on coast of Brazil
ii. Discovered South America – 22/4/1500
F. Ferdinand Magellan – Portuguese Navigator sailing for Spain
i. 1520
a. Led a voyage around the southern tip of SA
b. Daringly continued into the Pacific even though his ships were dangerously low
on food&fresh water
ii. Although killed before he made it back to Spain
a. The Voyage he directed
 First to circumnavigate the globe
G. Conquest of America
i. Spanish Explorers arrived in Americas in the early 1500s
a. The Aztec Empire
 Mexico
b. The Inca Empire
 Peru
at the height of their power
ii. Their buildings + the riches of their cities
a. Impressed the conquistadors
iii. The Spanish - Saw these empires as
a. Good sources
 Gold
 Silver
b. Missionaries
 Convert the native ppl to Christianity
iv. Spanish explorers led by Cortés and Pizarro
a. Soon conq the Aztecs&Incas
b. Had better weapons – that used gunpowder
 Helped the Spanish defeat the native ppl and establish colonies
c. Also brought diseases – Smallpox, etc
 Killed more than ¾ of the native ppl – had no immunity to the diseases
v. Vasco Núñez de Balboa
a. Founded a Spanish settler colony – In Present-day Colombia
b. Later crossed the Isthmus(An isthmus is a narrow piece of land connecting two
larger areas across an expanse of water by which they are otherwise separated.)
of Panama in search of gold
 Became the first European to see the eastern Pacific Ocean
vi. The Spanish soon ruled large parts of North and South America
3. Europeans in America
A. Like Spain&Portugal – England, France and the Netherlands
i. Wanted to find a route to Asia to get spices
ii. After Spain&Portugal gained control of southern routes – these 3 nations looked
for a waterway through North America
B. Exploring New Lands
i. 1497
a. John Cabot-Italian sailing for England – Sailed west to the coast of Canada
b. Like Columbus thought that he had reached Asia
c. Came back to England
d. Second time crossed the place he went first and went to Japan
e. But never made it back to England – Some suggest he may have reached NA
ii. 1535
a. French explorer Jacques Cartier
 Sailed up the Saint Lawrence River – into Canada
iii. Years later
a. Eng Sailor Francis Drake – Sailed along NA’s western coast
b. Drake searched for the NW Passage
 Arctic Sea route connecting Atlantic to the Pacific
c. In the end didn’t find it
iv. Another Eng Sailor – Henry Hudson – Sailed on behalf of England and the
Netherlands
a. Searched for the NW Passage
b. Failed
v. All these explorers failed to find a route to Asia
a. But Claimed land in NA for Eng, France & the Netherlands
vi. During early 1600s
a. French established settler colonies in Canada
b. One of these – Port Royal – 1605
c. Unlike Spanish settlers didn’t enslave American-Indians
 Instead, became their allies
 Port-Royal & other colonies – grew as settlers sold animal furs to Europeans
vii. 1607
a. Eng established settler colony Jamestown – Present day Virginia
b. Like French – Didn’t enslave American-Indians
 Instead, traded with them
c. Sometimes though war broke out bet the 2 grps
d. Eventually – Jamestown’s economy became based on exporting tobacco to the
Old World
viii. 1613
a. Dutch Sailor – Adrien Block
 Explored parts of NA’s eastern coast
b. This voyage led to the est of the Dutch settler colony of New Netherland.
 It’s Capital – New Amsterdam – Located on Hudson River + Atlantic Ocean
 The city soon became a centre for trade
 New Amsterdam was later conquered by the English and renamed – New York
C. Competing for Land and Wealth
i. Besides looking for a route to Asia
a. Eng hoped to find riches and resources in the New World
 b. But Spain controlled the Gold&Silver from the former Aztec and Inca Empires
ii. English Queen – Elizabeth I
a. Sent Francis Drake to the Americas
b. His mission
 Steal Gold and Silver from Spanish Ships – Galleons
c. Drake became a rich and famous Pirate
d. He and other Eng Pirates became Known as
 Sea Dogs
D. Spanish Armada
i. The Spanish – Furious at the Eng for their raids
ii. 1588
a. Sent 130 ships+30000 men to attack England
 This fleet called the Spanish Armada
 Part of Spain’s large experienced Nacy
b. But eng with faster ships + better guns
 Defeated Armada
c. Returning from battle
 More Ships lost in storms at Sea
d. Fewer than ½ the Spanish ships ever returned to Spain
iii. The wreck of the Spanish Armada
a. During battles in the English Channel – The Eng launched Fireships(ships set on
fire, so that cannons would fire automatically)
b. To escape some Spanish Sailors cut their anchor lines to escape – makes boat
turn/go faster ***(Must Ask Sir)
 Because of this some Ships wrecked during storms in North Atlantic while
returning
iv. Effect
a. Saved Eng from invasion
b. Also meant Spain no longer ruled the seas – Allowed Eng to emerge as a world
power in the following years
 This Era – Elizabethan Age – Named after the Eng Queen
4. A New European Worldview
A. The voyages of discovery
i. Changed the way Europeans thought abt the World and their place in it
ii. Brought new knowledge abt geo and proved some old beliefs X
a. Ex. Ships didn’t burn up crossing the equator; Ships don’t fall off of the edge bec
Earth is round not flat; Americas separate landmass from Asia
iii. Geographers made more accurate maps that reflected their new knowledge
iv. Improve Map-Making
a. Europeans could see maps of the whole world
b. Saw new lands & possible trade routes
c. By controlling the trade routes and the resources in the new lands
 They might gain wealth
v. Voyages of discovery
 a. Brought the beginning of a new period in which Europeans would spread their
influence around the World.
5. Summary
European explorers sailed on voyages of discovery in the 1400s and 1500s. They found wealth,
converts for Christianity, and new continents.

L-2

The Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture,
human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Americas (New World)
and the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa) following Christopher Columbus's voyages
to the Americas in 1492. This exchange significantly altered the lives of people across
these continents, leading to profound social, cultural, and economic changes.

Impacts on the New World

1. Introduction of New Plants and Animals:

 European settlers brought domesticated animals like horses, cows, pigs,

sheep, and chickens to the Americas, transforming agriculture and
transportation. For instance, horses revolutionized travel and warfare for
many Native American tribes .
 European crops such as wheat, sugarcane, and coffee were introduced,
leading to the establishment of plantations. However, these plantations
often relied on the forced labor of Native Americans and enslaved Africans
.

2. Spread of Diseases:

 Diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza were brought by Europeans,

to which Native Americans had no immunity. This resulted in devastating
epidemics that drastically reduced indigenous populations, with some
areas seeing declines of over 80%.

3. Cultural and Technological Changes:

  Europeans introduced new technologies such as guns and steel tools,
which altered indigenous ways of life and warfare .
 European missionaries spread Christianity, leading to significant religious
and cultural shifts. In many cases, European languages and educational
systems were imposed, reshaping local cultures .

Impacts on Europe

1. Introduction of New Crops:

 Crops native to the Americas, such as potatoes, maize (corn), tomatoes,

and tobacco, were introduced to Europe. These crops became staples in
European diets and significantly impacted agricultural practices and
cuisines. For example, the potato became a critical food source in Ireland
and Northern Europe, leading to population growth .

2. Economic Changes:

 The influx of precious metals like silver and gold from the Americas
boosted European economies. This wealth helped fuel the growth of
capitalism and the development of global trade networks .
 The establishment of plantations in the New World provided Europe with
valuable cash crops like sugar and tobacco, which became significant in
European trade and industry.

3. Cultural Exchange:

 The exchange of plants and animals also affected European culture. New
foods transformed European diets, and the introduction of American crops
contributed to population increases in Europe.
 European societies experienced cultural exchanges through the adoption
of American goods and practices, and the spread of European culture and
technology to the Americas created a more interconnected world .

Overall, the Columbian Exchange had far-reaching consequences, reshaping the

economies, cultures, and populations of both the New World and Europe. The
movement of plants, animals, and people facilitated significant and lasting changes in
both hemispheres.