How to Start an Avant-Garde

Author(s): Robert B. Ray

Source: The Antioch Review, Vol. 52, No. 1, Poetry Today (Winter, 1994), pp. 34-43
Published by: Antioch Review Inc.
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 How to Start an
Avant-Garde

BY ROBERT B. RAY

Aldthough its demise is periodically announced-most recently at

the hands of that all-purposeassassin-without-passport,"Theory"-
the avant-garde survives as an attitude, a temptation, and even an
aestheticpractice.Confrontedwith media culture's voraciouspowers
of assimilation, which can, within a few years, popularizesomething
like PunkRock by transformingit firstinto "NewWave"andlater(and
moreprofitably)into "Alternative,"the avant-gardeseems left without
its defining characteristic,its refuse status. Indeed, late-twentieth-
century western culture, wired from birth to grave, requiresthat we
reformulatetwo famousavant-gardemaxims:GertrudeStein's dismissal
of Oakland("Thereis no therethere")andJean-LucGodard's definition
of film ("Photographyis truth, and the cinema is truth twenty-four
times a second"). In the land of Fax machines, cellular phones, and
cable TV, "Thereis no outside there,"and we live underthe regime of
"Ideology 180,000 times a second."
The avant-garde,of course, has not remainedunaffected by this
new environment,characterizedmost of all by speed. But to assume
that increasinglyrapidco-option will destroy the avant-gardeignores
how much the avant-gardeitself has, throughoutits history,promoted
its own acceptance. From the start, its preferred analogy was to
science, where the route from pure researchto applied technology is
not only a matter of course, but also a raison d'etre for the whole
enterprise. From this perspective, the avant-gardist's typical com-
plaint about assimilation seems misguided. When The Clash's Joe
Strummerdenouncedfraternityparties' use of "Rock the Casbah"as
mindless dance music, he seemed like a chemist protestingthe use of

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 How to Start an Avant-Garde 35

his ideas for somethingas ordinary(anduseful) as, let us say, laundry

detergent.
The Impressionists, on the other hand, the first avant-garde,
understoodalmostimmediatelythatassimilationwas a necessarygoal.
As a result, anyone wanting to starta new avant-gardeshould study
their strategies, especially those designed to deal with the one great
problem that, since Impressionism,has dictated the shape of the art
world-the problem of the Gap. As a movement, Impressionism
arrived at a moment when art (and, by implication, almost any
innovative activity) encountereda new set of circumstances.In par-
ticular,for the first time in history, the artworld began to assume that
between the introductionof a new style and its acceptance by the
public, a gap would inevitably exist. As JerroldSeigel summarizes:
The Impressionists' self-conscious experimentalism, their exploration of the
conditions and implications of artistic productionin a modern market setting, and
their sense that they bore the burdenof an unavoidableopposition between innova-
tion in art and society's hostile incomprehension -all made their experience
paradigmatic.(Bohemian Paris, Viking, 1986)

There is another,more lyrical, way of puttingthe matter:

No one is ahead of his time, it is only that the particularvariety of creating his
time is the one that his contemporarieswho are also creating their own time refuse
to accept. And they refuse to accept it for a very simple reason and that is that they
do not have to accept it for any reason.... In the case of the arts it is very definite.
Those who are creating the moderncomposition authenticallyare naturallyonly of
importancewhen they are dead because by thattime the moderncomposition having
become past is classified and the descriptionof it is classical. That is the reason why
the creatorof the new composition in the-artsis an outlaw until he is a classic, there
is hardly a moment in between and it is really too bad very much too bad naturally
for the creatorbut also very much too bad for the enjoyer....
For a very long time everybody refuses and then almost without a pause almost
everybody accepts. (GertrudeStein, "Compositionas Explanation")

Although GertrudeStein argued that an innovator's contemporaries

dismiss his work simply because "theydo not have to accept it for any
reason,"the standardarthistory accountof the matterruns somewhat
differently. In the wake of the French Revolution, the decline of the
stable patronage system, which had rested on a small sophisticated
audience,readyto commission andpurchaseart,resultedin anentirely
new audience for painting-the bourgeoisie, newly come to power
(both politically and financially), but less sophisticated, less secure
about its own taste. Such an audience (the prototypeof the generalist

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36 The Antioch Review

lost in a world of specialization) will inevitably prove conservative,

will inevitably lag behind the increasinglyrapidstylistic innovations,
stimulatedin partby this very system (which, afterall, is a marketplace,
thrivingon novelty) and its technology (particularlyphotography,the
technology interveningmost directly into painting's realm).
Mass taste, in otherwords,mustbe educatedto acceptwhatit does
not alreadyknow. Of course, most mass art(Hollywood, for example)
avoids taking on that project and merely reproduces variations of
familiar forms. But unless avant-gardeartists remain content with
posthumous success (represented as the only "genuine" kind by
Balzac's Lost Illusions, a principalsource of the avant-garde'smyth),
they must work to reduce the gap between the introduction and
acceptanceof theirwork.How do they go aboutdoing so? How do you
startan avant-garde?
Although the avant-gardecarries the reputationof irresponsible
rebellion,it, in fact, amountsto the humanities'equivalentof science's
pureresearch.Havingderivedits namefromthe military(particularly,
from the term for the advance troops entrustedwith opening holes in
the enemy position), and having repeatedlycommitteditself to scien-
tifically conceived projects (e.g., Zola's "The ExperimentalNovel,"
Breton's "SurrealistManifesto"),the avant-gardehas always had its
practical side. Indeed, in many ways, it amounts to a laboratoryof
creativityitself. Thus,the question"Howdo you startanavant-garde?"
has implicationsfor any undertakingwhere innovationis valuable.
Not surprisingly,sociologists of science have long been interested
in this question. More to the point here, a large, although scattered,
body of writinghas developed aroundthe problemof the gap between
the introduction and acceptance of modern art. Tom Wolfe's The
Painted Word,witty andcynical, takesupjournalisticallywhatFrancis
Haskell's "Enemies of Modern Art" and Rosen and Zemer's "The
Ideology of the Licked Surface:Official Art"treatlearnedly.In what
follows, althoughI will referto those sources,I will drawprimarilyon
whatremainsthe best discussion of the Impressionists'role in the new
artworld, HarrisonandCynthiaWhite's Canvasesand Careers (John
Wiley, 1965). Thatbook makes clear thateven if you are a greatartist,
if you want art to become not a hobby but a paying career,you must
attend to the issue of the Gap. In fact, you should follow The Eight
Rulesfor Startingan Avant-Garde.
1. Collaboration.Outsidersworkingtogetherhave a betterchance
of imposing themselves than does someone working alone. Think of

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 How to Start an Avant-Garde 37

Romanticism(ColeridgeandWordsworth,GoetheandSchiller),Cub-
ism (Picasso and Braque), Surrealism(Breton, Eluard,and Aragon),
Deconstruction (Derrida, DeMan, and Miller), Punk Rock (the Sex
Pistols, the Clash). Othermembersof yourgroupwill referto you, cite
you, make contacts for you, and collaborationtypically proves aes-
thetically stimulating as well. From the outset, the Impressionists
understoodthis principle.As earlyas 1864, Monet,Renoir,Sisley, and
Bazille painted together in the Forest of Fontainebleau,and subse-
quently they shared Parisian studios or apartments.Even Manet, a
relativeloner amongthe Impressionists,maintainedan informalsalon
at the Caf6 Guerbois,where writers(especially Zola) and otherartists
(e.g., the photographerNadar)mixed with the painters.
2. TheImportanceof the Name. A crucialfactorin the Impression-
ists' success was the movement's name, which Harrisonand Cynthia
White point out "was in the greattraditionof rebel names. Thrownat
them initially as a gibe to provide a convenient handleto insult them,
it was adoptedby the group in defiance and for want of a betterterm
and made into a winning pennant.""Impressionism"aptly describes
much of theirwork;the name was easy to rememberand carriedwith
it the theoretical justification for a style that seemed unfinished,
especially when comparedto the 'fini" or "licked"surface of their
official, acceptedcontemporaries,thePompiers.No avant-gardegroup
has ever achieved majoracceptancewithout a catchy name: think of
"Futurism,""Structuralism," "Situationism,""theYale School,""Fau-
vism," "La Nouvelle Vague," and even "Dada,"a parody of such
names, meaningless, or at least intendedto be. The name provides a
group identity. Using "The Impressionists,"Zola and other critics
lumped the individual painters together, and they began to think of
themselves as a more coherent group than at first they had actually
been. The name provided a hook for critics and dealers, furthering
publicity:to review one of the Impressionistswas to review them all.
The final stage of this groupidentitygenerallyresultsin the formation
of some official institute or association: the Impressionists formed
their own joint stock company which staged their exhibitions.
3. The Star. Avant-garde movements need a key figure whose
glamorandprolificnesswill attractandfocus the attentionof outsiders.
The Impressionistshad Manet-rich, witty, articulate,and shocking,
while also being, by virtue of his trainingand disposition, the most
clearly linked to the greattraditionsof Frenchpainting. Othermove-
ments had their own stars:

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38 The Antioch Review

Cubism: Picasso
Futurism: Marinetti
The Bauhaus: Gropius
Modernism(musical branch):Stravinsky
Surrealism: Breton
Relativity: Einstein
Situationism: Debord
AbstractExpressionism: Pollock
Pop Art: Warhol
La Nouvelle Vague: Godard
Punk Rock: JohnnyRotten
Structuralism: Levi-Strauss
Semiotics: Barthes
Deconstruction: Derrida
Rap: Public Enemy
4. TraditionalTraining.Even if you eventuallyrejectits precepts,
some encounterswith a profession's more or less official schools give
you a sense of what to expect. With thatwork behindyou, you have a
betterchance of justifying your own deviationsby demonstratingthat
you have chosen to ignore standardsthatyou have mastered.With the
bourgeoisaudience,nothinghelpedPicasso's reputationmorethanhis
masterfulskills in conventionaldrawing.Almost all of the Impression-
ists (Cezanne is the great exception) studied at either the Ecole des
Beaux-Arts or privately with Academic painters. Sometimes the
definitionof "traditionaltraining"may prove less obvious. WithPunk
Rock, for example,formalmusic studymatteredfarless thanextensive
experience in workingbands:thus, for all its self-propagatedmyth of
amateurism, Punk's important bands always contained pros. Yes,
JohnnyRottenand Sid Vicious were novices, but drummerPaul Cook
and guitaristSteve Jones were certainly not.
5. The Conceptof the Career.The Impressionistsdemonstratethe
effectiveness of refocusing one's attention away from individual
paintings,executed for specific occasions designatedby a patron,to a
whole career and its evolution. Thinking in terms of a career means
constructinga narrativethat will make sense of an artist's develop-
ment. The Gap, of course, makes such careerthinkingmore subtle, a
matterfor continuousrenegotiation.Adopting the extreme long view
amounts to accepting a success that will be, at best, posthumous.
Stendhal's famous line-"I have drawn a lottery ticket whose first
prize amountsto this: to be readin 1935"-represents the test case. As

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 How to Start an Avant-Garde 39

a publicity gambit, it is perfect, wittily establishing the frame of

referencemost beneficial to his difficult writing:given wider circula-
tion in his own lifetime, it mighteven have helpedhim sell morebooks.
The extent to which Stendhalwas content with this ultimatepay-off,
however, was a directfunction of his having othersources of income.
An avant-gardistwithout such independentmeans should probably
adopt Andy Warhol's approachinstead:"Business art is the step that
comes afterArt. I startedas a commercialartist,andI wantto finish as
a business artist."
6. New Avenuesfor Distributionand Exhibition.The Impression-
ists' Salons des Refuses, groupshows stagedby dealers,and one-man
exhibitionsareall the equivalentof the new recordlabels (Punk'sStiff
and RoughTrade)and new journals(e.g., October,CameraObscura,
Diacritics, Substance) that provide places where off-beat work can
appearwhen the official channels(the majorlabels, PMLA)areclosed.
Durand-Ruel,the principal Impressionist dealer, founded his own
journal. He also opened new marketsfor art,particularlyin America,
by redefining art as an investment,a speculationwith possibilities of
appreciation,thereby enabling sales to that class which understood
money more than painting:the bourgeoisie.
7. Reconceptualizationof the Division of Labor. In the French
Academy system, painters(at least those enthronedin the Institut)also
functionedas judges, selecting the works that appearedin the annual
Salons. They both painted and set the standardsfor new painting.
Rapidly detecting this conflict of interest, which discouraged the
receptionof even slightly differentwork, the Impressionists,perhaps
imitating the burgeoningindustrialrevolution surroundingthem, di-
vided the labor:paintersstuckto painting,leaving to dealersandcritics
the task of assessment. In many ways, the avant-garde's history
representsa constant tinkeringwith the division of labor, usually in
ways that challenge contemporaryarrangements.Thus, with the fac-
tory system establishedas the norm,Duchampchose to act not only as
an artist,but also as his own dealerandcritic, therebyrecombiningthe
roles the Impressionistshaddivided. Duchamp'sexamplehas become
the postmodernstandard,with artist/theoretician/publicist figures like
Joseph Beuys, Andy Warhol,BarbaraKruger,and SherrieLevine.
8. The Role of Theoryand Publicity. In The Painted Word,Tom
Wolfe decries AbstractExpressionism'sreliance on the criticism that
sustainedit. Thatsymbioticrelationship,however,beganwith Impres-
sionism and the period of the new, insecure purchaser.Twentieth-

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40 TheAntioch Review

centuryart made thatrelationshippermanent,requiring,as T.S. Eliot

put it, thatan innovative artisthelp createthe taste by which his work
will be judged. New styles typically demand a new critical idea.
Impressionism,as many art historianshave observed, markeda shift
fromargumentsaboutsubjectmatter(deemphasizedby manyImpres-
sionists) to ones aboutstyle. If, accordingto Wolfe, the key to Abstract
Expressionism's success was the concept of flatness (which justified
nonfigurativepainting to a skeptical public), Manet et al. benefited
from the concepts of "the impression"and "the painting of modern
life," termsthatlegitimizedboththe sketchy,unfinishedappearanceof
many Impressionistpaintings and their everyday, non-classical sub-
jects. Even more important,writers favorable to the Impressionists
redefinedthe notion of the artist,who became less an artisan,working
for traditionalpatrons,thana romanticoutsider,speculatingon future
recognition. This new critical idea turned conventional standards
upside down. By recastingthe Academy as a groupof outdatedstuffed
shirts, vestiges of the ancien regime's hostility towards bourgeois
economic and social power, the Impressionists' critics effectively
identified the artist with his new client and made rejection by the
academy itself the sign of worth.
This move proved decisive. The most brilliant discussion of its
effects appearin FrancisHaskell's "Enemiesof ModernArt,"which
turnson Impressionism'scritical reception. Haskell wants to remind
us how ugly those paintingsonce seemed. He quotes AlbertWolff, an
importantcritic, reviewing the second Impressionist exhibition of
1876:
The rue Le Peletier is out of luck. After the burningdown of the Opera,here is
a new disaster which has struckthe district. An exhibition said to be of paintinghas
just opened at the gallery of Durand-Ruel.The harmless passer-by, attractedby the
flags which decorate the facade, goes in and is confrontedby a cruel spectacle. Five
or six fanatics, one of them a woman, an unfortunategroup struck by the mania of
ambition, have met there to exhibit their works. Some people split their sides with
laughter when they see these things, but I feel heartbroken.These so-called artists
call themselves "intransigeants, " "Impressionists." They take the canvas, paints and
brushes, fling something on at randomand hope for the best.

In both its tone andjudgment, this passage seems as disastrousas a

more famous one thatappearedin the New YorkTimesin 1956, when
televisioncriticJackGouldreviewedtheMiltonBerleShowappearance
of Elvis Presley:
Mr. Presley has no discernible singing ability. His specialty is rhythm songs

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 How to Start an Avant-Garde 41

which he rendersin an undistinguishedwhine; his phrasing, if it can be called that,

consists of the stereotypedvariationsthatgo with a beginner's aria in a bathtub.For
the ear, he is an unutterablebore, not nearly so talented as FrankSinatraback in the
latter's ratherhysterical days at the ParamountTheater.

This kindof mistakebeganwith Impressionism,the event thatrevealed

how the gap between the introductionandacceptanceof radicallynew
art had become systemic. In "The Ideology of the Licked Surface:
Official Art,"Rosen andZernerdramatizethis point by concentrating
on a single year, 1874, and the painters missing from the Palais du
Luxembourg,thenFrance'sofficial museumof modernart:no Manet,
no Monet, no Renoir, no Degas, no Cezanne-indeed no painters
whom we now consider important:"Overthe course of the century,"
Rosen and Zernerwrite, "a gap had opened like a trenchbetween the
museum and the new art"so that by 1874, the curatorshad entirely
excluded precisely thatbody of work which futuregenerationswould
come to regardas the best of its time.
Some of Impressionism'scritics were ambivalentabouttheirown
responsesto these works,whose newness brokewiththe very formsthe
writers themselves had previously worked to establish. Indeed, Im-
pressionism prompted its most scrupulous reviewer to articulate,
perhapsfor the firsttime, one of the two greatdangersfacing any critic
of any avant-garde:the possibility thatone might simply be too old to
understandwhathadarrived,theproblemwhich we mightcall "critical
senility."Reviewing the 1868 Salon show, ThetophileGautier,one of
the best critics of his generation,diagnosed himself:
Faced with this paradoxin painting, one may give the impression-even if one
does not admitthe charge-of being frightened,lest one be dismissed as a philistine,
a bourgeois, a JosephPrudhomme,a cretin with a fancy for miniaturesandcopies for
paintings on porcelain, worse still, as an old fogey who sees some merit in David's
Rape of the Sabines. One clutches at oneself, so to speak, in terror,one runs one's
hand over one's stomach or one's skull, wondering if one has grown pot-bellied or
bald, incapable of understandingthe courage and daring of youth.... One reminds
oneself of the antipathy,the horroraroused some 30 years ago by the paintings of
Delacroix, Decamps, Boulanger,Scheffer, CorotandRousseau, for so long excluded
from the Salon....Those who are honest with themselves, when they consider these
disturbingprecedents, wonder whether it is ever possible to understandanythingin
art other than the works of the generation of which one is a contemporary,in other
words the generation that came of age when one came of age oneself.... It is
conceivable that the pictures of Courbet, Manet, Monet, and others of their ilk
conceal beauties that elude us, with our old romanticmanes already shot with silver
threads.

In this new environment,criticism becomes precarious.In 1881, an

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42 The Antioch Review

event occurredthat upped the stakes: less than two years before his
death, for a ratherordinaryeffort by his own standards(a painting
called M. Pertuiset, the Lion Hunter),Manetwon the Salon's second-
place medal. A few monthslater, thanksto a friend in the Ministryof
Arts, he also received the Legion d'honneur.The importanceof these
circumstances,in FrancisHaskell's opinion, cannot be overstated:
Manet, the greatest enemy the Academy had ever known, Manet who had been
mocked as no otherartistever before him:Manetwas now honouredby the Academy,
decoratedby the State, accepted (however grudgingly) as an artistof majorsignifi-
cance. Everything will now be acceptable at the Salons: that is the implication that
is drawnfrom all this... .The acknowledgementthattherehadbeen a war, but thatthe
critics had (so to speak) lost it and that it was in any case now over, is perhapsthe
single most importantpreludeto the developmentof what we now thinkof as modern
art. (Past and Present in Art and Taste, Yale, 1987)

From this point on, critics grow wary. Aware of previous mistakes,
reviewers become increasingly afraid to condemn anything, since
anything might turn out to be the next Manet. Hence, the second of
modern criticism's two great dangers, what Max Ernst called
"overcomprehension"or "the waning of indignation":having prop-
agatedthe notions of rejectionandincomprehensibilityas promisesof
ultimatevalue, the avant-gardehad protecteditself frombad reviews.
Ininitiatingthismove, ImpressionismprefiguresPostmodernism's
diminishedconcernfor the workof artitself, as opposedto the contexts
in which such work might occur. With the rise of what GerardGenette
has called "the paratext,"meaning and value become highly nego-
tiable, just like commodities, just like paintings themselves. And
theory and publicity turnout to be the principaltools for influencing
the ways in which art will mean.
In the age of Madonna,publicity's importanceshouldbe obvious.
The Impressionists,however,over a centuryago, recognizedits role in
startingan avant-garde.By the second half of the twentieth century,
strange things had become possible. Here is an example. Between
1952 and 1959, Hollywood filmmakerDouglas Sirk,a Germanemigre
of Danish extraction, made a series of big-budget, commercially
successful melodramas,usually starringRock Hudson: Magnificent
Obsession,All ThatHeavenAllows, Writtenon the Wind,andImitation
of Life (without Hudson). At their release, these movies received no
critical attention;like most Hollywood products,they did theirjob-
they entertainedand made money, and then they were forgotten.
In the late 1960s, however, from his retirementretreatin Switzer-

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 How to Start an Avant-Garde 43

land,Sirkbegangiving a series of interviews(startingwith the Cahiers

du Cinema in 1967). He now claimed that his movies (which, within
ten years, had dated remarkably,becoming camp reminders of an
abandonedstyle) had, in fact, been subversive, critical parodies of
American"bourgeoisvalues" and Hollywood melodrama.Intention-
ally or not, Sirk had perfectly timed his play. It was eagerly received
by an Anglo-Americanfilm studiescommunityflush with two incom-
patible enthusiasms:auteurism and leftist ideology. Sirk provided a
bridge between the two, as an auteur hero whose struggle against
Hollywood's "repressivestudio system"had involved a sly critiqueof
middle-class life. The Sirk boom was on, and since then, analyses of
his films have flowered in journals and at conferences. By 1978, one
film scholar could matter-of-factly refer to "Sirk's famous ironic
subtext."
The Sirk phenomenon repeated the founding gesture of
postmodernismandconceptualart,MarcelDuchamp's designationof
the ready-madeurinal, bought at a plumbing supply store, as an art
work entitled "Fountain."Sirk had also worked with found objects,
which happenedto be his own work, and he had changed their status
and meaningwithoutmodifying them in any way. He had simplysaid
somethingabout them,therebyconfirmingWalterBenjamin'sfamous
dictum that "Any person, any object, any relationship can mean
absolutely anythingelse."
Since the time when Impressionismfirst showed us how to startan
avant-garde,the role of what has come to be known as Theory has
grownenormously.Bohemianism,afterall, was fromthe startwhatthe
Goncourtbrotherscalled "afreemasonryof publicity."Indeed,I would
suggest that the avant-gardeattitude,which since Impressionismhas
appeared in painting, music, architecture,literature, and film, has
begun to enterthe realmof criticism itself. The formallyexperimental
work of RolandBarthesand JacquesDerridaoffers us the early signs
of this move. In retrospect,this developmentseems inevitable. Given
the avant-garde'surgentneed to contractthe Gap, it had to dependon
theory as its advocate. Sooner or later, having invented the script for
this project,the supportingplayerwould have to takecenterstage. We
have reachedthat moment now.

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