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Contents
Preface xiii
Resources for Success xviii
Photo Credits xx
Test 165 Summary 260
Review Exercises 264
Test 268
3 Polynomial Functions 167
3.1 Complex Numbers 168
The Imaginary Unit i • Operations with Complex
4 Rational, Power,
Numbers
and Root Functions 269
3.2 Quadratic Functions and Graphs 174 4.1 Rational Functions and Graphs (I) 270
Completing the Square • Graphs of Quadratic 1
The Reciprocal Function ƒ(x ) = • The Function
Functions • Ver tex Formula • Extreme Values x
1
• Applications and Quadratic Models ƒ(x) = 2
x
3.3 Quadratic Equations
4.2 Rational Functions and Graphs (II) 276
and Inequalities 187
Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes • Graphing
Zero-Product Property • Square Root Property and
Techniques • Oblique Asymptotes • Graphs with
Completing the Square • Quadratic Formula and the
Points of Discontinuity • Graphs with No Vertical
Discriminant • Solving Quadratic Equations
Asymptotes
• Solving Quadratic Inequalities • Formulas
Involving Quadratics 4.3 Rational Equations, Inequalities, Models,
Reviewing Basic Concepts and Applications 289
(Sections 3.1–3.3) 202 Solving Rational Equations and Inequalities
• Models and Applications of Rational Functions
3.4 Applications of Quadratic Functions • Inverse Variation • Combined and Joint Variation
and Models 203 • Rate of Work
Applications of Quadratic Functions • A Quadratic
Reviewing Basic Concepts
Model
(Sections 4.1–4.3) 304
3.5 Higher-Degree Polynomial Functions and
4.4 Functions Defined by Powers
Graphs 212
and Roots 305
Cubic Functions • Quartic Functions • Extrema
Power and Root Functions • Modeling Using Power
• End Behavior • x-Intercepts (Real Zeros) n
Functions • Graphs of ƒ(x) = 2ax + b • Graphing
• Comprehensive Graphs • Curve Fitting
Circles and Horizontal Parabolas Using Root Functions
and Polynomial Models
Reviewing Basic Concepts 4.5 Equations, Inequalities, and Applications
(Sections 3.4–3.5) 225 Involving Root Functions 317
Equations and Inequalities • An Application of Root
3.6 Topics in the Theory of Polynomial Functions
Functions (I) 225
Reviewing Basic Concepts
Intermediate Value Theorem • Division of Polynomials
(Sections 4.4–4.5) 328
by x - k and Synthetic Division • Remainder
and Factor Theorems • Division of Any Two Summary 328
Polynomials Review Exercises 330
7.3 The Conic Sections and Nonlinear 8.6 Evaluating Trigonometric Functions 622
Systems 530 Definitions of the Trigonometric Functions
Characteristics • Identifying Conic Sections • Trigonometric Function Values of Special Angles
• Eccentricity • Nonlinear Systems • Cofunction Identities • Reference Angles • Special
Angles as Reference Angles • Finding Function
7.4 Parametric Equations 541
Values with a Calculator • Finding Angle Measures
Graphs of Parametric Equations and Their Rectan-
and Segment Lengths
gular Equivalents • Alternative Forms of Parametric
Equations • An Application of Parametric Equations 8.7 Applications of Right Triangles 634
Reviewing Basic Concepts Significant Digits • Solving Triangles • Angles
(Sections 7.3–7.4) 546 of Elevation or Depression • Bearing • Further
Applications of Trigonometric Functions
Summary 546
Review Exercises 548 8.8 Harmonic Motion 646
Simple Harmonic Motion • Damped Oscillatory
Test 551
Motion
Reviewing Basic Concepts
(Sections 8.5–8.8) 649
8 The Unit Circle Summary 650
and the Functions Review Exercises 654
of Trigonometry 553 Test 657
12.3 One-Sided Limits and Limits Involving R.5 Review of Radicals 943
Infinity 885 Radical Notation • Rules for Radicals • Simplifying
Right- and Left-Hand Limits • Infinity as a Limit Radicals • Operations with Radicals • Rationalizing
• Limits as x Approaches { ∞ Denominators
Reviewing Basic Concepts Test 950
(Sections 12.1–12.3) 894
12.4 Tangent Lines and Derivatives 895 Appendix A: Geometry Formulas 951
The Tangent Line as a Limit of Secant Lines
Appendix B: Vectors in Space 953
• Derivative of a Function • Interpretation of the
Derivative as a Rate of Change • Marginal Concept Appendix C: Polar Form of Conic
in Economics Sections 958
12.5 Area and the Definite Integral 904 Appendix D: Rotation of Axes 962
Areas by Approximation • The Definite Integral
Answers to Selected Exercises A-1
Reviewing Basic Concepts
(Sections 12.4–12.5) 911 Index I-1
Summary 911
Review Exercises 913
Test 916
xiii
Graphing calculator screens have been updated to the TI-84 Plus (Silver Edi-
tion) with MATHPRINT.
Throughout the text, data have been updated to increase student interest in
mathematics. Some new application topics include half-life of a Twitter link,
iPads, social networks, accuracy of professional golfers, and smartphone
demographics.
Exercise sets have been revised so that odd and even exercises are paired
appropriately.
Chapter 1 has increased emphasis on evaluating function notation, inter-
preting slope as a rate of change, and evaluating average rate of change
using graphs.
Chapter 2 now has clearer explanations of how to transform graphs and also
how to write transformations in terms of function notation. Additional exer-
cises covering the domain and range of shifted functions have been included.
Chapter 3 includes more examples and exercises that cover curve fitting
by hand, solving quadratic equations by completing the square, and solving
polynomial equations and inequalities.
Chapter 4 includes an increased discussion of limit notation near asymp-
totes, circles, horizontal parabolas, rational equations and inequalities, and
rational expressions with fractional exponents.
Chapter 5 has additional examples and exercises related to graphing inverse
functions by hand, solving exponential equations with negative exponents,
simplifying logarithmic expressions, and solving logarithmic equations.
Chapter 6 now covers matrices and linear systems. It has updated consumer
spending applications, a 4-step process for solving linear systems, additional
examples and exercises covering systems with no solution, and a new exam-
ple to better explain the technique of finding partial fraction decompositions.
Chapter 7 now covers conic sections and nonlinear systems of equations
and inequalities. Additional examples and exercises have been added.
Chapter 8 includes clearer discussions, updated figures, and more exercises
related to writing angles as fractions of a revolution, determining trigono-
metric equations given a graph, finding transformations and phase shifts,
and graphing the six trigonometric functions. It also includes additional
explanations on entering trigonometric functions, their inverses, and their
reciprocals into a calculator.
Chapter 9 now has increased clarity on just-in-time strategies for verifying
identities and how graphs can be used to help identify identities. Additional
examples and exercises have been added to find trigonometric function values
of angles and to solve trigonometric equations, including finding all real
solutions and determining whether trigonometric equations have no solution.
A new application involving music has also been added.
Chapter 10 has new examples of how to use the law of sines and law of
cosines to solve triangles, and also to solve navigation problems. Hints and
comments have been added to increase understanding of vectors. It also
includes more exercises involving converting complex numbers to trigono-
metric form and graphing parametric equations.
Chapter 11 has additional examples and exercises to better explain writing
series in summation notation, evaluating recursive sequences, and summing
series.
Chapter 12 has many new exercises for finding limits. It also has new
discussions, examples, and exercises that relate the derivative to the limit of
the difference quotient. In addition, there is now an emphasis on finding a
general formula for the derivative of a function. A new example applying the
derivative to the marginal cost function from economics is also included.
Features
We are pleased to offer the following enhanced features.
Chapter Openers Chapter openers provide a chapter outline and a brief discus-
sion related to the chapter content.
Enhanced Examples We have replaced and included new examples in this edi-
tion, and have polished solutions and incorporated more side comments and pointers.
Pointers Comments with pointers (bubbles) provide students with on-the-spot expla-
nations, reminders, and warnings about common pitfalls.
Figures and Photos Today’s students are more visually oriented than ever. As
a result, we have made a concerted effort to provide more figures, diagrams, tables,
and graphs, including the “hand-drawn” style of graphs, whenever possible. We also
include photos accompanying applications in examples and exercises.
What Went Wrong? This popular feature anticipates typical errors that students
make when using graphing technology and provides an avenue for instructors to high-
light and discuss such errors. Answers are included on the same page as the “What
Went Wrong?” boxes.
Cautions and Notes These warn students of common errors and emphasize
important ideas throughout the exposition.
Looking Ahead to Calculus These margin notes provide glimpses of how the
algebraic topics currently being studied are used in calculus.
Algebra Reviews This new feature, occurring in the margin of the text, provides
“just in time” review by referring students to where they can receive additional help
with important topics from algebra.
Technology Notes Also appearing in the margin, these notes provide tips to stu-
dents on how to use graphing calculators more effectively.
For Discussion These activities appear within the exposition or in the margins
and offer material on important concepts for instructors and students to investigate or
discuss in class.
Exercise Sets We have taken special care to respond to the suggestions of users
and reviewers and have added hundreds of new exercises to this edition on the basis
of their feedback. The text continues to provide students with ample opportunities to
practice, apply, connect, and extend concepts and skills. We have included writing
exercises as well as multiple-choice, matching, true/false, and completion prob-
lems. Exercises marked Concept Check focus on mathematical thinking and conceptual
understanding, while those marked Checking Analytic Skills specifically are intended
for students to solve without the use of a calculator.
Reviewing Basic Concepts These sets of exercises appear every two or three
sections and allow students to review and check their understanding of the material in
preceding sections. All answers to these problems are included in the answer section.
Chapter Review Material One of the most popular features of the text, each end-
of-chapter Summary features a section-by-section list of Key Terms and Symbols, in
addition to Key Concepts. A comprehensive set of Chapter Review Exercises and a
Chapter Test are also included.
Acknowledgments
Previous editions of this text were published after thousands of hours of work, not
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editors. To these individuals and to all those who have worked in some way on this
text over the years, we are most grateful for your contributions. We could not have
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We especially wish to thank the following individuals who provided valuable
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xx
1 Linear Functions,
Equations, and Inequalities
Chapter Outline
Sets of Numbers
Whole numbers include the natural numbers; integers include the whole num-
bers and the natural numbers. The result of dividing two integers (with a nonzero divi-
sor) is a rational number, or fraction. Rational numbers include the natural numbers,
Origin
whole numbers, and integers. For example, the integer - 3 is a rational number because
it can be written as -13 . Every rational number can be written as a repeating or terminat-
ing decimal. For example, 0.6 = 0.66666 crepresents the rational number 23 .
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 Numbers that can be written as decimal numbers are real numbers. Real num-
Real number line with the origin plotted
bers include rational numbers and can be shown pictorially—that is, graphed—on a
Figure 1
number line. The point on a number line corresponding to 0 is called the origin. See
FIGURE 1. Every real number corresponds to one and only one point on the number line,
and each point corresponds to one and only one real number. This correspondence is
called a coordinate system. The number associated with a given point is called the
–5 – 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
coordinate of the point. The set of all real numbers is graphed in FIGURE 2.
Graph of the set of real numbers Some real numbers cannot be represented by quotients of integers or by repeating
Figure 2 or terminating decimals. These numbers are called irrational numbers. Examples of
irrational numbers include 23, 25, 2 3 5
10, and 2 20, but not 21, 24, 29, c,
which equal 1, 2, 3, c, and hence are rational numbers. If a is a natural number but
2a is not a natural number, then 2a is an irrational number. Another irrational num-
2
–
3 √2 √5 ber is p, which is approximately equal to 3.14159. In FIGURE 3 the irrational and ratio-
–1 0 1 2 3 4 nal numbers in the set 5 - 23 , 0, 22, 25, p, 4 6 are located on a number line. Note that
2
Graph of –
3, 0, √2, √5, , 4 22 is approximately equal to 1.41, so it is located between 1 and 2, slightly closer to 1.
Figure 3
y-axis René Descartes (1596–1650). The number lines intersect at the origin of the system,
designated 0.The horizontal number line is called the x-axis, and the vertical number
Quadrant Quadrant line is called the y-axis. On the x-axis, positive numbers are located to the right of the
II I
P(a, b) b origin, with negative numbers to the left. On the y-axis, positive numbers are located
x-axis
above the origin, with negative numbers below.
a 0 Origin The plane into which the coordinate system is introduced is the coordinate plane,
Quadrant Quadrant or xy-plane. The x-axis and y-axis divide the plane into four regions, or quadrants, as
III IV shown in FIGURE 4. The points on the x-axis or y-axis belong to no quadrant.
Each point P in the xy-plane corresponds to a unique ordered pair (a, b) of real
Rectangular coordinate
system numbers. We call a the x-coordinate and b the y-coordinate of point P. The point
Figure 4 P corresponding to the ordered pair (a, b) is often written as P(a, b), as in FIGURE 4,
and referred to as “the point (a, b).” FIGURE 5 illustrates how to plot the point A(3, 4).
y Additional points are labeled B–E. The coordinates of the origin are (0, 0).
B(–5, 6) A(3, 4)
Viewing Windows
4
The rectangular (Cartesian) coordinate system extends indefinitely in all directions.
x
E(–3, 0)
0 3 We can show only a portion of such a system in a text figure. Similar limitations occur
with the viewing “window” on a calculator screen. FIGURE 6 shows a calculator screen
D(4, – 3) that has been set to have a minimum x-value of - 10, a maximum x-value of 10, a
C(–2, – 4)
minimum y-value of - 10, and a maximum y-value of 10. The tick marks on the axes
Plotting points in the xy-plane have been set to be 1 unit apart. Thus, there are 10 tick marks on the positive x-axis.
Figure 5 This window is called the standard viewing window.
To convey information about a viewing window, we use the following abbreviations.
10
Xmin: minimum value of x Ymin: minimum value of y
Xmax: maximum value of x Ymax: maximum value of y
–10 10
Xscl: scale (distance between Yscl: scale (distance between
tick marks) on the x-axis tick marks) on the y-axis
–10 To further condense this information, we use the following symbolism, which gives
Standard viewing window viewing information for the window in FIGURE 6.
Figure 6
Xmin Xmax Ymin Ymax
3.1 10 100
[–4.7, 4.7] by [–3.1, 3.1] [–10, 10] by [–10, 10] [–100, 100] by [–100, 100]
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 7
A student learning how to use a graphing calculator could not understand why the
axes on the graph were so “thick,” as seen in FIGURE a, while those on a friend’s
calculator were not, as seen in FIGURE B.
40 40
–60 60 –60 60
–40 –40
What Went Wrong? How can the student correct the problem in FIGURE A so
that the axes look like those in FIGURE B?
Rounding Numbers
In FIGURE 8, the TI-84 Plus graphing calculator is set to round values to the nearest
hundredth (two decimal places). In FIGURE 9, the numbers from the preceding table are
rounded to the nearest hundredth.
The symbol ≈ indicates that two expressions are approximately equal. For
example, p ? 3.14, but p 3 3.14, since p = 3.141592654. cWhen using p in
calculations, be sure to use the built-in key for p rather than 3.14. See FIGURE 10.
Figure 10
That will (rightly) suggest to you that is something very small; but
the most important information is contained in the concluding phrase
erg-seconds. The erg is the unit of energy and the second is the unit
of time; so that we learn that is of the nature of energy multiplied
by time.
Now in practical life it does not often occur to us to multiply
energy by time. We often divide energy by time. For example, the
motorist divides the output of energy of his engine by time and so
obtains the horse-power. Conversely an electric supply company
multiplies the horse-power or kilowatts by the number of hours of
consumption and sends in its bill accordingly. But to multiply by
hours again would seem a very odd sort of thing to do.
But it does not seem quite so strange when we look at it in the
absolute four-dimensional world. Quantities such as energy, which
we think of as existing at an instant, belong to three-dimensional
space, and they need to be multiplied by a duration to give them a
thickness before they can be put into the four-dimensional world.
Consider a portion of space, say Great Britain; we should describe
the amount of humanity in it as 40 million men. But consider a
portion of space-time, say Great Britain between 1915 and 1925; we
must describe the amount of humanity in it as 400 million man-years.
To describe the human content of the world from a space-time point
of view we have to take a unit which is limited not only in space but
in time. Similarly if some other kind of content of space is described
as so many ergs, the corresponding content of a region of space-
time will be described as so many erg-seconds.
We call this quantity in the four-dimensional world which is the
analogue or adaptation of energy in the three-dimensional world by
the technical name action. The name does not seem to have any
special appropriateness, but we have to accept it. Erg-seconds or
action belongs to Minkowski’s world which is common to all
observers, and so it is absolute. It is one of the very few absolute
quantities noticed in pre-relativity physics. Except for action and
entropy (which belongs to an entirely different class of physical
conceptions) all the quantities prominent in pre-relativity physics
refer to the three-dimensional sections which are different for
different observers.
Long before the theory of relativity showed us that action was
likely to have a special importance in the scheme of Nature on
account of its absoluteness, long before the particular piece of action
h began to turn up in experiments, the investigators of theoretical
dynamics were making great use of action. It was especially the
work of Sir William Hamilton which brought it to the fore; and since
then very extensive theoretical developments of dynamics have
been made on this basis. I need only refer to the standard treatise on
Analytical Dynamics by your own (Edinburgh) Professor[31], which
fairly reeks of it. It was not difficult to appreciate the fundamental
importance and significance of the main principle; but it must be
confessed that to the non-specialist the interest of the more
elaborate developments did not seem very obvious—except as an
ingenious way of making easy things difficult. In the end the instinct
which led to these researches has justified itself emphatically. To
follow any of the progress in the quantum theory of the atom since
about 1917, it is necessary to have plunged rather deeply into the
Hamiltonian theory of dynamics. It is remarkable that just as Einstein
found ready prepared by the mathematicians the Tensor Calculus
which he needed for developing his great theory of gravitation, so
the quantum physicists found ready for them an extensive action-
theory of dynamics without which they could not have made
headway.
But neither the absolute importance of action in the four-
dimensional world, nor its earlier prominence in Hamiltonian
dynamics, prepares us for the discovery that a particular lump of it
can have a special importance. And yet a lump of standard size
is continually turning up experimentally. It
is all very well to say that we must think of action as atomic and
regard this lump as the atom of action. We cannot do it. We have
been trying hard for the last ten years. Our present picture of the
world shows action in a form quite incompatible with this kind of
atomic structure, and the picture will have to be redrawn. There must
in fact be a radical change in the fundamental conceptions on which
our scheme of physics is founded; the problem is to discover the
particular change required. Since 1925 new ideas have been
brought into the subject which seem to make the deadlock less
complete, and give us an inkling of the nature of the revolution that
must come; but there has been no general solution of the difficulty.
The new ideas will be the subject of the next chapter. Here it seems
best to limit ourselves to the standpoint of 1925, except at the very
end of the chapter, where we prepare for the transition.
The Atom of Action. Remembering that action has two ingredients,
namely, energy and time, we must look about in Nature for a definite
quantity of energy with which there is associated some definite
period of time. That is the way in which without artificial section a
particular lump of action can be separated from the rest of the action
which fills the universe. For example, the energy of constitution of an
electron is a definite and known quantity; it is an aggregation of
energy which occurs naturally in all parts of the universe. But there is
no particular duration of time associated with it that we are aware of,
and so it does not suggest to us any particular lump of action. We
must turn to a form of energy which has a definite and discoverable
period of time associated with it, such as a train of light-waves; these
carry with them a unit of time, namely, the period of their vibration.
The yellow light from sodium consists of aethereal vibrations of
period 510 billions to the second. At first sight we seem to be faced
with the converse difficulty; we have now our definite period of time;
but how are we to cut up into natural units the energy coming from a
sodium flame? We should, of course, single out the light proceeding
from a single atom, but this will not break up into units unless the
atom emits light discontinuously.
It turns out that the atom does emit light discontinuously. It sends
out a long train of waves and then stops. It has to be restarted by
some kind of stimulation before it emits again. We do not perceive
this intermittence in an ordinary beam of light, because there are
myriads of atoms engaged in the production.
The amount of energy coming away from the sodium atom during
any one of these discontinuous emissions is found to be
. This energy is, as we have seen, marked by a
distinctive period . We have thus the two ingredients
necessary for a natural lump of action. Multiply them together, and
we obtain . That is the quantity .
The remarkable law of Nature is that we are continually getting
the same numerical results. We may take another source of light—
hydrogen, calcium, or any other atom. The energy will be a different
number of ergs; the period will be a different number of seconds; but
the product will be the same number of erg-seconds. The same
applies to X-rays, to gamma rays and to other forms of radiation. It
applies to light absorbed by an atom as well as to light emitted, the
absorption being discontinuous also. Evidently is a kind of atom—
something which coheres as one unit in the processes of radiation; it
is not an atom of matter but an atom or, as we usually call it, a
quantum of the more elusive entity action. Whereas there are 92
different kinds of material atoms there is only one quantum of action
—the same whatever the material it is associated with. I say the
same without reservation. You might perhaps think that there must
be some qualitative difference between the quantum of red light and
the quantum of blue light, although both contain the same number of
erg-seconds; but the apparent difference is only relative to a frame of
space and time and does not concern the absolute lump of action.
By approaching the light-source at high speed we change the red
light to blue light in accordance with Doppler’s principle; the energy
of the waves is also changed by being referred to a new frame of
reference. A sodium flame and a hydrogen flame are throwing out at
us the same lumps of action, only these lumps are rather differently
orientated with respect to the Now lines which we have drawn across
the four-dimensional world. If we change our motion so as to alter
the direction of the Now lines, we can see the lumps of sodium origin
under the same orientation in which we formerly saw the lumps of
hydrogen origin and recognise that they are actually the same.
We noticed in chapter IV that the shuffling of energy can become
complete, so that a definite state is reached known as
thermodynamical equilibrium; and we remarked that this is only
possible if indivisible units are being shuffled. If the cards can be torn
into smaller and smaller pieces without limit there is no end to the
process of shuffling. The indivisible units in the shuffling of energy
are the quanta. By radiation absorption and scattering energy is
shuffled among the different receptacles in matter and aether, but
only a whole quantum passes at each step. It was in fact this
definiteness of thermodynamical equilibrium which first put Prof. Max
Planck on the track of the quantum; and the magnitude of was first
calculated by analysis of the observed composition of the radiation in
the final state of randomness. Progress of the theory in its
adolescent stage was largely due to Einstein so far as concerns the
general principles and to Bohr as regards its connection with atomic
structure.
The paradoxical nature of the quantum is that although it is
indivisible it does not hang together. We examined first a case in
which a quantity of energy was obviously cohering together, viz. an
electron, but we did not find ; then we turned our attention to a case
in which the energy was obviously dissolving away through space,
viz. light-waves, and immediately appeared. The atom of action
seems to have no coherence in space; it has a unity which overleaps
space. How can such a unity be made to appear in our picture of a
world extended through space and time?