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Organic chemistry
a modern approach
Volume-II
About the Author
Nimai Tewari
Associate Professor (Retired)
Department of Chemistry
Katwa College
West Bengal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 D102739 22 21 20 19 18
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Preface xiii
Index I.1–I.5
PrefACe
While teaching Organic Chemistry at the undergraduate level, I observed that students
have to plough through several specific books within a short span of time and as a
consequence, they often fail to assimilate the subject matter. It is this difficulty of the
students that motivated me to undertake this concise and systematic work on Organic
Chemistry in the light of the modern structural theories. The book has been designed
primarily for students who have taken an honours course in Organic Chemistry at the
undergraduate level.
The book is organised into four chapters: (i) Addition to Carbon-Carbon Multiple Bond,
(ii) Reactions of the Carbonyl Group and Reaction at the a-carbon to the Carbonyl
Group, (iii) Electrophilic and Nucleophilic Substitutions in Aromatic Systems, and
(iv) Rearrangement Reactions.
I believe that Organic Chemistry can be best understood and learnt by solving problems.
Each article of every chapter concludes with a number of solved as well as study problems to
develop the proficiency of students that can be acquired only by practice. The book presents
a large number of reactions supported with mechanistic explanation and diagrams.
I am pleased to note that Volume-I of this title has been received well by both teachers
and students. This volume will also be highly useful for students in advanced courses who
have had a basic course in Organic Chemistry in B.Sc. (Chemistry) Hons. It also aims to
help the students preparing for competitive examinations like NET, GATE and SLET.
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deep sense of gratitude to Mrs. Vibha Mahajan, Director,
Science and Engineering Portfolio, for successful publication of this book. I also wish to
thank Mr. Suman Sen and Mr. P. L. Pandita for taking keen interest in publishing this
book. I am grateful to all of them.
I also owe a debt of gratitude to my friends and former colleagues for their constructive
suggestions and to my students who encouraged me constantly. I extend my heartfelt
xiv Preface
gratitude to my wife, Mrs. Dali Tewari, and my daughter, Aindrila Tewari (Mukherjee),
for their support and encouragement during the long period of writing this book.
Valuable suggestions from the readers for further improvement of the book are most
welcome. These can be shared at: n.tewari54@gmail.com
Nimai Tewari
CHAPTER
1 Addition to
CArbon–CArbon
Multiple
bond
Chapter Outline
Introduction 1.2 Nucleophilic Addition
1.1 Electrophilic Addition 1.2.1 Cyanoethylation
1.1.1 Addition of hydrogen halides 1.2.2 Direct and Conjugate Addition of
1.1.2 Addition of Water and Alcohol a, b-Unsaturated Aldehydes and
1.1.3 Oxymercuration-Demercuration Ketones
1.1.4 Addition of Halogens 1.2.3 Michael Addition
1.1.5 Hydroboration-Oxidation 1.3 Addition of radicals and radical
1.1.6 Ozonolysis of Alkenes and Alkynes substitution of benzylic and allylic
1.1.7 Addition of Carbenes and Simons- hydrogens
Smith Reaction 1.3.1 Radical addition of halogens and
1.1.8 Hydroxylation of Alkenes hydrogen halides and radical
1.1.9 Hydrogenation polymerization
1.1.10 Diels–Alder Reaction 1.3.2 Allylic chlorination and allylic
bromination
IntroductIon
The characteristic feature of the structure of an alkene is the carbon–carbon double bond.
It is thus the functional group of alkenes and it determines the characteristic reactions
that alkenes undergo. These reactions are of two types:
(a) There are reactions that take place at the double bond itself and as a result, the
double bond is destroyed. These reactions are called addition reactions and these
are called so because in these reactions two molecules combine to yield a single
molecule of the product. The reagent is simply added to the substrate, in contrast
to a substitution reaction in which part of the reagent is substituted into a part of
the substrate. This type of reaction can be depicted by using E for an electrophilic
portion of a reagent and Nu for a nucleophilic portion, as follows:
1.2 Organic Chemistry—A Modern Approach
E
addition
C==C + E—Nu Nu
When an electrophile (or a positive pole of a dipole) initiates the process, the reaction
is termed as electrophilic addition reaction and when a nucleophile (or a negative
pole of a dipole) initiates the process, the reaction is said to be a nucleophilic
addition reaction.
Since free radicals also seek electrons, therefore, alkenes also undergo free-radical
addition. Besides these additions involving charged species and free radicals,
alkenes undergo some molecular additions in which two unsaturated molecules
or two such parts of a single molecule add to form a cyclic product. Therefore,
depending upon the electronic nature of the addendum used, addition reactions
may be classified as:
1. Electrophilic additions
2. Nucleophilic additions
3. Free-radical additions
4. Molecular additions
(b) There are some reactions that take place not at the carbon–carbon double bond,
but at certain positions having special relationships to the double bond. The double
bond, though not involved, plays an important role in the reaction. These are free
radical substitution reactions known as allylic substitutions. For example:
Cl
CH3CH == CH2 ææææ2
600∞C
Æ ClCH2CH == CH2
Propene Allyl chloride
and can accept an electron pair, that is, are electrophiles. Each reaction starts with
the addition of an electrophile to one of the sp2 hybridized carbons of the alkene
and ends with the addition of a nucleophile to the other sp2 hybridized carbon. The
result is that the p bond breaks and the two sp2 carbons form two new s bonds with
the reagent.
2. In an addition reaction, one p bond and one s bond are converted into two s bonds.
The energy released in making two s bonds exceeds that required to break one s
bond and one p bond and, therefore, addition reactions are usually exothermic and
energetically favourable.
d+ d–
C==C + H—–X H——C——C——X
Some other reactions of this type that we shall study in this chapter include addition
of sulphuric acid, water (in the presence of an acid catalyst), halogen, etc.
T.S.I
T.S.II
Intermediate carbocation
Free energy
or a three-membered
cyclic cation
C==C
+
E—Nu
E—C—C—Nu
Since the addition of the electrophile is the rate-determining step of the reaction, therefore,
the rate of electrophilic addition to a carbon–carbon multiple bond depends on the relative
electron density of a p bond. The more the multiple bond is electron rich, the more it is
reactive towards an electrophilic addition. Electron-donating groups would, therefore, be
expected to enhance the reactivity, and electron-withdrawing group would, therefore, be
expected to decrease the reaction rate. The following relative rates of addition of Br2 to
different alkenes in CH2Cl2 solution at –78°C are actually observed in practice:
CH 2 == CH —– > Br · CH 2 == CH 2 · CH 3 — CH == CH 2 · (CH 3 )2 C == CH 2
0.4 1 2.03 5.53
· (CH 3 )2 C == CH CH 3 · (CH 3 )2 C == C(CH 3 )2
10.4 14.0
The rate increases with increasing the number of electron-releasing methyl groups on
the doubly bonded carbon atoms. Bromine being electron-withdrawing (–I 〉 + R) makes
allyl bromide (CH2 == CH — Br) less reactive than ethylene. These observations, therefore,
suggest that the addition of the electrophile is the rate-determining step of the reaction.
Although the reactivity increases, the rate of reactivity decreases because the crowding in
the bromonium ion or in the T.S. leading to it progressively increases.
Kinetics: Since the step 1, i.e., the electrophilic addition to carbon–carbon double bond,
is the slow step and the T.S. of this step involves both the substrate and the reagent (the
electrophile), therefore, the reaction is expected to follow second-order kinetics.
rate = k [substrate] [reagent]
Stereochemistry: The steroechemistry of addition is often important in delineating the
mechanism of a reaction. Because the carbon atoms of a double bond are both trigonal
planar (sp2), the elements E and Nu can be added to them from the same side or from
opposite sides.
triple bonds are less susceptible to electrophilic attack than double bonds In general, the
triple bonds are less susceptible to electrophilic attack than double bonds, even though
the concentration of electrons in a triple bond is higher than that in a double bond. The
reasons are as follows:
1. Because of smaller distance between the two triple bonded carbon atoms and
better p orbital overlap, the electrons in the triple bond are held more tightly and
hence, they are poorly available to an electrophile, i.e., it is harder for an attacking
1.6 Organic Chemistry—A Modern Approach
electrophile to pull out a pair. There is evidence from far-UV spectra to support
this conclusion.
2. An electrophile adds to a double bond to give a saturated carbocation. A similar
addition to a triple bond gives a vinylic cation. A vinylic cation is less stable than
the corresponding saturated carbocation because it possesses the linear (sp)
arrangement instead of planar (sp2) arrangement which, as suggested by quantum
machanics, is the stabler configuration of carbocation.
3. If the reaction takes places via a bridged-ion intermediate, then those obtained from
triple bond (I) will be highly strained and hence, less stable than those obtained
from double bonds (II).
+ +
X X
I II
Furthermore, the cyclic ions from alkynes are antiaromatic and hence, less stable
but those from alkenes are not.
However, it is to be noted that catalytic hydrogenation is an exception to the
generalization that alkenes are more reactive than alkynes towards addition
reactions.
1.1.1.2 Mechanism
The mechanism for the addition of a hydrogen halide to an alkene involves the following
two steps:
In Step 1, the p electrons of the alkene form a bond by accepting a proton from HX and as a
result, a carbocation (a more stable carbocation in the case of unsymmetrical alkene) and
a halide ion (X*) are formed. This step is highly endothermic and its energy of activation
is very high. As a consequence, it takes place slowly, and it is the rate-determining step
of the reaction. In Step 2, the halide ion reacts with the highly reactive carbocation by
donating an electron pair to form an alkyl halide. This exothermic step has a very low
energy of activation. So, it takes place rapidly.
The rule is further extended to the cases of other polar addition to unsymmetrical alkenes.
It is stated as: ‘the negative part of an addendum adds to that carbon atom of the double
bond of an unsymmetrical alkene which contains the lesser number of hydrogen atoms’.
1.8 Organic Chemistry—A Modern Approach
d+ d-
Y—Z
RCH == CH2 + ææææ Æ RCHZ — CH2 Y (YZ == H2O, H2SO2 , ICl, etc.)
Modern statement: The modern statement of the Markownikoff ’s rule is as follows: In
the ionic addition of an unsymmetrical addendum to a double bond of an unsymmetrical
alkene, the positive portion of the addendum attaches itself to a doubly bonded carbon so
as to yield the more stable carbocation as an intermediate.
The addition of HI to 2-methyl-2-butene takes place according to the Markownikoff's rule:
(CH 3 )2 C == CHCH 3 + HI ææ
Æ (CH 3 )2 CICH 2CH 3 + (CH 3 )2 CH CHICH 3
2-Methyl-2-butene 2-Iodo-2-methylbutane 2-Iodo-3-methylbutane
(major product) (minor product)
When H! adds to CH2 == CH –– CF3, one of the carbocations that could be formed is primary
(I) and the other is secondary (II). In the carbocation II, the powerful electron-attracting
– CF3 group is directly attached to the positive carbon and so, it destabilizes the carbocation
by intensifying the positive charge more than I in which the – CF3 group is not directly
attached to the positive carbon. As a result, the reaction proceeds through the relatively
more stable carbocation I, although a primary one, to give the anti-Markownikoff product
ClCH2CH2CF3.
1.10 Organic Chemistry—A Modern Approach
Another exception to Markownikoff ’s rule concerns the addition of HBr to alkenes when
the addition is carried out in the presence of peroxides (i.e., compounds with the general
formula ROOR). This (peroxide effect or Kharasch effect) will be discussed in article
1.3.4.3.
Br
|
CH 2 == C == CH 2 + HBr ææ
Æ CH 3 — C == CH 2
Allene 2-Bromopropene
or 1, 2-Propadiene
H H
C—C—C
H H Br
—
CH2==C—CH3
+ H H
Br + CH2==CH—CH2 ∫∫ C—C + 2-Bromopropene
H C H
H
An unstable 1° carbocation
Ø 90° rotation
+ +
CH2==CH—CH2 H CH2==CH—CH2Br
–
∫∫ C—C
´
Br + 3-Bromopropene
+ H C H
CH2—CH==CH2 H (not obtained)
Allyl cation
(resonance-stabilized)
which these two products are obtained are markedly affected by the temperature at which
the reaction is carried out.
When the reaction is carried out at low temperature (–80°C), a mixture containing
80 percent of the 1,2-product and 20 percent of the 1,4-product is obtained, i.e., the major
product is formed by 1,2-addition.
Br
|
-80∞C
CH 2 == CH — CH == CH 2 + HBr ææææ Æ CH 2 == CH — CH CH 3 + BrCH 2CH == CHCH 3
1, 3-Butadiene 3-Bromobut-1-ene(80%) 1-Bromobut-2-ene(20%)
(1, 2-product) (1, 4-product)
Step 2: This is the product-determining step. The allylic cation is, in fact, a resonance
hybrid of a secondary allylic cation (I) and a primary allylic cation (II). Because a secondary
allylic cation is more stable than a primary allylic cation, the contribution of I to the
hybrid is greater than that of II. Because of this, in the allylic cation, the interior carbon
becomes relatively more positive than the terminal carbon and, therefore, the activation
energy for the formation of 1,2-product is less than that for the formation of 1,4-product.
As a consequence, the bromide ion attacks C-2 (the more positive carbon) more readily
than C-4 (the less positive carbon) to give the 1,2-addtion product, 3-bromobut-1-ene,
predominantly. Under these conditions, the reaction is said to be under kinetic (or rate)
control because the product formed more rapidly predominates in the product mixture. The
predominant product is called the kinetic product. The 1,4-addition product 1-bromobut-
2-ene, however, is relatively more stable than the 1,2-addition product 3-bromobut-1-ene
and it is called the thermodynamic product.
Addition to Carbon–Carbon Multiple Bond 1.13
Energy profile diagram: This behaviour of 1,3-butadiene and hydrogen bromide can be
more fully understood if we examine the energy profile diagram for the reaction shown in
the following figure.
The energy of activation leading to the 1,2-product is less than that leading to the 1,4-
product. As a result, the 1,2-product is formed at a rate faster than the 1,4-product and
predominates at lower temperature. Since an internal double bond is more stable than
a terminal double bond because of hyperconjugative effect, therefore, the 1,4-product
is thermodynamically more stable than the 1,2-product and so, its valley is placed at a
lower level than that of the 1,2-product. The product formation is irreversible because
lower temperature does not provide sufficient energy to lift either product out of its deep
potential energy valley.
At higher temperature (40°C), the intermediate ions have sufficient energy to cross
both the barriers with relative case. Sufficient energy is also available for ionization of
the products. Therefore, both the reactions are now reversible. Since the 1,4-product is
thermodynamically more stable, its activation energy for ionization is much greater than
that of the 1,2-product and consequently, the 1,4-product ionizes more slowly than the 1,2-
1.14 Organic Chemistry—A Modern Approach
product. Under these conditions, the 1,2-product, which is still formed rapidly, rearranges
to the more stable 1,4-product through the allyl cation because the overall change is
energetically favourable. So, when an equilibrium is established between the products,
the more stable 1,4-product predominates in the product mixture.
Under these conditions, the reaction is said to be under thermodynamic (or equilibrium)
control because by equilibration the more stable product predominates. The predominant
product is called thermodynamic (or equilibrium) product.
Methylenecyclohexane 1-Methylcyclohexene
Solution When H! adds to methylenecyclohexane, one of the carbocations that could
be formed is tertiary and the other is primary. A tertiary carbocation is very much stable
than a primary carbocation, which, in fact, is too unstable to be formed. Thus, 1-bromo-1-
methylcyclohexane will be only product of this reaction.
Addition to Carbon–Carbon Multiple Bond 1.15
On the other hand, when H! adds to 1-methylcyclohexene, one carbocation that could be
formed is tertiary and the other is secondary. Since a tertiary carbocation and a secondary
carbocation are closer in stability, therefore, both 1-bromo-1-methylcyclohexane and
1-bromo-2-methylcyclohexane will be formed as the major product and the minor product,
respectively.
This intermediate secondary (2∞) carbocation undergoes rearrangement (the methyl group
moves with its pair of bonding electrons from the carbon adjacent to the positive carbon)
to give a relatively more stable tertiary carbocation. The major product is formed by the
attack of Cl* on the new carbocation.
1.16 Organic Chemistry—A Modern Approach
7. Predict the major product in each of the following reactions and give
your reasoning.
(a) CH2 == C == O + HCl ææÆ (b) CH3C ∫∫ CH + 2HBr ææÆ
(c) (d)
Solution
(a) Addition of H! to ketene yields a resonance-stabilized acylium ion instead of a
primary carbocation which is further destabilized by electron-with drawing
inductive effect (–I) of the –CHO group.
(b) The addition of H! to the two sp carbons of propyne may produce one secondary
vinylic cation (I) and one primary vinylic cation (II). Since the secondary vinylic
cation is relatively more stable (stabilized by the +I and hyperconjugative effect of
the methyl group) than the primary vinylic cation, therefore, the reaction actually
proceeds through the secondary vinylic cation which subsequently reacts with Br*
to yield 3-bromopropene.
Addition to Carbon–Carbon Multiple Bond 1.19
(d) Since one mole of HCl is allowed to react with this unsymmetrical diene, it adds
preferentially to the more reactive or more electron-rich C-1—C-2 double bond to
give 5-methylhex-1-ene (CH2==CHCH2CH2CClMe2) as the major product through
the formation of a stable 3° carbocation. HCl also adds to the C-5—C-6 double bond
to give 5-chloro-2-methylhex-1-ene as the minor product through the formation of
a less stable 2° carbocation.
1.20 Organic Chemistry—A Modern Approach
The positively charged carbon is sp2 hybridized, so the three atoms to which it is bonded
lie in a plane. When the bromide ion attacks the carbocation from above the plane, one
enantiomer of 3-bromo-3-methylhexane is formed, but when it attacks the carbocation
from below the plane, the other enantiomer is formed. Because attack from either direction
occurs with equal facility or equal probability, equal amounts of the two enantiomers are
obtained, i.e., a racemic mixture (optically inactive) is obtained.
An addition reaction that forms a compound with one chirality centre from a reactant
without any chirality centre is not stereoselective because it does not select for a particular
stereoisomer. Thus, the reaction is not a stereoselective one.
10. Is the temperature at which a reaction changes from being kinetically
controlled to being thermodynamically controlled same for all the
reaction? Explain.
Solution The temperature at which a reaction changes from being kinetically controlled
to being thermodynamically controlled actually depends on the particular reaction.
Each reaction that is irreversible under mild conditions, a reversible under vigorous
conditions has a particular temperature at which the changeover occurs. In fact, the
temperature required to shift the reaction of a conjugated diene with an electrophilic
reagent from kinetic control to thermodynamic control depends on both the diene and
the electrophilic reagent. The reaction of 1,3-butadiene with HCl, for example, remains
under kinetic control at 45∞C, even though the addition of HBr to the same diene is under
thermodynamic control at that temperature. Since a C — Cl bond is stronger than a C — Br
bond, therefore, a higher temperature is required for the products to undergo the reverse
reaction. Thermodynamic control is achieved only when sufficient energy is applied to
allow the reaction to be reversible.
11. Give the major 1,2- and 1,4-addition products of the following reaction and
indicate which is the kinetic product and which is the thermodynamic
product.
CH2
==
H3 C
+ HCl
1.22 Organic Chemistry—A Modern Approach
Solution The addition of H! takes place at the methylene carbon because this leads to
the formation of a carbocation in which the positive charge is shared by a tertiary allylic
and a secondary allylic carbon. If the proton were to add to the other end of the conjugated
system, the carbocation would be less stable because in that case the positive charge
would be shared by a primary allylic and a secondary allylic carbon. Therefore, 3-chloro-
3,4-dimethylcyclohexene is the 1,2-product and 3-chloro-1,6-dimethylcyclohexene is the
1,4-product.
(a)
(b)
(b) HCl
CH2 == CHCOOH æææ Æ ClCH2CH2COOH
11. Two stereoisomeric alkenes X and Y (molecular formula C6H12) react with HI
to give the same single product and undergo catalytic hydrogenation to produce
hexane. Identify X and Y.
[Hint: X and Y are cis-and trans-3-hexene.]
12. Predict the products (stereoisomers) of the following reaction and give the
13. Rank the following alkenes in order of their increasing rate of reaction with HBr
and explain the order:
(a) (b) (c)
14. Write down the structures of two different alkenes that would react with HBr to
yield each of the following compounds as the major (or only) addition product.
Br
|
(a) (CH 3 )2 CCH(CH 3 )2 (b)
15. Predict the products of the following reaction and account for the formation of both
products:
(CH 3 )2 CH — CH == CH 2 + HBr ææ Æ A (major) + B (minor)
[Hint: The major product is obtained through the rearrangement of the initial
carbocation involving a hydride shift.]
16. Only one of the following three alkyl bromides can be prepared as the major product
of the addition of HBr to an alkene. Identify the alkene and explain why the other
two cannot be prepared as the major product.
CH3CH2CH2 CH2CH2 Br CH3CHBr CH2 CH2CH3 CH3CHBr C(CH3 )2 C2 H5
A B C
17. Predict the major product of each of the following reactions and show the
stereoisomers that could be obtained:
(a) (b)
19. Arrange the following compounds in order of increasing reactivity towards addition
of HBr:
CH2 == C(CH3 )OCH3 , CH2 == C(CH3 )CH2OCH3 , CH2 == C(CH3 )2
I II III
[Hint: II 〈 III 〈 I]
Addition to Carbon–Carbon Multiple Bond 1.25
20. Explain why the reaction (a) takes place according to the Markownikoff's rule,
while the reaction (b) does not:
(a) CH2 == CHF + HF ææÆ CH3CHF2
21. Predict the products expected to be formed when one mole of 1,3-pentadiene is
allowed to react with 1 mole of HBr. What is the major product?
22. Identify the major 1,2- and 1,4-addition products expected to be obtained when
each of the following compounds is treated with HCl. Indicate which is the kinetic
product and which is the thermodynamic product.
For this reason, the activation energy for the formation of vinyl cation from vinyl
bromide is greater than that required for its formation from acetylene. This explains
why the same vinyl cation is generated from acetylene by addition of H! but not
from vinyl bromide by C — Br bond cleavage.]
24. In HCl addition of some akenes (e.g., 2-methyl-1-butene, 2-methyl-2-butene,
1-methylcyclopentene, etc.), it is found that the anti-addition occurs following
the rate law: rate = k [alkene] [HCl]2, while some alkenes (e.g., styrene, 1-phenyl
propene, indene, etc.) that undergo syn-addition follow the rate law: rate = k
[alkene] [HCl]. Explain.
[Hint: A third-order rate expression is observed in anti-addition of HBr because
the T.S. involves proton transfer to the alkene from one HCl molecule and capture
of Cl① ion from the second. The reaction occurs as follows:
1.26 Organic Chemistry—A Modern Approach
The anti-stereochemistry is consistent with the expectation that the attack of Cl①
occurs from the opposite side of the p bond to which the proton is delivered.
A second-order rate expression is observed in syn-addition of HCl because in
addition of a proton and attack by Cl①, only one HCl molecule is involved. The syn-
stereochemistry is consistent with the expectation that the attack of Cl① occurs
from the same side of the p bond to which the proton is delivered. In fact, an ion
pair is formed by alkyne protonation and it collapses to the product faster than
rotation takes places. Syn-addition thus occurs because the proton and the halide
ion are initially on the same face of the molecule.
25. Predict the regiochemistry of the following addition reactions. Explain your
predictions.
(a) (F3C)2 C == C(CH3 )2 + HBr ææÆ ; (b) (CH3O)2 C == C(CH3 )3 + HBr ææÆ
≈
H2SO4 + H2O H3 O : + HSO4*
Step 1: The elctrophile H! adds to that sp2 carbon of the double bond which is bonded to
the most hydrogens to form the more stable tertiary (3∞) carbocation rather than the much
less stable primary (1∞) carbocation.
Step 3: tert-Butyl alcohol is obtained when its conjugate acid transfers a proton to water.
The oxygen–hydrogen bonds of water are too strong (water is too weakly acidic) to allow the
hydrogen to act as an electrophile for hydration reaction. For this reason, water is unable
to add to alkene in the absence of acid catalyst. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is the preferred
acid catalyst for hydration because its conjugate base, HSO①4, is too poor a nucleophile to
compete with water in attacking the carbocation.
It is to be noted that acid-catalyzed hydrations of alknenes do not yield 1∞ alcohol except
in the special case of the hydration of ethene (CH2 == CH2). This is because the hydration
reactions follow Markownikoff’s rule. For example:
OH
≈ ≈ |
H3O≈ H3O≈ H2O
CH 3 — CH 2 — C H 2 ¨æææ
¥æ CH 3 — CH == CH 2 ææææ
Æ CH 3 — C H — CH 3 ææææ Æ CH 3— CH — CH 3
— H≈
A 1∞ carbocation Propene A 2∞ carbocation A 2∞ alcohol
(less stable) (more stable)
H2SO4 *
CH 3CH 2CH == CH 2 + H 2O ææææ Æ CH 3CH 2 C HOHCH 3
1-Butene (±)-2-Butanol
The stereochemical course of the acid-catalyzed hydration of 1-butene may be shown as
follows:
this new carbocation followed by loss of H!. The secondary carbocation reacts with water
to yield the minor product.
Mechanism of hydrolysis: When treated with dilute acid, the resulting tert-butyl ether
undergoes hydrolysis through the following steps (SN1 mechanism):
Addition to Carbon–Carbon Multiple Bond 1.31
dil ◊ H SO
HC ∫∫ CH + H 2O æææææææ 2 4
Æ CH 3 CHO
HgSO4 ,60-80∞C
Acetylene Acetaldehyde
Mechanism: The mechanism of this hydration reaction involves the steps as follows:
Hg2+ Hg + Hg +
—
—
:Hg2+ H2O: H2O: +
HC∫∫CH HC==CH HC==CH HC==CH + H3O
(slow)
—
—
HO
+
OH
I H II
tautom.
+
Hg +
—
tautom. H2O—H
CH3—C—H H2C==CH + HCH—C—H
–Hg2
==
==
—
O OH O
(Keto form) (Enol form) III
Acetaldehyde
The first step in this mercuric-ion-catalyzed hydration of alkyne involves the formation of
a cyclic mercurinium ion (the two of the electrons in mercury’s filled 5d orbital are shown).
In the second step, the cyclic intermediate undergoes nucleophilic attack by water to give
the intermediate I. The intermediate I then loses a proton to form the mercuric enol II
which immediately collapses to the mercuric aldehyde III. Loss of the mercuric ion forms
acetaldehyde, an enol, which rearranges to give CH3CHO.
Hydration of an unsymmetrical alkyne takes place in accordance with the Markownikoff’s
rule. Propyne (CH3C ∫∫ CH), for example, undergoes mercuric-ion-catalyzed hydration to
yield acetone (CH3COCH3) as the major product.
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ajatusta siinä sekamelskassa, jonka kuninkaan sanat olivat luoneet
hänen mielessänsä.
Mutta kentiesi oli hän syyttä levoton! Hän koetti temmata itseänsä
irti siitä hermottomuuden tilasta, joka oli vallannut hänen mielensä,
hän koetti antaa ajatuksillensa selvän juoksun ja hän tunsi hiukan
lohdutusta tiedosta, että Armfelt pian tulisi hänen luoksensa. Niin,
hän tulisi! Muutamaksi silmänräpäykseksi poistui levottomuus hänen
sielustansa. Ah, ei hän tahtonut epäillä lemmityistänsä.
Hän koetti suunnitella, miten hänen pitäisi tälle puhua, hän koetti
kuvitella mielessänsä, miten tämä tulisi puhumaan hänelle. Mutta
miten hänen ajatuksensa häälyivätkin sinne tänne, selveni hänelle
yhä enemmän, että jos Armfelt todellakin häntä lempii niinkuin hän
ansaitsi, vaati arkatuntoisuus, ett'ei tämä mainitsisikaan hänelle
kuninkaan ehdoituksesta, mutta jos hän mainitsisi, — niin silloin oli
Magdalena tehnyt suuren erehdyksen, silloin ei Armfelt'in rakkaus
täyttänyt niitä ehtoja, joita hän siltä vaati, ja silloin tahtoi hän olla
valmis tuohon suureen uhraukseen — itsensäkieltämiseen…
Näkikö siis kaikki ihmiset hänestä, että koko hänen elämänsä ilo
oli poissa? Olihan hän päättänyt, ett'ei kukaan saisi aavistaa sitä
tuskaa, jonka hän tunsi siitä, että lemmittynsä oli hänet niin julmasti
pettänyt. Ja siitä huolimatta, oli Sofia Albertina-ruhtinatar huomannut
hänen murheensa, vaikka hän oli koettanutkin näyttää iloiselta, ja
mitä lempeimmällä sääliväisyydellä puhunut hänelle sekä
vapauttanut hänet muutamaksi viikoksi kaikesta hovipalveluksesta,
että hän äitinsä kodissa ja salattuna uteliailta silmiltä voisi saavuttaa
mielen rauhaa, unhoitusta ja lepoa.
Jospa hän vaan voisi olla kohtaloonsa tyytyväinen, jospa hän vaan
voisi ottaa vastaan päivät sellaisina, kuin ne tulivat, hyvät sekä
pahat, iloiset sekä murheiset, hetken lapsena, joka ei pitäisi lukua
muusta, kuin, tuosta turhasta komeudesta, joka häntä ympäröi, ja
joka sen kestämisestä löysi ainoan riemunsa! Niin, miksi ei hän,
kuten niin moni muukin, ollut jaellut lempeänsä! vähin erin, miksi ei
hän ollut viettänyt sitä perhoiselämää, joka oli niin tavallista ja joka
oli ainoa, mitä Armfelt osasi elää? Miksi oli hän omannut yksinomaan
tälle kaikki unelmansa, ja kiinnittänyt yksinomaan tälle kaikki
sielunsa ajatukset sillä innokkaalla epäjumaloimisella, jota hän nyt
itse niin moittimalla koki tarkastella? Rajusti oli hän tullut syöstyksi
haaveilujensa tuulentuvasta, elämän runollisuus kultaisella
auringonpaisteellaan oli muuttunut pimeydeksi, ja hän koetti turhaan
perehtyä siihen jokapäiväis-maailmaan, jossa hän vast'edes tulisi
elämään, maailmaan, jonka hänen vilkas mielikuvitelmansa nyt
muutti Siperian erämaaksi, jossa hän pakolaisena ainiaan tulisi
harhailemaan, ja Armfelt'han hänet oli sinne ajanut, sinne syössyt.
Eikö hän siis tietänyt ketään, joka todellakin oli lempinyt? Tiesi,
tiesi, yhdellä oli kentiesi ollut samanlaatuisia tunteita kuin hänelläkin,
yhdellä alhaisella, vähäpätöisellä tytöllä, ja äkkiä johtui Maria Holm
hänen mieleensä. Tuo ylpeä hovineiti tunsi milt'ei yhdenvertaisuutta
hänen kanssansa, jotakin myötätuntoisuuden tapaista tuota kalpeata
ompelijatarta kohtaan; jonkinlainen oikku tahi halu hänen
näkemiseensä heräsi Magdalenassa ja nousten pois puolittain
makaavasta asemastansa, lausui hän äkkiä:
Regina hymyili tuon kauniin hovineidin seljän takana. Eikö se, että
Magdalena tällä hetkellä ajatteli huonosti tehtyä hametta, todistanut,
ett'ei hänen sydämensä suru mahtanut olla liian raskas? — Ja
vaikka Regina piti kovin tavattomana ja sopimattomana että
vapaasukuinen neiti itse toimitteli tällaisia asioita, ei hän tehnyt
vastaväitteitä, joita hän varmaankin muutoin olisi tuonut kuuluviin,
vaan seurasi häntä vaijeten.
— Nyt näette, — jatkoi tuo pyylevä mies, — että olen sitkeä kuin
kissa ja iloinen kuin pelimanni:
Valko säärykset,
Ja lamput loistoiset!