Introduction: Philosophy of Science and

Methodology
Method Choice
Choice between alternative
possible methods for reaching
one's scientific goal
Your task is to investigate wear of a new
road cover. Should you do this by…
• laboratory experiment, or..
• field experiment, or…?
Your goal is to model a benzene molecule, in order to simulate
a reaction with it. Should you do this by…

- a structural formula model - a quantum model, or…?

You want to test the claim that street-level concentration of car
exhaust cause respiratory diseases. Should you do this by…
• Using statistical tests?
• If yes, perform a significance test,
• or employ a Bayesian approach?
1. Conventional: “I choose the methods my
teachers / my peers choose”
1. Conventional: “I choose the methods my
teachers / my peers choose”
Some problems:

How to correct mistaken methods that

are dominant in your field?
1. Conventional: “I choose the methods my
teachers / my peers choose”
Some problems:

How to correct mistaken methods that

are dominant in your field?

How to collaborate with other disciplines

that have different conventions?
2. Outcome-oriented: “I choose the method
that gives the best results”
2. Outcome-oriented: “I choose the method
that gives the best results”
Some problems:
Science often involves long-term
plans – results not known or uncertain
2. Outcome-oriented: “I choose the method
that gives the best results”
Some problems:
Science often involves long-term
plans – results not known or uncertain

What is the relevant “"best result”

criterion?
3. Reason-based: “I choose the method for
which I have the overall best reasons”
3. Reason-based: “I choose the method for
which I have the overall best reasons”
• Reasons: considerations that justify choosing a method for
a given scientific goal
3. Reason-based: “I choose the method for
which I have the overall best reasons”
Example
Goal: explain Y
Explanation: accurately identify the cause X that produced Y
Experiment better than observational study for identifying the cause of Y
No other relevant considerations
You have a good overall reason to choose the experiment as your method.
3. Reason-based: “I choose the method for
which I have the overall best reasons”
Example
Goal: explain Y
Explanation: accurately identify the cause X that produced Y
Experiment better than observational study for identifying the cause of Y
No other relevant considerations
You have a good overall reason to choose the experiment as your method.
3. Reason-based: “I choose the method for
which I have the overall best reasons”
Example
Goal: explain Y
Explanation: accurately identify the cause X that produced Y
Experiment better than observational study for identifying the cause of Y
It is unethical to experiment on Y
?
3. Reason-based: “I choose the method for
which I have the overall best reasons”

Method A Method B
pro con pro con
… … … …
 General philosophy of science

Methodology of science

Methods of science
 General philosophy of science

Methodology of science
• What relevant methods are available to reach my scientific goals?
• What reasons speak for or against
Methods ofchoosing
scienceany of these alternatives?
• How to weigh these reasons to form an overall decision?
 General philosophy of science

Methodology of science

Methods of science
 General philosophy of science

Methodology of science

Methods of science
• How to program a simulation?
• How to calibrate a gas chromatograph?
• How to calculate the p-value?
• How to implement double blinding in an experiment?
 General philosophy of science
• What does it mean to acquire scientific knowledge?
• Are our best theories true, or are they merely useful?
Methodology of science
• How to go beyond our subjective observations and beliefs and be
objective?
 General philosophy of science

Methodology of science

Methods of science
The Goals of Science
 Predicting X
Knowing that at time t,
X will occur
 Predicting X Explaining X
Knowing that at time t, Knowing the cause(s)
X will occur that produced X
 Predicting X Explaining X Designing X
Knowing that at time t, Knowing the cause(s) Knowing that artifact X
X will occur that produced X will satisfy functions F
 Predicting X Explaining X Designing X
Knowing that at time t, Knowing the cause(s) Knowing that artifact X
X will occur that produced X will satisfy functions F

Scientific Knowledge
 Predicting X Explaining X Designing X
Knowing that at time t, Knowing the cause(s) Knowing that artifact X
X will occur that produced X will satisfy functions F

Scientific Knowledge

Good Data Controlled experiments Better measurements

Significant tests More accurate models Confirmed hypothesis
Plato (427-347 BC)
Knowledge is true, justified belief

Plato (427-347 BC)

Knowledge is true, justified belief
What does it mean that “person K knows claim P”?

Plato (427-347 BC)

Knowledge is true, justified belief
What does it mean that “person K knows claim P”?

K knows that P only if

I. K believes that P.

Plato (427-347 BC)

Knowledge is true, justified belief
What does it mean that “person K knows claim P”?

K knows that P only if

I. K believes that P.
II. K is justified in believing that P.

Plato (427-347 BC)

Knowledge is true, justified belief
What does it mean that “person K knows claim P”?

K knows that P only if

I. K believes that P.
II. K is justified in believing that P.
III. P is true.

Plato (427-347 BC)

Knowledge is true, justified belief
What does it mean that “person K knows claim P”?

K knows that P only if

i. K believes that P.
ii. K is justified in believing that P.
iii. P is true.

(Not sufficient! Look up Gettier problems)

Plato (427-347 BC)
Lexical definition

=
Stipulative definition

≠
i. Knowledge is belief
Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks something
to be the case
i. Knowledge is belief
Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks something
to be the case

• tied to an individual
i. Knowledge is belief
Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks something
to be the case

• tied to an individual
• action guiding
i. Knowledge is belief
Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks something
to be the case

• tied to an individual
• action guiding
• comes in degrees
Does scientific knowledge require certainty?

Please pause the video and write down

your question before continuing
 Discussion
Does scientific knowledge require certainty?

• If knowledge is belief, and belief comes in

degrees, than knowledge comes in degrees too!
 Discussion
Does scientific knowledge require certainty?

• Examples of less-than-certain beliefs in science

• “I believe that I saw the liquid change color”
• “I believe that the scale was calibrated correctly”
• “I believe that the Planck constant is 6.626070040×10−34 J*s”
• “I believe that the theory of evolution is true”
Distinguish degrees of confidence in scientific claims
ii. Knowledge is justified belief
Justification: proof or evidence or other reason that can be
put forward in defense of the claim
ii. Knowledge is justified belief
Justification: proof or evidence or other reason that can be
put forward in defense of the claim
ii. Knowledge is justified belief
Justification: proof or evidence or other reason that can be
put forward in defense of the claim
ii. Knowledge is justified belief
Justification: proof or evidence or other reason that can be
put forward in defense of the claim

Non-scientific justifications?

• “I believe it because it makes me happy.”

• “I believe it because it is God’s will.”
ii. Knowledge is justified belief

Ideal justification of a belief that P:

Consideration of all relevant reasons for and against believing P
ii. Knowledge is justified belief

Justification as a social enterprise

ii. Knowledge is justified belief

The scientific ethos:

• Few (if any) claims can be conclusively
proven.
• Justify your claims; respond to reasonable
challenges to your claims.
ii. Knowledge is justified belief

The scientific ethos:

• Few (if any) claims can be conclusively
proven.
• Justify your claims; respond to reasonable
challenges to your claims.
ii. Knowledge is justified belief

The scientific ethos:

• Few (if any) claims can be conclusively
proven.
• Justify your claims; respond to reasonable
challenges to your claims.
iii. Knowledge is true, justified belief
• True statements describe actual states of the world
iii. Knowledge is true, justified belief
• True statements describe actual states of the world
• I believe with certainty that P is true ≠ P is true
• My belief in P being true is justified ≠ P is true
iii. Knowledge is true, justified belief
• True statements describe actual states of the world
• I believe with certainty that P is true ≠ P is true
• My belief in P being true is justified ≠ P is true

Astronomy before the

telescope
Best available sensory
experience did not suffice to
justify rejection of Geocentric
model
iii. Knowledge is true, justified belief
Empiricist consensus: observation reports are either true or false
iii. Knowledge is true, justified belief
Empiricist consensus: observation reports are either true or false

Metaphysical skepticism
Can we ever say what is true about the world “by itself”?
iii. Knowledge is true, justified belief
Empiricist consensus: observation reports are either true or false

Metaphysical skepticism
Can we ever say what is true about the world “by itself”?

How about claims like:

• Electrons have a mass of 9.1×10−31 kg
• F = ma (Newton’s 2nd law of motion)
iii. Knowledge is true, justified belief

• Electrons have a mass of 9.1×10−31 kg

Is there something the case
• F = ma (Newton’s 2nd law of motion) in the world that makes
these claims true?
iii. Knowledge is true, justified belief

• Electrons have a mass of 9.1×10−31 kg

Is there something the case
• F = ma (Newton’s 2nd law of motion) in the world that makes
these claims true?

No

Scientific Instrumentalism
Theories only order sets of observation
reports - they might be helpful or not, but
they are not true or false
iii. Knowledge is true, justified belief

• Electrons have a mass of 9.1×10−31 kg

Is there something the case
• F = ma (Newton’s 2nd law of motion) in the world that makes
these claims true?

No Yes

Scientific Instrumentalism Scientific Realism

Theories only order sets of observation
reports - they might be helpful or not, but
they are not true or false