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9780128198803 | 152x229mm Paperback | Spine: 24.384 mm
HETEROGENEOUS MEDIA
ELSEVIER SERIES IN MECHANICS OF ADVANCED MATERIALS ELSEVIER SERIES IN MECHANICS OF ADVANCED MATERIALS
HETEROGENEOUS MEDIA HETEROGENEOUS

LOCAL FIELDS, EFFECTIVE PROPERTIES, AND WAVE PROPAGATION
SERGEY KANAUN
MEDIA
LOCAL FIELDS, EFFECTIVE PROPERTIES,
This book outlines new computational methods for solving volume
integral equation problems in heterogeneous media. It starts by surveying AND WAVE PROPAGATION
the various numerical methods of analysis of static and dynamic fields
in heterogeneous media, listing their strengths and weaknesses, before
moving on to an introduction of static and dynamic Green functions for
homogeneous media. Volume and surface integral equations for fields
in heterogeneous media are discussed next, followed by an overview
of explicit formulas for numerical calculations of volume and surface
potentials. The book then covers Gaussian functions for the discretization
of volume integral equations for fields in heterogeneous media, static
problems for a homogeneous host medium with heterogeneous inclusions,
and volume integral equations for scattering problems, and concludes
with a chapter outlining solutions to homogenization problems and
calculations of effective properties of heterogeneous media. The book
also features multiple appendices detailing the code of basic programs for
solving volume integral equations, written in Mathematica.
About the author
Dr. Sergey Kanaun is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the
Technological Institute of Higher Education of Monterrey, State Mexico
Campus, Mexico. His core areas of research are continuum mechanics,
KANAUN
mechanics of composites, micromechanics, elasticity, plasticity, and fracture
mechanics. Prior to his current teaching post, he was a Professor at the
Technical University of Novosibirsk in Russia and also Chief Researcher at
the Institute of Engineering Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Saint Petersburg, also in Russia. He has published over 140 articles in peer-
reviewed journals and two books.
ISBN 978-0-12-819880-3
9 780128 198803
SERGEY KANAUN
Heterogeneous Media
This page intentionally left blank
Heterogeneous Media
Local Fields, Effective Properties, and
Wave Propagation
Sergey Kanaun
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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contained in the material herein.
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Typeset by VTeX
TO MY WIFE
Araceli
Contents
Preface xi
Notations xiii
1 Introduction 1
References 5
2 Homogeneous media with external and internal field sources 7

2.1 Electro- and magnetostatic fields in homogeneous media 7
2.2 Green functions of electro- and magnetostatics 10
2.3 Elastic media with external and internal stress sources 11
2.4 Temperature fields in a homogeneous medium with heat sources 14
2.5 Quasistatic fields in poroelastic media 16
2.6 Acoustic waves in fluids 19
2.7 The Green function of time-harmonic electromagnetics 21
2.8 The Green function of time-harmonic elasticity 22
2.9 The Green function of time-harmonic poroelasticity 24
2.10 Volume potentials of electrostatics 27
2.11 Volume potentials of static elasticity 31
2.12 Surface potentials of electrostatics 33
2.13 Surface potentials of static elasticity 41
2.14 Volume and surface potentials of quasistatic poroelasticity 43
2.15 Time-harmonic potentials 46
2.16 Notes 48
References 49
3 Volume and surface integral equations for physical fields in

heterogeneous media 51
3.1 Integral equations for steady electric fields in heterogeneous media 51
3.2 Thin heterogeneities of small or large electroconductivity in
homogeneous host media 55
3.3 Volume integral equations of static elasticity for heterogeneous
media 62
3.4 Surface integral equations for thin inclusions in homogeneous
elastic media 65
3.5 A crack in a poroelastic medium subjected to surface pressure 68
3.6 Approximate equations of the crack problem of quasistatic
poroelasticity 73
viii Contents
3.7 A cavity subjected to pressure of injected fluid in a poroelastic

medium 75
3.8 Integro-differential equations for time-harmonic fields in
heterogeneous fluids 82
3.9 Acoustic wave scattering from a rigid screen 85
3.10 Volume and surface integral equations of time-harmonic
electromagnetics for heterogeneous media 87
3.11 Integro-differential equations of time-harmonic elasticity for
3.12 Integro-differential equations of time-harmonic poroelasticity for
3.13 Notes 101
References 101
4 Numerical calculation of volume and surface potentials 103

4.1 Gaussian approximating functions 103
4.2 Fast Fourier transform algorithms for calculation of Gaussian
quasiinterpolants and related sums 108
4.3 Numerical calculation of volume potentials of electrostatics 117
4.4 Far field asymptotics of static potentials and multipole expansions
of the potential densities 122
4.5 Volume potential of time-harmonic acoustics 124
4.6 Surface potentials of electrostatics 126
4.7 Surface potentials of time-harmonic acoustics 132
4.8 Notes 135
Appendix 4.A Computational programs for fast calculation of sums of
identical functions shifted at the nodes of regular grids 135
Appendix 4.B The computational program for numerical calculation of a
3D potential of electrostatics 140
References 143
5 Numerical solution of volume integral equations for static fields in

5.1 Discretization of the volume integral equations of electrostatics for
5.2 Iterative solutions of the systems of linear algebraic equations of
large dimensions 151
5.3 Numerical solution of the volume integral equations of
electrostatics 153
5.4 Numerical solutions of the volume integral equations of static
elasticity for heterogeneous media 156
5.5 Thermo-elastic deformation of heterogeneous media 169
5.6 Elasto-plastic deformation of heterogeneous media 172
5.7 Notes 187
Contents ix
Appendix 5.A The computational program for numerical solution of

volume integral equations of electrostatics for heterogeneous media 187
References 190
6 Cracks in heterogeneous media 193

6.1 A planar crack of arbitrary shape in a homogeneous elastic medium 193
6.2 Cracks with curvilinear surfaces 199
6.3 Stress intensity factors at the crack edge 207
6.4 Elastic bodies containing cracks 211
6.5 A homogeneous elastic medium containing cracks and inclusions 224
6.6 A planar crack subjected to pressure of injected fluid in a
poroelastic medium 231
6.7 Notes 237
Appendix 6.A The computational program for numerical solution of the
crack problem of elasticity 237
References 242
7 Time-harmonic fields in heterogeneous media 245

7.1 Scattering of acoustic waves from heterogeneities in fluids 245
7.2 Acoustic wave scattering from a rigid screen; direct and inverse
problems 256
7.3 Electromagnetic wave scattering from a heterogeneity of arbitrary
shape in dielectric media 275
7.4 Scattering of elastic waves from heterogeneities of arbitrary shapes 281
7.5 Scattering of elastic waves from a planar crack 293
7.6 Scattering from heterogeneous inclusions in poroelastic media 310
7.7 Notes 321
Appendix 7.A The computational program for solution of the problem
of acoustic wave scattering from heterogeneities in fluid 321
Appendix 7.B The computational program for solution of the acoustic
wave scattering problem for a rigid screen 327
Appendix 7.C Integrals Fm (ρ, q) associated with the scattering problem
of elasticity for a crack 330
References 333
8 Quasistatic crack growth in heterogeneous media 335

8.1 Crack growth under prescribed pressure applied to the crack surface 335
8.2 Governing equations of the hydraulic fracture theory 347
8.3 Hydraulic fracture crack propagation in a homogeneous elastic
medium with varying fracture toughness 356
8.4 The three-parameter model of hydraulic fracture crack growth in
heterogeneous elastic media 371
8.5 Notes 376
x Contents
Appendix 8.A The computational program for construction of

equilibrium crack contours in a homogeneous elastic medium with
varying fracture toughness 377
Appendix 8.B Approximating functions for simulation of hydraulic
fracture crack propagation in homogeneous elastic media 382
Appendix 8.C Computer simulation of hydraulic fracture crack
propagation by the three-parameter model 383
References 384
9 The homogenization problem 387

9.1 Effective property tensors of heterogeneous media 387
9.2 The representative volume elements of heterogeneous media 393
9.3 The effective field method 401
9.4 The homogenization problem for elastic heterogeneous media 416
9.5 Homogenization of elastic media with multiple cracks 432
9.6 Homogenization of elasto-plastic composites 447
9.7 The homogenization problem for time-harmonic fields in
9.8 Notes 471
Appendix 9.A Averaging of rank four tensors over orientations 471
References 472
Index 475
Preface
Heterogeneous media have been the object of intense theoretical and experimental
studies for more than a century. This interest is caused by the importance of hetero-
geneous materials in engineering applications. Strictly speaking, all materials used in
human practice are heterogeneous at some scale, and specific features of their mi-
crostructures affect a wide spectrum of the macroscopic properties. Composites and
nanomaterials, geological structures, metal alloys, and polymer blends form an inex-
haustive list of heterogeneous materials.
In the theory of heterogeneous media, two principal trends can be indicated. The
first one comprises approximate analytical methods for the evaluation of the effective
properties of heterogeneous materials. This trend has been extensively developed in a
large part of the 20th century. The emergence and development of the second trend is
related to the exponential growth of computer capacity from the second half of the 20th
century. Powerful computers and commercial software for the numerical analysis of
linear and nonlinear problems of physics and continuum mechanics provide efficient
tools for the solution of various problems of heterogeneous media. The background
of these programs is mainly the finite element method. This method allows evaluating
effective static properties as well as local physical fields in heterogeneous materials,
but its application to the analysis of wave propagation problems encounters principal
and technical difficulties.
Another branch of computational mechanics and physics of heterogeneous media
is related to the numerical solution of volume integral equations. It is known that the
principal static and dynamic problems of heterogeneous media can be formulated in
terms of volume integral equations. In this book, a universal numerical method for the
solution of the volume integral equations for static and dynamic fields in heteroge-
neous media is systematically developed. The method is based on the “approximate
approximation” concept introduced by Vladimir Maz’ya. This concept provides ro-
bust algorithms for the solution of volume and surface integral equations for fields in
heterogeneous media. For static problems, efficiencies of these algorithms and of the
finite element method are comparable. But these algorithms can be successfully used
for the solution of wave propagation problems. In this book, the numerical method
is applied to the solution of various static and dynamic problems of heterogeneous
media. Electrostatic and electrodynamic fields, static and dynamic fields in elastic and
poroelastic media, quasistatic crack growth in heterogeneous media, and the homog-
enization problems for static and time-harmonic fields in heterogeneous media are
considered. Computational programs for the numerical solution of the basic problems
are presented. This book is addressed to students, engineers, and researchers who use
numerical methods for the analysis of physical fields in heterogeneous materials.
xii Preface
The results presented in the book are based on the publications of the author
with his students and colleagues. The author thanks Professor Vladimir Maz’ya for
discussions, Professor Valery Levin for reading the manuscript and comments, and
Dr. Evgeny Pervago for the help in programming. The author thanks the Technologi-
cal Institute of Higher Education of Monterrey, State Mexico Campus, for the support
in the research activities.
S. Kanaun
Mexico
May 2020
Notations
ui , εij , Cij kl , ... Lower case latin indices are tensorial.

3
σij = Cij kl εkl = Cij kl εkl Summation with respect to repeated indices is
k,l=1
implied.
T(ij )kl = 12 (Tij kl + Tj ikl ) Parentheses in indices mean symmetrization.
x, x Point and vector of a point in 3D space.
x, x Point and vector of a point in 2D space.
a · b ⇒ ai b i Scalar product of vectors and tensors.
a × b ⇒ ij k aj bk Vector product of vectors and tensors.
A ⊗ B ⇒ Aij...k Blm...n Tensor product of vectors and tensors.
a⊕b⇒
⇒ (a1 , a2 , .., an , b1 , b2 , ..., bm ) Direct sum of vectors.
δij The Kronecker symbol.
ij k The Levi-Civita symbol.
E 1 , E 2 , ..., E 6 The basic rank four tensors in Eqs. (2.210)–(2.211).
P 1 , P 2 , ..., P 6 The basic rank four tensors in Eqs. (2.212)–(2.213).
∇i = ∂x∂ i = ∂i The Nabla operator.
divT ⇒ ∂i Tij k... Divergence of a tensor field T(x).
rotT = × T ⇒
⇒ ij k ∂j Tklm... Rotor of a tensor field T(x).
2 2 2
= ∂ 2 + ∂ 2 + ∂ 2 The Laplace operator.
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
f ∗(k) = f (k) =
= f (x) exp(ik · x)dx The Fourier transform of a function f (x).
k, k Point and vector of a point in the 3D k-space.
k, k Point and vector of a point in the 2D k-space.
pv F (x)dx =
= limε→0 |x|>ε F (x)dx The Cauchy principal value of the integral.
δ(x) Dirac’s delta function.
(x) Delta function concentrated on the surface .
V Region in 3D (2D) space.
V (x) = 1 if x ∈ V
Characteristic function of the region V .
V (x) = 0 if x ∈ /V
f (x) Ensemble average of a random function f (x).
f (x)|x Average of a random function f (x) under the
condition that x ∈ V .
ϕ(x) = (πH1)3/2 exp − h|x|
2
2H The Gaussian approximating function in 3D space.

exp − h|x|
2
ϕ(x) = πH 1
2H The Gaussian approximating function in 2D space.
Introduction
1
In this book, the principal objects of study are physical fields in heterogeneous mate-
rials subjected to static or dynamic loading. In many important cases, such fields are
described by continuum models and satisfy systems of linear differential equations
(elliptic, parabolic, hyperbolic) with space-varying coefficients. Let a field u(x) in the
heterogeneous medium with the tensor of material properties C(x) satisfy the equation
L(C)u = −f, (1.1)
where L(C) is a linear differential operator, f(x) is an external field source, and x is a
point of the medium. We introduce a homogeneous reference medium with a constant
property tensor C0 and present the function C(x) in the form
C(x) = C0 + C1 (x), (1.2)
where C1 (x) is deviation of the heterogeneous medium properties from the properties
of the reference medium. In many important cases, the operator L is linear with respect
to tensor C, and we can rewrite Eq. (1.1) in the form
L(C0 )u = −f − L(C1 )u. (1.3)
The inverse operator G(C0 ) with respect to L(C0 ) is defined by the equation
G(C0 )L(C0 ) = −I, (1.4)
where I is the identity operator. Applying the operator G(C0 ) to both parts of Eq. (1.3),
we obtain the equation for the field u(x) in the form
u = u0 + G(C0 )L(C1 )u, u0 = G(C0 )f. (1.5)
If the operator G(C0 ) can be presented in the integral form

G(C0 )f(x) = g(C0 , x − x )f(x )dx , (1.6)
then Eq. (1.5) is the volume integral equation for the field u(x) in the heterogeneous
medium

u(x) = u0 (x) + g(C0 , x − x )L(C1 )u(x )dx . (1.7)
The kernel g(C0 , x) of the integral operator in this equation is the Green function of
the differential operator L(C0 ). The volume integral equation (1.7) is equivalent to the
original differential equation (1.1). In the literature, Eq. (1.7) is called the equation of
Lippmann–Schwinger type.
Heterogeneous Media. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819880-3.00008-1
2 Heterogeneous Media
The problem of calculation of fields in heterogeneous media with arbitrary varying

property tensors C(x) can be solved only numerically. The volume integral equation
method is preferable if a finite heterogeneous region V is embedded into an infinite
homogeneous host medium. In this case, the problem is reduced to calculation of the
field inside the region V only, and if this field is found, the field in the host medium
is reconstructed from the same integral equation. It should be noted that the field
u(x) in Eq. (1.7) satisfies automatically the conditions at infinity, which is important
for solution of the scattering problems. These are advantages of the volume integral
equation method over the methods based on the differential equations (e.g., the finite
element method, which is better suited for the numerical calculation of fields in finite
regions).
In this book, the calculation of various physical fields in heterogeneous media is
reduced to the solution of volume and surface integral equations. For deriving these
equations, the Green functions of the differential operators in the governing equations
for physical fields in homogeneous media should be constructed. Chapter 2 is devoted
to construction of the Green functions of electro and magnetostatics, thermodynamics,
electrodynamics, acoustics, static and dynamic elasticity, and poroelasticity. Volume
and surface potentials associated with the Green functions are introduced, and proper-
ties of these potentials are indicated.
Volume and surface integral equations for physical fields in heterogeneous media
are derived in Chapter 3. Surface integral equations are used for the determination of
fields in homogeneous host media containing thin heterogeneous with sharp property
contrasts from the properties of the host medium.
Methods of numerical solution of volume integral equations have been discussed
in the literature for decades [1], [2], [3], [4]. In the conventional methods, the solu-
tion region V is divided into a finite number of subregions, and in each subregion, the
unknown functions are approximated by standard functions (e.g., polynomial splines,
wavelets, etc.). After application of the method of moments or the collocation method,
the problem is reduced to a finite system of linear algebraic equations for the co-
efficients of the approximation (the discretized problem) [2]. In the case of integral
equations for the fields in heterogeneous media, the matrices of the discretized prob-
lems are nonsparse and should have large dimensions for acceptable accuracy of the
solution. The elements of these matrices are integrals over the subregions calculated
in a number of points in the region V . These integrals can be singular, and complex-
ity of their calculations depends on types of approximating functions and geometry of
the subregions. For conventional approximating functions, a great portion of computer
time is spent on calculation of these integrals and iterative solution of the discretized
problem. In order to reduce considerable computational cost of the numerical solu-
tions, various techniques were proposed (e.g., fast multipole methods [5] and wavelet
expansions [6], [7]). The algorithms of these methods are cumbersome and difficult to
perform for the solution of static and dynamic problems of elasticity and poroelasticity
of heterogeneous media.
In Chapters 4 and 5, an efficient method for numerical solution of the volume inte-
gral equations for fields in heterogeneous media is presented. In the method, Gaussian
radial functions are used for approximation of the fields. The theory of approximation
Introduction 3
by Gaussian and other similar functions was developed in the works of V. Mas’ya,
V. Maz’ya, and G. Schmidt and presented in the book [8]. The principal result of this
theory can be formulated as follows. Any bounded together with the first derivatives
function u(x) can be approximated by the following series:

1 |x|2
u(x) ≈ u(h,H ) (x) = um ϕ(x − hm), ϕ(x) = exp − .
d
(πH )d/2 H h2
m∈Z
(1.8)
Here, m ∈ Z d is a vector with integer components in the space of the dimension d,

hm are coordinates of the nodes of the approximation (h is the distance between the
neighbor nodes), um = u(hm) is the value of function u(x) at the nodes, and H is a
dimensionless parameter of the order of 1. In [8], Eq. (1.8) is called the “approximate
approximation” because its error |u(x) − u(h,H ) (x)| does not vanish when h → 0 and
can be assessed as follows:
|u(x) − u(h,H ) (x)| ≤ C1 ||u||h + O(exp(−π 2 H )). (1.9)
Here, ||u|| is a norm of the function u(x) and the constant C1 does not depend on
h. The second term on the right hand side of this equation is the so-called saturation
error, which does not vanish when h → 0. But for H = O(1), this term is small and
can be neglected in practical calculations.
Gaussian approximating functions are an efficient tool for solution of volume inte-
gral equations for the following reasons.
• Actions of many integral operators of mathematical physics on Gaussian functions
are presented in closed analytical forms and do not require numerical integration.
Thus, for these functions, the time of calculation of the elements of the matrices of
the discretized problems is substantially reduced in comparison with the methods
that incorporate conventional approximating functions.
• For discretization of the volume integral equations by the Gaussian functions, the
only required information is the coordinates of approximating nodes and material
properties at the nodes, but not detailed geometry of the mesh cells (subregions).
Thus, the method is mesh-free.
• For regular grids of approximating nodes, the matrices of the discretized problems
have a Toeplitz structure. Hence, the fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithms can
be used for the calculation of matrix-vector products in the process of iterative
solution of the discretized problems.
In this book, the numerical method of solution of volume integral equations based
on the “approximate approximation” concept of V. Maz’ya is systematically devel-
oped. Chapter 4 is devoted to numerical calculations of the volume and surface
potentials of the fields in homogeneous media. Basic points of the “approximate ap-
proximation” concept are formulated, and the results of action of various integral
operators of mathematical physics on the Gaussian functions are obtained. The com-
putational programs adopting the FFT algorithms for fast calculation of the 2D and
3D potentials are presented.
Chapter 5 is devoted to the numerical solution of the volume integral equations

for static fields in heterogeneous media. Electrostatic fields, static fields in elastic and
elasto-plastic media, and quasistatic fields in poroelastic media are considered. Dis-
cretization of the integral equations for these fields by the Gaussian approximating
functions is performed. Methods of iterative solution of the discretized problems are
discussed, and computational programs incorporating the FFT algorithms for the cal-
culation of matrix-vector products are presented.
In Chapter 6, the crack problems for elastic and poroelastic heterogeneous media
are considered. The problems are reduced to systems of surface and volume integral
equations for the crack opening vectors and the stress tensor in the medium. Then,
these equations are discretized by the Gaussian functions, and the numerical solutions
are compared with exact solutions and results of other numerical methods presented
in the literature.
Chapter 7 is devoted to the numerical solution of dynamic (time-harmonic) prob-
lems of heterogeneous media. The cases of acoustic, electromagnetic, elastic, and
poroelastic wave scattering from heterogeneous inclusions and groups of inclusions
are considered. The discretized equations of the problems are presented, and the nu-
merical solutions are compared with exact solutions of the scattering problems for
heterogeneities of canonical forms.
In Chapter 8, quasistatic crack growth in a heterogeneous elastic medium is con-
sidered. First, crack growth by a prescribed increasing pressure applied to the crack
surfaces is studied. The principles of linear fracture mechanics are used for the de-
termination of the crack configuration in the process of loading. The method of fast
solution of the crack problems developed in Chapter 6 provides efficient numerical
algorithms for the simulation of crack growth in heterogeneous elastic media. Then,
the crack growth caused by the pressure of a fluid injected inside the crack is studied
(hydraulic fracture). The governing equations of the hydraulic fracture theory are pre-
sented, and methods of efficient numerical solution of these equations are proposed.
Chapter 9 is devoted to solution of the homogenization problem. For a heteroge-
neous medium, this problem consists in the determination of material parameters of
a homogeneous medium with equivalent response to external loading. For solution
of this problem, the representative volume element of heterogeneous media is intro-
duced. The effective property tensors of heterogeneous media are expressed in terms
of the averages of the fields over the representative volume elements. A combination of
the self-consistent effective field method and the numerical methods developed in the
previous chapters is used for the calculation of the fields in the representative volume
elements. Comparisons of predictions of the method with the results of other numer-
ical and analytical methods are presented. For time-harmonic fields, self-consistent
effective medium and effective field methods in application to solution of the homog-
enization problem are considered. Predictions of both methods are compared for an
example of a model heterogeneous medium.
Notes for the reader. Chapter 2 presents a survey of Green functions of the differential
operators in the governing equations for physical fields in homogeneous media. Vol-
ume and surface integral equations for the fields in heterogeneous media are obtained
Introduction 5
in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 is independent and devoted to approximation by the Gaussian

radial functions and the FFT algorithms for the calculation of Gaussian quasiinter-
polants and related sums. In the first part of Chapter 5, iterative methods for solution
of the systems of linear algebraic equations of large dimensions are discussed, and
the algorithms of the methods that are appropriate for solution of the volume inte-
gral equations for the fields in heterogeneous media are presented. The second part of
Chapter 5 and Chapters 6, 7, and 8 are devoted to application of the method to solution
of specific problems of heterogeneous media. In Chapter 9, the principal points of the
homogenization problem are discussed, and the self-consistent effective field method
for solution of this problem is presented. This chapter can be also read independently,
and the numerical methods developed in the previous chapters are used as tools for
solution of the self-consistent equations for the representative volume elements of
heterogeneous media.
References
[1] W. Chew, Waves and Fields in Inhomogeneous Media, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990.
[2] A. Peterson, S. Ray, R. Mittra, Computational Methods for Electromagnetics, IEEE Press,
New York, 1997.
[3] A. Samokhin, Integral Equations and Iterative Methods in Electromagnetic Scattering, VSP,
Utrecht, Boston, Köln, Tokyo, 2001.
[4] L. Tsang, J. Kong, K. Ding, Ch. Ao, Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves, Numerical Sim-
ulations, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001.
[5] H. Chang, L. Greengard, V. Rokhlin, A fast adaptive multipole algorithm in three dimen-
sions, Journal of Computational Physics 155 (1999) 468–498.
[6] B. Alpert, G. Belkin, R. Coifman, V. Rokhlin, Wavelet bases for the fast solution of second
kind integral equations, SIAM Journal of Scientific and Statistical Computations 14 (1993)
159–184.
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ferential equations II: matrix compression and fast algorithms, Advances in Computational
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[8] V. Maz’ya, G. Schmidt, Approximate Approximation, Mathematical Surveys and Mono-
graphs, vol. 141, American Mathematical Society, Providence, 2007.
Homogeneous media with external
and internal field sources 2
This chapter is devoted to integral presentations of physical fields in homogeneous
media caused by external and internal field sources distributed in finite volumes or
on surfaces. For point concentrated sources, these fields are the Green functions of
the differential operators of the governing equations for the fields. The Green func-
tions of electro- and magnetostatics, electrodynamics, thermo-conductivity, acoustics,
static and dynamic elasticity, and poroelasticity are considered. The volume and sur-
face potentials associated with the Green functions are introduced, and regularization
formulas for potentials with singular kernels are presented. Discontinuities of the po-
tentials on the boundaries of the regions containing field sources are determined.
2.1 Electro- and magnetostatic fields in homogeneous

media
We consider a homogeneous dielectric medium with the tensor of dielectric permit-

tivity Cij . The system of differential equations for the electric field Ei (x) and electric
displacement Di (x) in the medium with distributed electric charge q(x) has the form
[1]
∂i Di (x) = q(x), Di (x) = Cij Ej (x), rotij Ej (x) = 0. (2.1)
Here, rot is the differential operator
∂
rotij = ij k ∂k , ∂i = , (2.2)
∂xi
where ij k is the antisymmetric Levi-Civita tensor. Thus, the electric field Ei (x) in di-
electric media subjected to electric charge is rotor-free. It is known that any rotor-free
vector function can be presented in the form of the gradient of a scalar function, and
in particular, the electric field Ei (x) can be presented in the form
Ei (x) = −∂i u(x), (2.3)
where the scalar function u(x) is called the electric potential. For the field Ei (x) in
this equation, the third equation of the system (2.1) is automatically satisfied. After
substitution of Eq. (2.3) into the system (2.1), we obtain the equation for the potential
u(x) in the form
Cij ∂i ∂j u(x) = −q(x). (2.4)

Heterogeneous Media. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819880-3.00009-3
The Green function of the operator Cij ∂i ∂j in this equation is a vanishing at infinity
solution of Eq. (2.4) with Dirac’s delta function δ(x) on the right hand side
Cij ∂i ∂j g(x) = −δ(x). (2.5)
If the function g(x) is known, a partial solution of Eq. (2.4) is presented in the form

u(x) = g(x − x )q(x )dx . (2.6)
Henceforth, we assume that q(x) is a piece-wise analytical function with a finite sup-
port or q(x) vanishes at infinity faster than any negative power of |x|. Such functions
will be called finite.
The electric field Ei (x) and electric displacement Di (x) in the medium with dis-
tributed electric charge are presented in the integral forms that follow from Eqs. (2.1),
(2.3), and (2.6)

Ei (x) = ∂i g(x − x )q(x )dx , Di (x) = Cij ∂j g(x − x )q(x )dx . (2.7)
The system of equations of magnetostatics of homogeneous media is formulated in

terms of the magnetic flux vector Bi and the magnetic field intensity Hi [1]
∂i Bi (x) = 0, Bi (x) = Mij Hj (x), rotij Hj (x) = −ηi (x). (2.8)
Here, Mij is the tensor of magnetic permittivity of the medium and ηi (x) is the
so-called free current, which can be considered as a source of magnetic field in the
medium. Because rotij Hj is not equal to zero, the field Hi (x) cannot be presented as
the gradient of a scalar function. Partial solutions of the system (2.8) can be presented
in the integral forms similar to Eq. (2.7)

Hi (x) = sij (x − x )ηj (x )dx , Bi (x) = Mij sj k (x − x )ηk (x )dx .
(2.9)
In order to determine the kernel sij (x) of the integral operator in these equations, we
consider the identity that holds for any vanishing at infinity vector function Ai (x) [2]
Mj k ∂j ∂k Ai = Mj k ∂i ∂j Ak − rotik rotkl Al , (2.10)

rotik = ij k Mj m ∂m . (2.11)
If Mij = δij , where δij is Kronecker’s symbol, this equation is the well-known formula
of vector analysis
A = ∇ div A − rot(rotA). (2.12)
Here, A = A(x) is a vector function in 3D space, = ∂i ∂i is the Laplace operator,

∇ = grad is the Nabla operator with the components (∂1 , ∂2 , ∂3 ), and div A = ∂i Ai .
Homogeneous media with external and internal field sources 9
Let g(x) be the Green function of the differential operator on the left hand side of
Eq. (2.10)
Mij ∂i ∂j g(x) = −δ(x). (2.13)
Then, for a vanishing at infinity vector field Ai (x) we have the following equation,
which follows from Eq. (2.10):

Ai (x) = − g(x − x ) ∂i ∂j Mj k Ak (x ) − rotik rotkl Al (x ) dx . (2.14)
Changing Ai (x) in this equation to the magnetic field Hi (x) and taking into account
Eq. (2.8), we obtain

Hi (x) = − g(x − x )rotik ηk (x )dx = − rotik g(x − x )ηk (x )dx . (2.15)

Here, we overthrow the operator rotik from a finite function ηk (x) onto the kernel g(x)
using Gauss’ theorem and the equation ∂i g(x − x ) = −∂i g(x − x ). Overthrowing the
derivatives from a finite function on the kernels in the integrals similar to (2.14) and
(2.15) will be called integration by parts. Thus, the kernel sij (x) in Eq. (2.9) has the
form
sij (x) = −rotij g(x). (2.16)
Let us consider a generalized form of Eqs. (2.1) and (2.8) and introduce vectors
ui (x) and σi (x) that satisfy the equations
∂i σi (x) = −q(x), σi (x) = Mij uj (x), rotij uj (x) = −ηi (x). (2.17)
The functions q(x) and ηi (x) can be interpreted as sources of the fields ui (x) and
σi (x), q(x) is called the external source, and ηi (x) is the internal source. It follows
from Eq. (2.14) that a vanishing at infinity solution of the system (2.17) ui (x) is pre-
sented in the form

ui (x) = − g(x − x ) ∂i ∂j Mj k uk (x ) − rotik rotkl ul (x ) dx =

= ∂i g(x − x )q(x )dx − rotik g(x − x )ηk (x )dx , (2.18)
where g(x) is the Green function of the operator Mij ∂i ∂j . Here, integration by parts is
used. This equation defines the field ui (x) in terms of known distributions of external
and internal field sources in the medium.
The system of differential equations for steady electric current Ji (x) and electric
field Ei (x) in a conductive medium has the form [1]
∂i Ji (x) = 0, Ji (x) = Cij Ej (x), rotij Ej (x) = 0. (2.19)

Here, Cij is the tensor of electroconductivity. In this case, the sources of the fields are
on the region boundary or at infinity (for an infinite medium). Similar to the case of
electrostatics, the field Ej (x) is expressed in terms of the electric potential u(x),
Ei (x) = −∂i u(x), (2.20)
and the equation for u(x) follows from the system (2.19) and has the form
Cij ∂i ∂j u(x) = 0. (2.21)
2.2 Green functions of electro- and magnetostatics
For isotropic media, the tensor of electric permittivity Cij has the form
Cij = cδij , (2.22)
where c is a scalar. As a result, Eq. (2.5) for the Green function of electrostatics takes
the form
c∂i ∂i g(x) = cg(x) = −δ(x). (2.23)
The 3D Fourier transform g ∗ (k) of the Green function g(x) is defined by the equation

∗
g (k) = g(x)eik·x dx, (2.24)
where k · x = ki xi is the scalar product of √

the vector xi of the point x and the vector
parameter ki of the Fourier transform, i = −1. The inverse 3D Fourier transform is
the following integral:

1
g(x) = g ∗ (k)e−ik·x dx. (2.25)
(2π)3
Applying the Fourier transform operator to both parts of Eq. (2.23) and taking into
account that in the Fourier transform space, the partial derivative ∂i is converted in the
multiplier (−iki ) and δ ∗ (k) = 1, we obtain
1
ck 2 g ∗ (k) = 1, g ∗ (k) = , k 2 = |k|2 = ki ki . (2.26)
ck 2
Application of the inverse Fourier transform to g ∗ (k) yields the explicit equation for
the Green function
−ik·x
1 e 1
g(x) = dk = . (2.27)
c(2π)3 k2 4πc|x|
In the case of an anisotropic medium, linear transformation of the Cartesian coor-

dinates xi
yi = Aij xj , xi = A−1
ij yj (2.28)
converts Eq. (2.5) into the following:
Cij Aik Aj l ∂k ∂l g(A−1 y) = −δ(A−1 y). (2.29)
If the tensor Aij satisfies the equation
Cij Aik Aj l = δkl , (2.30)
g (y) = g(A−1 y) the equation

we obtain for
∂i ∂i
g (y) = − det Aδ(y), (2.31)
where det A is the determinant of the tensor Aij . Here, the following property of the
delta function is used [3]:
δ(A−1 y) = det Aδ(y). (2.32)
Eq. (2.31) is similar to Eq. (2.23), and therefore,

g (y) has the form
det A

g (y) = . (2.33)
4π|y|
For a positive symmetric tensor Cij , the solution of Eq. (2.30) is

1
Aij = Cij−1 , det A = √ , (2.34)
det C
and as a result, we obtain the Green function g(x) of electrostatics for anisotropic
media in the form
1
g(x) = , r̄(x) = det C(Cij−1 xi xj ). (2.35)
4π r̄(x)
2.3 Elastic media with external and internal stress

sources
We consider a homogeneous elastic medium with stiffness tensor Cij kl subjected to

body forces of density qi (x). The stress σij (x) and strain εij (x) tensors in the medium
satisfy the system of differential equations [2]
∂j σij (x) = −qi (x), σij (x) = Cij kl εkl (x), Rotij kl εkl (x) = 0, (2.36)
where Rotij kl is the incompatibility operator
Rotij kl εkl (x) = ikl j mn ∂k ∂m εln (x). (2.37)
The tensor εij (x) can be presented as the symmetrized gradient of a vector potential
ui (x)
1
εij (x) = ∂(i uj ) (x) = ∂i uj (x) + ∂j ui (x) . (2.38)
2
For εij (x) in this equation, the third equation in the system (2.36) is automatically
satisfied [2]. The vector ui (x) is the displacement vector of a point x. The equation
for the field ui (x) follows from the system (2.36) in the form
Cij kl ∂j ∂k ul (x) = −qi (x). (2.39)
The Green function gij (x) of the operator Cij kl ∂j ∂k is a vanishing at infinity solu-
tion of the equation
Cij kl ∂j ∂k glm (x) = −δim δ(x). (2.40)
If the tensor gij (x) is known, the displacement vector and the strain and stress tensors
in the medium are presented in the integral forms

ui (x) = gij (x − x )qj (x )dx , (2.41)

εij (x) = ∂(i gj )m (x − x )qm (x )dx ,

σij (x) = Cij kl ∂k glm (x − x )qm (x )dx . (2.42)
Application of the Fourier transform operator to Eq. (2.40) results in the equation
for the Fourier transform gij∗ (k) of the Green function of elasticity
gij∗ (k) = (Ciklj kk kl )−1 . (2.43)
It is known [4] that for an arbitrary anisotropic homogeneous medium, gij (x) is an
even homogeneous function of the order of −1
1 xi
gij (x) = gij (|x|n) = gij (n) , ni = . (2.44)
|x| |x|
Explicit forms of gij (x) can be obtained for isotropic, transverse isotropic media,
and for media with hexagonal symmetry [4]. For of an isotropic medium with Lame
constants λ and μ, the tensors gij∗ (k) and gij (x) have the forms
1 ki k j λ+μ
gij∗ (k) = δij − κ 2 , κ= , (2.45)
μk 2 k λ + 2μ
1 xi x j
gij (x) = (2 − κ)δij + κ 2 . (2.46)
8πμ|x| x
Stresses in elastic media can exist without external sources qi (x) (body forces).
Such stresses are called internal, and their origins can be inhomogeneous temperature
fields, plastic deformations, phase transitions accompanied by altering of crystalline
lattices, etc. Let a finite region V in a homogeneous elastic medium be plastically
deformed, and let mij (x) be the tensor of plastic deformations. Because the region V
is constrained by the surrounding material, there appear stresses σij in the medium.
The corresponding elastic strain tensor εij e is defined by Hooke’s law: ε e = C −1 σ .
ij ij kl kl
The sum of elastic εij e and inelastic m strains composes the total strain tensor ε ,
ij ij
which should satisfy the compatibility equation
Rotij kl εkl = Rotij kl (εkl
e
+ mkl ) = 0 . (2.47)
In the absence of body forces, the stress tensor satisfies the homogeneous equilibrium
equation ∂j σij = 0 . As a result, the system of equations for internal stresses takes
the form
∂j σij = 0, σij = Cij kl εkl
e
, e
Rotij kl εkl = −ηij , (2.48)
ηij = Rotij kl mkl . (2.49)

In this equation, ηij (x) is called the tensor of the dislocation density and mij (x) is
the tensor of the dislocation moments [2], [5]. If ηij (x) is a finite function, a partial
solution of the system (2.48) is presented in the integral form [2]

σij (x) = Zij kl (x − x )ηkl (x )dx , (2.50)
where Zij kl (x) is the Green tensor for internal stresses. The explicit form of this tensor
for isotropic media is presented in [2], [6]. After taking Eq. (2.49) into account and
integrating by parts, the stress tensor in Eq. (2.50) can be presented in the form

σij (x) = S ij kl (x − x )mkl (x )dx , (2.51)
Sij kl (x) = Rotij mn Zmnkl (x) . (2.52)

The kernel Sij kl (x) in this equation can be expressed in terms of the Green function
of static elasticity gij (x) in Eq. (2.40). Let a homogeneous medium be subjected to
external qi (x) and internal ηij (x) stress sources. It follows from Eqs. (2.36) and (2.48)
that the system of equations for the stress field σij can be written in the form
−1
∂j σij = −qi , Rotij kl Cklmn σmn = −ηij . (2.53)
Using the Green functions gij (x) and Zij kl (x), we can present the solution of this
system in the integral form

σij (x) = Cij kl ∂k glm (x − x )qm (x )dx + Zij kl (x − x )ηkl (x )dx . (2.54)

Substituting in this equation the left hand sides of Eq. (2.53) for qi (x) and ηij (x) and
integrating by parts, we obtain

σij (x) = −Cij kl ∂k glm (x − x )∂n σnm (x )dx −

− Zij kl (x − x )Rotklmn Cmnrs
−1
σrs (x )dx =

−1
=− Cij kl ∂k ∂m gln x − x +S ij kl x − x Cklmn σmn x dx .
(2.55)
Comparing the left and right parts of this equation, we obtain the identity
−1
Iij mn δ(x) = −Cij kl ∂k ∂m gln (x) − Sij kl (x)Cklmn , (2.56)
where Iij kl = δi(j δk)l is the unit four rank tensor. Thus, the equation for the function
Sij kl (x) takes the form
Sij kl (x) = Cij mn Kmnrs (x)Crskl − Cij kl δ(x) , (2.57)
where the function Kij kl (x) is defined by the equation

Kij kl (x) = − ∂i ∂k gj l (x) (ij )(kl) . (2.58)
2.4 Temperature fields in a homogeneous medium with

heat sources
The temperature field T (x, t) in a homogeneous medium with heat sources of the
density q(x, t) satisfies the system of differential equations [7]
∂T (x, t)
∂i Ji (x, t) + cρ = q(x, t), Ji (x, t) = −Cij ∂j T (x, t). (2.59)
∂t
Here, Ji (x, t) is the heat flux, Cij is the tensor of thermo-conductivity, c and ρ are
heat capacity and density of the medium, respectively, and t is time. The equation for
the temperature field follows from the system (2.59) in the form
∂T (x, t)
Cij ∂i ∂j T (x, t) − cρ = −q(x, t). (2.60)
∂t
The Green function g(x, t) of the operator Cij ∂i ∂j − cρ ∂t∂ is a vanishing at infinity
solution of the equation
∂g(x, t)
Cij ∂i ∂j g(x, t) − cρ = −δ(x)δ(t). (2.61)
∂t
If the function g(x, t) is known, a partial solution of Eq. (2.60) is presented in the
integral form

T (x, t) = g(x − x , t) ∗ q(x , t)dx , (2.62)
where the symbol (∗) means the convolution operator with respect to time
t
f (t) ∗ u(t) = f (t − t )u(t )dt . (2.63)
0
If the medium is isotropic, the tensor of thermo-conductivity has the form
Cij = κδij , (2.64)
where κ is a scalar. In this case, Eq. (2.61) takes the form

∂g(x, t) 1 κ
a 2 ∂i ∂i g(x, t) − = − δ(x)δ(t), a2 = . (2.65)
∂t cρ cρ
Application of the Fourier transform with respect to spatial variables xi yields the
equation
∂g ∗ (k, t) 1
a 2 k 2 g ∗ (k, t) + = δ(t), (2.66)
∂t cρ
the solution of which has the form
1
g ∗ (k, t) = H (t) exp −a 2 k 2 t . (2.67)
cρ
Here, H (t) is the Heaviside function: H (t) = 0, t < 0, H (t) = 1, t > 0. After appli-
cation of the inverse Fourier transform with respect to the ki -variables, we obtain the
equation for g(x, t)
√
cρH (t) cρ|x|2
g(x, t) = √ exp − . (2.68)
(2 πκt)3 4κt
In the case of an anisotropic medium, we introduce linear transformation of spatial
variables xi
yi = Aij xj , xi = A−1
ij yj (2.69)
with the tensor Aij taken from the condition
Cij Aik Aj l = δkl . (2.70)
In the y-variables, Eq. (2.61) is converted into (g̃(y, t) = g(A−1 y, t))

1 ∂ g̃(y, t) 1
∂i ∂i g̃(y, t) − = − (det A)δ(y)δ(t). (2.71)
cρ ∂t cρ
The solution of this equation is similar to (2.68),

√
cρH (t) det A cρ|y|2
g̃(y, t) = √ 3 exp − . (2.72)
(2 πt) 4t
For a symmetric positive tensor Cij , the tensor Aij in Eq. (2.70) is
−1/2 1
Aij = Cij , det A = √ . (2.73)
det C
Thus, for an anisotropic medium, the Green function g(x, t) of thermo-conductivity
in the (x, t)-presentation takes the form
√
cρH (t) cρ
g(x, t) = √ √ exp − Cij−1 xi xj . (2.74)
det C (2 πt)3 4t
2.5 Quasistatic fields in poroelastic media
The theory of fluid-saturated porous media of M. Biot [8], [9] is an adequate model of
mechanical behavior of many geologic structures. It is assumed in the model that the
medium consists of a solid skeleton and a porous space filled with fluid. The theory
provides a coupled system of differential equations for the vector of displacements
ui (x, t) of the solid skeleton and fluid pressure p(x, t) in the porous space. For an
isotropic homogeneous medium, the system of equations of quasistatic poroelasticity
has the form
(λ + μ)∂i ∂j uj + μ∂j ∂j ui − α∂i p = −Fi , (2.75)

∂ ∂
−α ∂j uj +κ∂j ∂j p − β p = −f, (2.76)
∂t ∂t
where λ and μ are the effective Lame constants of the solid skeleton with dry pores
and α and β are Biot’s parameters
K α−φ φ
α=1− , β= + . (2.77)
Ks Ks Kf
Here, Ks and Kf are the bulk moduli of the solid and fluid phases, K is the effective
bulk modulus of the skeleton with dry pores, and φ is the porosity of the medium. The
coefficient κ reflects mobility of the fluid in the porous space, and
κ
κ= , (2.78)
η
where κ is the permeability of the medium and η is the fluid viscosity. The right hand
sides Fi and f of Eqs. (2.75) and (2.76) are the field sources. The stress tensor σij (x, t)
in the solid skeleton is defined by the equation
σij = λ∂k uk δij + 2μ∂(i uj ) − αpδij . (2.79)
The system (2.75)–(2.76) follows from the complete system of equations of dynamic
poroelasicity (Section 2.9) by neglecting the inertial terms proportional to the densities
of the solid and fluid phases.
After application of the Laplace transform operator to Eqs. (2.75) and (2.76), we
obtain the system of equations of poroelasticity in the (x, ω)-presentation
(λ + μ)∂i ∂j uj (x, ω) + μ∂j ∂j ui (x, ω) − α∂i p(x, ω) = −Fi (x, ω), (2.80)
κ 1
−α∂j uj (x, ω) + ∂j ∂j (x, ω) − βp(x, ω) = − f (x, ω). (2.81)
ω ω
In these equations,
∞ ∞
−ωt
ui (x, ω) = ui (x, t)e dt, p(x, ω) = p(x, t)e−ωt dt, (2.82)
0 0
and Fi (x, ω), f (x, ω) are the Laplace transforms of the source functions. It is assumed
that at the initial moment t = 0, u(x, 0) = 0, and p(x, 0) = 0.
For finite functions Fi (x, ω) and f (x, ω), a partial solution of the system
(2.80)–(2.81) is presented in the integral form as follows:

1
ui (x, ω) = Gij (x − x , ω)Fj (x , ω)dx + i (x − x , ω)f (x , ω)dx ,
ω
(2.83)

1
p(x, ω) = i (x − x , ω)Fi (x , ω)dx + g(x − x , ω)f (x , ω)dx .
ω
(2.84)
Here, Gij (x, ω), i (x, ω), and g(x, ω) are the Green functions of poroelasticity in the
(x, ω)-presentation. Applying the Fourier transform operator with respect to spatial
variables xi to Eqs. (2.83) and (2.84) and using the convolution property, we obtain
algebraic equations for the Fourier transforms u∗i (k, ω) and p ∗ (k, ω) of the functions
ui (x, ω) and p(x, ω):
1 ∗
u∗i (k, ω) = G∗ij (k, ω)Fj∗ (k, ω) + (k, ω)f ∗ (k, ω), (2.85)
ω i
1
p ∗ (k, ω) = i∗ (k, ω)Fi∗ (k, ω) + g ∗ (k, ω)f ∗ (k, ω). (2.86)
ω
Here, G∗ij , i∗ , g ∗ , and Fi∗ , f ∗ are the Fourier transforms of the Green and source
functions with respect to spatial variables. Applying the Fourier transform operator
to Eqs. (2.80) and (2.81) and substituting u∗i (k, ω) and p ∗ (k, ω) from Eqs. (2.85) and
(2.86) into the transformed equations, we obtain the following system for the Fourier
transforms of the Green functions:
1 ∗ ∗ 1
(λ + μ)ki kj G∗j k Fk∗ + j f + μk 2 G∗ik Fk∗ + i∗ f ∗ −
ω ω
∗ ∗ 1 ∗ ∗ ∗
− α(iki ) j Fj + g f = Fi , (2.87)
ω
1 κ 2 1 1
− α(iki ) G∗ik Fk∗ + i∗ f ∗ + k + β j∗ Fj∗ + g ∗ f ∗ = f ∗ .
ω ω ω ω
(2.88)
In this system, the functions G∗j k , j∗ , and g ∗ are unknowns. Equating expressions in
front of Fi∗ and f ∗ in the left and right hand sides of Eqs. (2.87) and (2.88), we obtain
the following system of equations for the Fourier transforms of the Green functions:

(λ + μ)ki kk + μk 2 δik G∗kj − α(iki )j∗ = δij , (2.89)

(λ + μ)ki kj + μk 2 δij j∗ − α(iki )g ∗ = 0, (2.90)
κ 2 κ 2
α(iki )G∗ij − k + β j∗ = 0, α(iki )i∗ − k + β g ∗ = −1. (2.91)
ω ω
Looking for G∗ij (k, ω) and i∗ (k, ω) in the forms

k i kj ki k j
G∗j k = A 2 + B δij − 2 , i∗ = (−iki )C, (2.92)
k k
where A, B, C are scalar functions of k and ω, we find explicit expressions for the
Green functions in the (k, ω)-presentation:
1 (λ + μ) ki kj q 2 ki kj
G∗ij (k, ω) = δ ij − − , (2.93)
μk 2 μ(λ + 2μ) k 4 (λ + 2μ) k 4 (k 2 + q 2 )
iki 1 ∗ 1
i∗ (k, ω) = 2 2 , g (k, ω) = , (2.94)
αk (k + q ) 2 ω κ(k + q 2 )
2
α 2 + β(λ + 2μ) α2
q 2 = Q2 ω, Q2 = , = 2 . (2.95)
κ(λ + 2μ) α + β(λ + 2μ)
Application of the inverse Fourier transform to G∗ij (k, ω), i∗ (k, ω), and ω1 g ∗ (k, ω)
yields the (x, ω)-presentations of the Green functions of quasistatic poroelasticity
1 (λ + μ) r
Gij (x, ω) = δij − ∂i ∂j −
4πμr μ(λ + 2μ) 8π

r 1 − e−qr
− ∂i ∂j + , (2.96)
(λ + 2μ) 8π 4πq 2 r
(1 − e−qr ) 1 e−qr
i (x, ω) = − ∂i , g(x, ω) = , r = |x|. (2.97)
α 4πr ω 4πrκ
After application of the inverse Laplace transforms to Eqs. (2.83) and (2.84), we ob-
tain the (x, t)-presentation of displacements and pressure in the medium with source
functions Fi (x, t) and f (x, t)

ui (x, t) = Gij (x − x , t) ∗ Fj (x , t)dx + i (x − x , t) ∗ f (x , t)dx ,
(2.98)

p(x, t) = i (x − x , t) ∗ Fi (x , t)dx + g (x − x , t) ∗ f (x , t)dx .

(2.99)
In these equations, the kernels Gij (x, t), i (x, t) are the originals (the inverse Laplace
transforms) of the Green functions Gij (x, ω), i (x, ω) in Eqs. (2.96) and (2.97) and

i (x, t),
g (x, t) are the originals of ω1 i (x, ω) and ω1 g(x, ω). Explicit expressions of
the originals have the forms
1 1 r
Gij (x, t) = δij − (λ + μ(1 + ))∂i ∂j δ(t)−
4πμr μ(λ + 2μ) 8π

1 Qr
− ∂i ∂j H (t) − erf c √ , (2.100)
(λ + 2μ) 4πQ2 r 2 t

1 Q Q2 r 2
i (x, t) = − ∂i δ(t) − exp − , (2.101)
α 4πr 8(πt)3/2 4t

1 Qr

i (x, t) = − ∂i H (t) − erf c √ , (2.102)
α 4πr 2 t

Q Q2 r 2

g (x, t) = exp − . (2.103)
8κ(πt)3/2 4t
Here, erf c(z) = 1 − erf(z), erf(z) is the error function

z
2
e−t dt,
2
erf(z) = √ (2.104)
π 0
H (t) is Heaviside’s function, and δ(t) is Dirac’s delta function.
2.6 Acoustic waves in fluids
For compressible fluids, the linearized equations of motion are formulated in terms of
fluid pressure p(x, t) and velocity υi (x, t) of fluid particles [10]
∂p ∂υi
+ K∂i υi = 0, ρ + ∂i p = qi . (2.105)
∂t ∂t
Here, ρ is the fluid density, K is the fluid bulk modulus, and qi is the body force
acting on fluid particles. Applying the time derivative to the first equation and using
the second one, we obtain the equation for acoustic pressure p(x, t) in the form
1 ∂ 2p K
∂i ∂i p − = −∂i qi , c2 = . (2.106)
c2 ∂t 2 ρ
Here, c is the sound velocity in the fluid.

Applying the time derivative to the second equation of the system (2.105) and using
the first one, we obtain the equation for the velocity υi of fluid particles in the form
1 ∂ 2 υi 1 ∂qi
∂i ∂j υj − =− . (2.107)
c2 ∂t 2 K ∂t
If dependence on time is defined by the multiplier eiωt , where ω is frequency

(time-harmonic acoustics), then qi (x, t) = qi (x)eiωt , p(x, t) = p(x)eiωt , υi (x, t) =
υi (x)eiωt , and the equation for the pressure amplitude p(x) takes the form
ω2
∂i ∂i p(x) + κ 2 p(x) = −∂i qi (x), κ2 = . (2.108)
c2
The Green function g(x) of the operator ∂i ∂i + κ 2 (the Helmholtz operator) is the
solution of the equation
∂i ∂i g(x) + κ 2 g(x) = −δ(x), (2.109)
and the explicit form of g(x) is well known, i.e.,
e−iκ|x|
g(x) = . (2.110)
4π|x|
The partial solution of Eq. (2.108) can be presented in the integral form

p(x) = ∂i g(x − x )qi (x )dx . (2.111)
For time-harmonic acoustics, the Green tensor Gij (x) of the operator ∂i ∂j + κ 2 δij
in Eq. (2.107) for the velocity of fluid particles is the solution of the equation
∂i ∂k Gkj + κ 2 Gij = −δij δ(x). (2.112)
The Fourier transform G∗ij (k) of the Green function satisfies the equation
ki kk G∗kj (k) − κ 2 G∗ij (k) = δij , (2.113)
and its solution is

ki k j 1
G∗ij (k) = − δij . (2.114)
κ 2 (k 2 − κ 2 ) κ 2
After application of the inverse Fourier transform, we obtain the x-presentation of this
function
1 e−iκ|x|
Gij (x) = − δij δ(x) + ∂i ∂j . (2.115)
κ2 4π |x|
2.7 The Green function of time-harmonic

electromagnetics
We consider equations of time-harmonic electromagnetics for an isotropic homoge-

neous medium with dielectric permittivity c and magnetic permittivity μ. In this case,
the electric field Ei , the current Ji (x), and the magnetic field Hi are defined by the
equations
Ei (x, t) = Ei (x)eiωt , Ji (x, t) = Ji (x)eiωt , Hi (x, t) = Hi (x)eiωt , (2.116)
and Maxwell equations for the amplitudes of these fields take the forms [1]
rotij Ej (x) + iωμHi (x) = 0, (2.117)

rotij Hj (x) − iωcEi (x) = Ji (x), (2.118)
∂i (cEi (x)) = ρ(x), ∂i (μHi (x)) = 0. (2.119)
Applying the operator rot to the first equation and using the second one, we obtain
−rotij rotj k Ek (x) + κ 2 Ei (x) = iωμJi (x), κ 2 = ω2 cμ. (2.120)
The Green function Gij (x) of the operator −rotij rotj k + κ 2 δik is the solution of the
equation
−rotij rotj k Gkl (x) + κ 2 Gil (x) = −δil δ(x). (2.121)
Using the identity (2.12) we can rewrite this equation in the equivalent form
−∂i ∂j Gj k (x) + ∂j ∂j Gik (x) + κ 2 Gik (x) = −δik δ(x). (2.122)
Application of the Fourier transform operator yields the equation for the Fourier trans-
form G∗ij (k) of the Green function Gij (x)
ki kk G∗kj (k) − (k 2 − κ 2 )G∗ij (k) = −δij . (2.123)
The solution of this equation has the form
1 ki k j
G∗ij (k) = δij − 2 2 . (2.124)
k2 −κ 2 κ k − κ2
After application of the inverse Fourier transform, we obtain the explicit form of the
Green function Gij (x)
1 e−iκ|x|
Gij (x) = g(x)δij + ∂i ∂j g(x), g(x) = . (2.125)
κ2 4π |x|
For the current amplitude Ji (x), the electric Ei (x) and magnetic Hi (x) fields in the
medium are presented in the integral forms

Ei (x) = −iωμ Gij (x − x )Jj (x )dx , (2.126)

Hi (x) = − rotij Gj k (x − x )Jk (x )dx . (2.127)
2.8 The Green function of time-harmonic elasticity

We consider an infinite homogeneous elastic medium with stiffness tensor Cij kl and
density ρ subjected to body forces of density qi (x, t). For time-harmonic elasticity,
qi (x, t) = qi (x)eiωt , the vector of displacements is ui (x, t) = ui (x)eiωt , and the am-
plitude ui (x) satisfies the equation
∂j Cij kl ∂k ul (x) + ρω2 ui (x) = −qi (x). (2.128)
For a finite function qi (x), the partial solution of this equation is presented in the
integral form

ui (x) = gij (x − x )qj (x )dx , (2.129)
where gij (x) is the Green function of the operator ∂k Cikj l ∂l + ρω2 δij . Thus, gij (x) is
a vanishing at infinity solution of the equation
Lik (∂)gkj (x) + ρω2 gij (x) = −δij δ (x) , Lij (∂) = ∂k Cikj l ∂l . (2.130)
For an arbitrary anisotropic medium, an elegant method of construction of gij (x)

was proposed in [11]. The method is based on the plane-wave decomposition of the
3D Dirac delta function δ(x) indicated in [3]

1 d 2 δ(z)
δ(x) = − 2 δ (ξ · x)dSξ , δ (z) = . (2.131)
8π |ξ |=1 dz2
Here, Sξ is the surface of a unit sphere. It follows from Eqs. (2.130) and (2.131) that
the tensor gij (x) can be found in the form of the plane-wave decomposition similar
to (2.131)

1 d 2 Fij (z)
gij (x) = F (ξ · x)dS ξ , F (z) = , (2.132)
8π 2 |ξ |=1 ij ij
dz2
where the function F (z) satisfies the equation
Lik (ξ )Fkj (z) + ρω2 Fij (z) = δij δ(z), z = ξ · x. (2.133)
For any fixed vector ξi , the tensor Lij (ξ ) = ξk Cikj l ξl is positive and symmetric. There-
fore, there exists a basis of orthogonal normalized eigenvectors eiα (ξ ) (α = 1, 2, 3)
such that this tensor is presented in the form

3
Lij (ξ ) = lα (ξ )eiα (ξ )ejα (ξ ), lα (ξ ) > 0, α = 1, 2, 3. (2.134)
α=1
Here, lα (ξ ) are the eigenvalues of Lij (ξ ). Presenting the tensor Fij (z) in the basis eiα ,

3
Fij (z) = fα (z)eiα (ξ )ejα (ξ ), (2.135)
α=1
and using Eq. (2.133), we obtain the equations for the functions fα (z) in the form

lα (ξ )fα (z) + ρω2 fa (z) = δ(z), α = 1, 2, 3. (2.136)
The solutions of these equations are

1 iω|z| lα (ξ )
fα (z) = − exp − , υα (ξ ) = . (2.137)
2iρωυα (ξ ) υα (ξ ) ρ
Then, using Eq. (2.132), we obtain the equation for the Green function gij (x)
3
1 eiα (ξ )ejα (ξ ) iω ω|ξ · x|
gij (x) = δ(ξ · x) − exp −i dSξ .
8π 2 ρ |ξ |=1 υα (ξ )2 2υα (ξ ) υα (ξ )
α=1
(2.138)
This presentation provides direct decomposition of the Green function of time-

harmonic elasticity as the sum of the static part gijs (x) (for ω = 0) and the dynamic
part gijω (x)
gij (x) = gijs (x) + gijω (x), (2.139)

3
1 eiα (ξ )ejα (ξ )
gijs (x) = δ(ξ · x)dSξ =
8π 2 ρ υα (ξ )2
α=1 |ξ |=1

1
= L−1 (ξ )δ(ξ · x)dSξ , (2.140)
8π 2 ρ |ξ |=1 ij
3
iω eiα (ξ )ejα (ξ ) ω|ξ · x|
gijω (x) = − exp −i dSξ =
16π 2 ρ υα (ξ )3 υα (ξ )
α=1 |ξ |=1
√
iω ρ −3/2 √ −1/2
=− L (ξ ) exp −iω|ξ · x| ρLkj (ξ ) dSξ . (2.141)
16π 2 |ξ |=1 ik
Here, the function exp(Tij ) is defined for any symmetric tensor Tij with eigenvalues
tα and eigenvectors eiα by the equation

3
exp(Tij ) = exp(tα )eiα ejα . (2.142)
α=1
Taking into account the equations
1 xi
δ(ξ · x) = δ(ξ · n|x|) = δ(ξ · n), ni = , (2.143)
|x| |x|
the static part of the Green function is presented as the integral over the unit sphere

1
gij (x) =
s
L−1 (ξ )δ(ξ · n)dSξ . (2.144)
8π 2 ρ|x| |ξ |=1 ij
Thus, the static part gijs (x) is a homogeneous function of the order of |x|−1 , while the
dynamic part gijω (x) has no singularity at x = 0.
For an isotropic medium with Lame constants λ, μ, the Green function of time-
harmonic elasticity takes the form
−iβ|x|
1 2e e−iα|x| e−iβ|x|
gij (x) = β δij − ∂i ∂j − , (2.145)
4πμβ 2 |x| |x| |x|

ρ ρ
α=ω , β =ω . (2.146)
λ + 2μ μ
2.9 The Green function of time-harmonic poroelasticity
For an isotropic homogeneous medium, the complete system of equations of dynamic

poroelasticity in terms of the displacement vector ui of the solid skeleton and fluid
pressure p in the porous space has the form [8], [9]
χ ... χ
(λ + μ)∂i ∂j uj (x) + ∂j ∂j ui (x) − ρ üi + ρf2 u i − α∇p + ρf ∂i ṗ = −Fi ,
η η
(2.147)
χ χ
− α∂i u̇i + ρf ∂i üi + ∂i ∂i p − β ṗ = −f. (2.148)
η η
In these equations, λ and μ are effective Lame constants of the solid skeleton with dry
pores, α and β are Biot’s parameters defined in Eq. (2.77), η is the fluid viscosity, χ
is the medium permeability, ρ is the effective density
ρ = φρf + (1 − φ)ρs , (2.149)
where ρf and ρs are the densities of the fluid and solid phases, φ is the medium poros-
...
ity, u̇i , üi , and u i are the first, second, and third time derivatives of the displacement
vector, ṗ is the first time derivative of the pressure, and Fi and f are the field sources.
For time-harmonic poroelasticity, Fi (x, t) = Fi (x)eiωt , f (x, t) = f (x)eiωt , and
the displacement vector ui (x, t) and pressure p(x, t) are presented in the forms
ui (x, t) = ui (x)eiωt , p(x, t) = p(x)eiωt . From Eqs. (2.147) and (2.148), we obtain
the system of equations for the amplitudes ui (x) and p(x)
(λ + μ)∂i ∂j uj (x) + μ∂j ∂j ui (x) + ρt ω2 ui (x) −

α ∂i p(x) = −Fi (x), (2.150)
α ∂i ui (x) − (κ∂i ∂i + β) p(x) = −fˆ(x),
− (2.151)
ρf ρf2 1 η 1

α=α− , ρt = ρ − , κ= =
,ρ , fˆ(x) = f (x). (2.152)
ρ ρ ω2
ρ iωχ iω
For finite functions Fi (x) and f (x), a partial solution of this system is presented in
the integral form

ui (x) = Gik (x − x )Fk (x )dx + i (x − x )fˆ(x )dx , (2.153)

p(x) = k (x − x )Fk (x )dx + g(x − x )fˆ(x )dx , (2.154)
where Gik (x), i (x), g(x) are the Green functions of the system (2.150)–(2.151).
Substituting Eqs. (2.153) and (2.154) into the system (2.150)–(2.151) and equating
the expressions in front of Fi and f in the left and right hand sides of the resulting
equations, we obtain the systems of partial differential equations for the Green func-
tions

(λ + μ)∂i ∂k + (μ∂j ∂j + ρt ω2 )δik Gkj (x) −
α ∂i j (x) = −δij δ(x), (2.155)
− α ∂j Gj i (x) − κ∂j ∂j + β i (x) = 0, (2.156)

(λ + μ)∂i ∂j + (μ∂k ∂k + ρt ω2 )δij j (x) −
α ∂i g(x) = 0, (2.157)
α ∂j j (x) − κ∂j ∂j + β g(x) = −δ(x).
− (2.158)
Application of the Fourier transform operator to these equations yields the system

−(λ + μ)ki kk + (−μk 2 + ρt ω2 )δik G∗kj + i α ki j∗ = −δij , (2.159)

α kj G∗j i − −κk 2 + β i∗ (x) = 0,
i (2.160)

−(λ + μ)ki kj + (−μk 2 + ρt ω2 )δij j∗ (x) + i
α ki g ∗ = 0, (2.161)

α kj j∗ − −κk 2 + β g ∗ = −1.
i (2.162)
Here, G∗ij , i∗ , and g ∗ are the Fourier transforms of the Green functions Gij (x), i (x),
and g(x). The functions G∗ij (k) and i∗ (k) can be found in the forms

k i kj ki k j
Gij = A 2 + B δij − 2 , i∗ = (−iki )C,
∗
(2.163)
k k
where A, B, C are scalar functions of the variables ki . Substitution of these ex-
pressions into the system (2.159), (2.162) yields the following equations for these
functions:
κk 2 − β 1
α ∗ (λ + 2μ)k 2 − ρt ω2
A=− , B= , C = − , g = ,
μk 2 − ρt ω2
(2.164)

= (λ + 2μ)k 2 − ρt ω2 −κk 2 + β + α2k2. (2.165)
After application of the inverse Fourier transforms, the explicit equations for the Green
functions take the forms
e−iκt r e−iκt r − e−iκf r e−iκt r − e−iκs r
Gij (x) = δij + g1 ∂i ∂j + g2 ∂i ∂j ,
4πμr 4πμr 4πμr
(2.166)
2

1 μ κ2 1 μ κf
g1 = 2 − s2 , g2 = − 2 − 2 , (2.167)
(κf − κs2 ) M κt (κf − κs2 ) M κt
−iκf r
e − e−iκs r
α κf2 κs2
i (x) = γ ∂i , γ= , (2.168)
4πr βμ κt2 (κf2 − κs2 )

e−iκf r e−iκs r 1 κf2 κs2 M κf
2
g(x) = b1 − b2 , b1 = 1− ,
4πμr 4πμr βμ κ 2 − κ 2 μ κt2
f s
(2.169)
2
1 κf2 κs2 M κs
b2 = 1− , r = |x| , M = λ + 2μ. (2.170)
βμ κ 2 − κ 2 μ κt2
f s
Here, κt is the wave number of shear waves,

ρt
κt = ω , (2.171)
μ
and κf , κs are the wave numbers of the so-called fast and slow longitudinal waves that
can propagate in the poroelastic medium. The numbers κf and κs are the solutions of
the dispersion equation [16]
μ iμκt2 μχ
ε2 κ 4 + i iκt2 ε 2 + Mβ +
α2 κ 2 − (μβ) = 0, ε2 = (2.172)
M M ωη
with negative imaginary parts.
2.10 Volume potentials of electrostatics

The Green functions provide natural integral presentations of fields in homogeneous
media with external and internal field sources. For instance, the electric potential u(x)
in the medium with the electric charge q(x) distributed in the region V is the integral

1
u(x) = g(x − x )q(x )dx , g(x) = , (2.173)
V 4πc|x|
which is called the volume potential of electrostatics.
Let the charge with intensity m h be concentrated at the point x = 0, and let the
h be concentrated at the point x = he, where h is
charge with the opposite intensity − m
a distance between the charges and e is a unit vector. If h tends to zero, the resulting
charge q(x) takes the form
m
q(x) = lim [δ(x) − δ(x − he)] = mei ∂i δ(x). (2.174)
h→0 h
The electric charge (2.174) is called the dipole of vector intensity Mi = mei con-
centrated at the point x = 0. The electric potential that corresponds to this charge is
defined by the equation

u(x) = g(x − x )Mi ∂i δ(x )dx = Mi ∂i g(x). (2.175)
If dipoles with density Mi (x) are distributed in a region V , the electric potential u(x)
takes the form

u(x) = ∂i g(x − x )Mi (x )dx , (2.176)
V
and the corresponding electric field Ei (x) is

Ei (x) = Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx , Kij (x) = −∂i ∂j g(x). (2.177)
V
The kernels of the integral operators in Eqs. (2.173) and (2.176) have weak singu-
larities when x → x (g(x) = O(|x|−1 ) and ∂i g(x) = O(|x|−2 )), and these integrals
exist in the ordinary sense. The integrand function in Eq. (2.177) has a strong singu-
larity when x → x (Kij (x) = O(|x|−3 )), and this integral needs regularization. Let
υε (x) be a sphere of a small radius ε with the center at point x. The integral (2.177)
can be presented in the form

Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx ≈ Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx +
V V \υε (x)

+ Kij (x − x )dx Mj (x). (2.178)
υε (x)
Here, V \υε (x) is the region V without the excluded sphere υε (x). In the variable
y = x − x , the last integral in this equation is

Aij = Kij (x − x )dx = Kij (y)Vε (y)dy, (2.179)
υε (x)
where Vε (y) is the characteristic function of a sphere of radius ε with the center at
y = 0: Vε (y) = 1 if y ∈ υε (0), Vε (y) = 0 if y ∈/ υε (0). The integral on the right hand
side in Eq. (2.179) is calculated over the entire 3D space. Using the Parseval formula,
we change the integrand functions with their Fourier transforms and write

1
Aij = Kij (y)Vε (y)dy = Kij∗ (k)Vε∗ (k)dk. (2.180)
(2π)3
In this equation, Kij∗ (k) and Vε∗ (k) are the Fourier transforms of the functions Kij (y)
and Vε (y)
mi mj ki
Kij∗ (k) = Kij∗ (m) = , mi = , (2.181)
mk Ckl ml |k|
j1 (ε|k|)
Vε∗ (k) = 4πε 2 , (2.182)
|k|
where j1 (z) is the spherical Bessel function of the first kind. Then, after introducing a
spherical coordinate system in the k-space, we obtain the equation for the tensor Aij
∞
1
Aij = Kij∗ (m)dSm Vε∗ (|k|)|k|2 d|k|, (2.183)
(2π)3 S1 0
where S1 is the surface of a unit sphere in the k-space. Taking into account the equation

1 4π ∞
Vε (0) = Vε∗ (|k|)e−ik·y dk = Vε∗ (|k|)|k|2 d|k| = 1,
(2π)3 y=0 (2π)3 0
(2.184)
we obtain the following expression for the tensor Aij :

1
Aij = K ∗ (m)dSm . (2.185)
4π S1 ij
Finally, regularization of the formally divergent integral in Eq. (2.177) follows from
Eq. (2.178) by ε → 0

Ei (x) = pv Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx + Aij Mj (x). (2.186)
V

Here, pv V ...dx is the Cauchy principal value of the integral defined by the equation

pv Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx = lim Kij (x − x )Mj (x )dx . (2.187)
V ε→0 V \υε (x)
2.10.1 Discontinuity of the volume potential in Eq. (2.177)

The potentials (2.173) and (2.176) are continuous functions in the entire space, but
the potential (2.177) is discontinuous on the boundary of the region V . In order
to determine the jumps of this potential on , we define the function Mi (x) outside
V by an arbitrary smooth continuation and present the integral in Eq. (2.177) in the
form

Ei (x) = Kij (x − x )[Mj (x ) − M(x)]dx + Kij (x − x )dx Mj (x) .
V V
(2.188)
The first integral on the right hand side is continuous on because the integrand func-
tion has a weak singularity. Let us consider the limit of the second integral when x
tends to a point x 0 ∈ from outside or inside of the region V . We introduce Cartesian
coordinates (y1 , y2 , y3 ) with the origin at the point x 0 and the y3 -axis directed along
the external normal n0i = ni (x 0 ) to and consider the limits of the integral

Jij (y) = Kij (y − y )dy (2.189)
V
when y tends to zero from the side of the normal n0i or from the opposite side. Let
a point y =y 0 , y 0 = 0, be fixed. Then, we introduce the dimensionless coordinates
ξi = yi / y 0 , (i = 1, 2, 3). Because Kij (y) is a homogeneous function of the degree
of −3, the integral (2.189) in the new coordinates takes the form

0
Jij (y) = Jij (y ξ ) = Kij (ξ − ξ )dξ = Kij (ξ − ξ )V (ξ )dξ , (2.190)

V
where V (ξ ) is the characteristic

0 function of the region V in the coordinates ξi . If y 0
tends to zero, ξi = yi / y is the unit vector of the direction along which the point y 0
0 0
tends to the origin. In the limit y 0 → 0, the region V (ξ ) is transformed (in the coordi-
nates ξi ) into the half-space ξ3 < 0, i.e., V (ξ1 , ξ2 , ξ3 ) → H1 (ξ1 , ξ2 , ξ3 ) = 1 − H (ξ3 ),
where H (ξ3 ) is the Heaviside function (Fig. 2.1).
Figure 2.1 The local coordinate system at the boundary of the region containing field sources.
Thus, the following equation holds:

lim Jij (y ) = Kij (ξ 0 −ξ )H 1 (ξ )dξ =
0
y 0 →0

1
= Kij∗ (k)H1∗ (k) exp(−ik · ξ 0 )dk . (2.191)
(2π)3
In this equation, Kij∗ (k) and H1∗ (k) are the Fourier transforms of the functions Kij (ξ )
and H1 (ξ ) that have the forms [14]
ki kj
Kij∗ (k) = , H1∗ (k) = (2π)2 δ(k1 )δ(k2 ) πδ(k3 ) − ik3−1 , (2.192)
ck 2
and the last integral in Eq. (2.191) is calculated explicitly, i.e.,

1
Kij∗ (k)H1∗ (k) exp(−ik · ξ 0 )dk =
(2π)3
1 ∗
= Kij (0, 0, 0) − Kij∗ (0, 0, 1)sign(ξ30 ) . (2.193)
2
Taking into account these equations, we obtain for the limit Jij+ (0) of the integral
Jij (y 0 ) at the point y 0 = 0 from outside of V (y 0 → +0)
1
Jij+ (0) = lim Jij (y 0 ) = [Kij∗ (0) − Kij∗ (n0 )], y0 ∈
/V. (2.194)
y →+0
0 2
The same procedure gives us the limit of Jij (y 0 ) when y 0 → −0 from inside V , i.e.,
1
Jij− (0) = lim Jij (y 0 ) = [Kij∗ (0) + Kij∗ (n0 )], y0 ∈ V . (2.195)
y →−0
0 2
Hence, the jump of the integral Jij (y) in Eq. (2.189) on the boundary of the region
V is
[Jij (0)] = Jij+ (0) − Jij− (0) = −Kij∗ (n0 ) . (2.196)
It follows from Eq. (2.188) that the jump of the potential Ei (x) on the boundary of
the volume V is defined by the equation
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Also the facts of the election in Hamilton, where the election
officers exercised no control over the ballot-box, but left it in
unauthorized hands, that it might be tampered with.
Also the reasons why the Attorney General of the State, Wm.
Archer Cocke, as a member of the Canvassing Board, officially
advised the board, and himself voted, to exclude the Hamilton
county and Key West precinct returns, thereby giving, in any event,
over 500 majority to the Republican electoral ticket, and afterwards
protested against the result which he had voted for, and whether or
not said Cocke was afterward rewarded for such protest by being
made a State Judge.
OREGON.
And that said committee is further instructed and directed to

investigate into all the facts connected with an alleged attempt to
secure one electoral vote in the State of Oregon for Samuel J. Tilden
for President of the United States, and Thomas A. Hendricks for
Vice-President, by unlawfully setting up the election of E. A. Cronin
as one of such presidential electors elected from the State of Oregon
on the 7th of November, the candidates for the presidential electors
on the two tickets being as follows:
On the Republican ticket: W. C. Odell, J. C. Cartwright, and John
W. Watts.
On the Democratic ticket; E. A. Cronin, W. A. Laswell, and Henry
Klippel.
The votes received by each candidate, as shown by the official vote
as canvassed, declared, and certified to by the Secretary of State
under the seal of the State,—the Secretary being under the laws of
Oregon sole canvassing officer, as will be shown hereafter,—being as
follows:
W. K. Odell received 15,206 votes
John C. Cartwright received 15,214 „
John W. Watts received 15,206 „
E. A. Cronin received 14,157 „
W. A. Laswell received 14,149 „
Henry Klippel received 14,136 „
And by the unlawful attempt to bribe one of said legally elected

electors to recognize said Cronin as an elector for President and Vice-
President, in order that one of the electoral votes of said State might
be cast for said Samuel J. Tilden as President and for Thomas A.
Hendricks as Vice-President; and especially to examine and inquire
into all the facts relating to the sending of money from New York to
some place in said Oregon for the purposes of such bribery, the
parties sending and receiving the same, and their relations to and
agency for said Tilden, and more particularly to investigate into all
the circumstances attending the transmission of the following
telegraphic despatches:
“Portland, Oregon, Nov. 14, 1876.
“Gov. L. F. Grover:
“Come down to-morrow if possible.
“W. H. Effinger,
“A. Noltner,
“C. P. Bellinger.”
“Portland, November 16, 1876.
“To Gov. Grover, Salem:
“We want to see you particularly on account of despatches from the East.
“William Strong,
“C. P. Bellinger,
“S. H. Reed,
“W. W. Thayer,
“C. E. Bronaugh.”
Also the following cipher despatch sent from Portland, Oregon, on
the 28th day of November, 1876, to New York City:
“To W. T. Pelton, No. 15 Gramercy Park, New York:
“By vizier association innocuous negligence cunning minutely previously

readmit doltish to purchase afar act with cunning afar sacristy unweighed afar
pointer tigress cattle superannuated syllabus dilatoriness misapprehension
contraband Kountz bisulcuous top usher spiniferous answer.
J. H. N. Patrick.
“I fully endorse this.
“James K. Kelly.”
Of which, when the key was discovered, the following was found to
be the true intent and meaning:
“Certificate will be issued to one Democrat. Must purchase a Republican elector

to recognize and act with Democrats and secure the vote and prevent trouble.
Deposit $10,000 to my credit with Kountz Brothers, Wall Street. Answer.
J. H. N. Patrick.
“I fully endorse this.
“James K. Kelly.”
Also the following:

“New York, November 25, 1876.
“A. Bush, Salem:
“Use all means to prevent certificate. Very important.
C. E. Tilton.”
Also the following:

“December 1, 1876.
“To Hon. Sam. J. Tilden, No. 15 Gramercy Park, New York:
“I shall decide every point in the case of post-office elector in favor of the highest
Democratic elector, and grant certificate accordingly on morning of 6th instant.
Confidential.
Governor.”
Also the following:

“San Francisco, December 5.
“Ladd & Bush, Salem:
“Funds from New York will be deposited to your credit here to-morrow when
bank opens. I know it. Act accordingly. Answer.
W. C. Griswold.”
Also the following, six days before the foregoing:

“To J. H. N. Patrick, Portland, Oregon:
“Moral hasty sideral vizier gabble cramp by hemistic welcome licentiate

muskeete compassion neglectful recoverable hathouse live innovator brackish
association dime afar idolator session hemistic mitre.”
[No signature.]
Of which the interpretation is as follows:

“To J. H. N. Patrick, Portland, Oregon:
“No. How soon will Governor decide certificate? If you make obligation
contingent on the result in March, it can be done, and slightly if necessary.”
[No signature.]
Also the following, one day later:

“Governor all right without reward. Will issue certificate Tuesday. This is a
secret. Republicans threaten if certificate issued to ignore Democratic claims and
fill vacancy, and thus defeat action of Governor. One elector must be paid to
recognize Democrat to secure majority. Have employed three lawyers, editor of
only Republican paper as one lawyer, fee $3,000. Will take $5,000 for Republican
elector; must raise money; can’t make fee contingent. Sail Saturday. Kelly and
Bellinger will act. Communicate with them. Must act promptly.”
[No signature].
Also the following:

“San Francisco, December 5, 1876.
“To Kountze Bros., No. 12 Wall St., New York:
“Has my account credit by any funds lately? How much?
“J. H. N. Patrick.”
Also the following:

“New York, December 6.
“J. H. N. Patrick, San Francisco:
“Davis deposited eight thousand dollars December first.
Kountze Bros.”
Also the following:

“San Francisco, December 6.
“To James K. Kelly:
“The eight deposited as directed this morning. Let no technicality prevent

winning. Use your discretion.”
[No signature.]
And the following:

“New York, December 6.
“Hon. Jas. K. Kelly:
“Is your matter certain? There must be no mistake. All depends on you. Place no
reliance on any favorable report from three southward. Sonetter. Answer quick.”
[No signature.]
Also the following:

“December 6, 1876.
“To Col. W. T. Pelton, 15 Gramercy Park, N. Y.:
“Glory to God! Hold on to the one vote in Oregon! I have one hundred thousand
men to back it up!
“Corse.”
And said committee is further directed to inquire into and bring to

light, so far as it may be possible, the entire correspondence and
conspiracy referred to in the above telegraphic despatches, and to
ascertain what were the relations existing between any of the parties
sending or receiving said despatches and W. T. Pelton, of New York,
and also what relations existed between said W. T. Pelton and
Samuel J. Tilden, of New York.
April 15, 1878, Mr. Kimmel introduced a bill, which was never
finally acted upon, to provide a mode for trying and determining by
the Supreme Court of the United States the title of the President and
Vice-President of the United States to take their respective offices
when their election to such offices is denied by one or more of the
States of the Union.
The question of the title of President was finally settled June 14,
1878, by the following report of the House Judiciary Committee:
Report of the Judiciary Committee.
June 14—Mr. Hartridge, from the Committee on the Judiciary,

made the following report:
The Committee on the Judiciary, to whom were referred the bill
(H. R. No. 4315) and the resolutions of the Legislature of the State of
Maryland directing judicial proceedings to give effect to the electoral
vote of that State in the last election of President and Vice-President
of the United States, report back said bill and resolutions with a
recommendation that the bill do not pass.
Your committee are of the opinion that Congress has no power,
under the Constitution, to confer upon the Supreme Court of the
United States the original jurisdiction sought for it by this bill. The
only clause of the Constitution which could be plausibly invoked to
enable Congress to provide the legal machinery for the litigation
proposed, is that which gives the Supreme Court original jurisdiction
in “cases” or “controversies” between a State and the citizens of
another State. The committee are of the opinion that this expression
“cases” and “controversies” was not intended by the framers of the
Constitution to embrace an original proceeding by a State in the
Supreme Court of the United States to oust any incumbent from a
political office filled by the declaration and decision of the two
Houses of Congress clothed with the constitutional power to count
the electoral votes and decide as a final tribunal upon the election for
President and Vice-President. The Forty-fourth Congress selected a
commission to count the votes for President and Vice-President,
reserving to itself the right to ratify or reject such count, in the way
prescribed in the act creating such commission. By the joint action of
the two Houses it ratified the count made by the commission, and
thus made it the expression of its own judgment.
All the Departments of the Federal Government, all the State
governments in their relations to Federal authority, foreign nations,
the people of the United States, all the material interests and
industries of the country, have acquiesced in, and acted in
accordance with, the pronounced finding of that Congress. In the
opinion of this committee, the present Congress has no power to
undo the work of its predecessor in counting the electoral vote, or to
confer upon any judicial tribunal the right to pass upon and perhaps
set aside the action of that predecessor in reference to a purely
political question, the decision of which is confided by the
Constitution in Congress.
But apart from these fundamental objections to the bill under
consideration, there are features and provisions in it which are
entirely impracticable. Your committee can find no warrant of
authority to summon the chief justices of the supreme courts of the
several States to sit at Washington as a jury to try any case, however
grave and weighty may be its nature. The right to summon must
carry with it the power to enforce obedience to the mandate, and the
Committee can see no means by which the judicial officers of a State
can be compelled to assume the functions of jurors in the Supreme
Court of the United States.
There are other objections to the practical working of the bill
under consideration, to which we do not think it necessary to refer.
It may be true that the State of Maryland has been, in the late
election for President and Vice-President deprived of her just and
full weight in deciding who were legally chosen, by reason of frauds
perpetrated by returning boards in some of the States. It may also be
true that these fraudulent acts were countenanced or encouraged or
participated in by some who now enjoy high offices as the fruit of
such frauds. It is due to the present generation of the people of this
country and their posterity, and to the principles on which our
Government is founded, that all evidence tending to establish the
fact of such fraudulent practices should be calmly, carefully, and
rigorously examined.
But your committee are of the opinion that the consequence of
such examination, if it discloses guilt upon the part of any in high
official position, should not be an effort to set aside the judgment of a
former Congress as to the election of a President and Vice-President,
but should be confined to the punishment, by legal and
constitutional means, of the offenders, and to the preservation and
perpetuation of the evidences of their guilt, so that the American
people may be protected from a recurrence of the crime.
Your committee, therefore, recommend the adoption of the
accompanying resolution:
Resolved, That the two Houses of the Forty-fourth Congress
having counted the votes cast for President and Vice-President of the
United States, and having declared Rutherford B. Hayes to be elected
President, and William A. Wheeler to be elected Vice-President,
there is no power in any subsequent Congress to reverse that
declaration, nor can any such power be exercised by the courts of the
United States, or any other tribunal that Congress can create under
the Constitution.
We agree to the foregoing report so far as it states the reasons for

the resolution adopted by the committee, but dissent from the
concluding portion, as not having reference to such reasons, as not
pertinent to the inquiry before us, and as giving an implied sanction
to the propriety of the pending investigation ordered by a majority
vote of the House of Representatives, to which we were and are
opposed.
Wm. P. Frye.
O. D. Conger.
E. G. Lapham.
Leave was given to Mr. Knott to present his individual views, also
to Mr. Butler (the full committee consisting of Messrs. Knott,
Lynde, Harris, of Virginia, Hartridge, Stenger, McMahon,
Culberson, Frye, Butler, Conger, Lapham.)
The question being on the resolution reported by the committee, it
was agreed to—yeas 235, nays 14, not voting 42.
The Hayes Administration.
It can be truthfully said that from the very beginning the

administration of President Hayes had not the cordial support of the
Republican party, nor was it solidly opposed by the Democrats, as
was the last administration of General Grant. His early withdrawal of
the troops from the Southern States,—and it was this withdrawal and
the suggestion of it from the “visiting statesmen” which overthrew
the Packard government in Louisiana,—embittered the hostility of
many radical Republicans. Senator Conkling was conspicuous in his
opposition, as was Logan of Illinois; and when he reached
Washington, the younger Senator Cameron, of Pennsylvania. It was
during this administration, and because of its conservative
tendencies, that these three leaders formed the purpose to bring
Grant again to the Presidency. Yet the Hayes administration was not
always conservative, and many Republicans believed that its
moderation had afforded a much needed breathing spell to the
country. Toward its close all became better satisfied, the radical
portion by the President’s later efforts to prevent the intimidation of
negro voters in the South, a form of intimidation which was now
accomplished by means of rifle clubs, still another advance from the
White League and the Ku Klux. He made this a leading feature in his
annual message to the Congress which began December 2d, 1878,
and by a virtual abandonment of his earlier policy he succeeded in
reuniting what were then fast separating wings of his own party. The
conference report on the Legislative Appropriation Bill was adopted
by both Houses June 18th, and approved the 21st. The Judicial
Expenses Bill was vetoed by the President June 23d, on the ground
that it would deprive him of the means of executing the election laws.
An attempt on the part of the Democrats to pass the Bill over the veto
failed for want of a two-thirds vote, the Republicans voting solidly
against it. June 26th the vetoed bill was divided, the second division
still forbidding the pay of deputy marshals at elections. This was
again vetoed, and the President sent a special message urging the
necessity of an appropriation to pay United States marshals. Bills
were accordingly introduced, but were defeated. This failure to
appropriate moneys called for continued until the end of the session.
The President was compelled, therefore, to call an extra session,
which he did March 19th, 1879, in words which briefly explain the
cause:—
THE EXTRA SESSION OF 1879.
“The failure of the last Congress to make the requisite

appropriation for legislative and judicial purposes, for the expenses
of the several executive departments of the Government, and for the
support of the Army, has made it necessary to call a special session of
the Forty-sixth Congress.
“The estimates of the appropriations needed, which were sent to
Congress by the Secretary of the Treasury at the opening of the last
session, are renewed, and are herewith transmitted to both the
Senate and the House of Representatives.
“Regretting the existence of the emergency which requires a
special session of Congress at a time when it is the general judgment
of the country that the public welfare will be best promoted by
permanency in our legislation, and by peace and rest, I commend
these few necessary measures to your considerate attention.”
By this time both Houses were Democratic. In the Senate there
were 42 Democrats, 33 Republicans and 1 Independent (David
Davis). In the House 149 Democrats, 130 Republicans, and 14
Nationals—a name then assumed by the Greenbackers and Labor-
Reformers. The House passed the Warner Silver Bill, providing for
the unlimited coinage of silver, the Senate Finance Committee
refused to report it, the Chairman, Senator Bayard, having refused to
report it, and even after a request to do so from the Democratic
caucus,—a course of action which heralded him every where as a
“hard-money” Democrat.
The main business of the extra session was devoted to the
consideration of the Appropriation Bills which the regular session
had failed to pass. On all of these the Democrats added “riders” for
the purpose of destroying Federal supervision of the elections, and
all of these political riders were vetoed by President Hayes. The
discussions of the several measures and the vetoes were highly
exciting, and this excitement cemented afresh the Republicans, and
caused all of them to act in accord with the administration. The
Democrats were equally solid, while the Nationals divided—Forsythe,
Gillette, Kelley, Weaver, and Yocum generally voting with the
Republicans; De La Matyr, Stevenson, Ladd and Wright with the
Democrats.
President Hayes, in his veto of the Army Appropriation Bill, said:
“I have maturely considered the important questions presented by
the bill entitled ‘An Act making appropriations for the support of the
Army for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880, and for other
purposes,’ and I now return it to the House of Representatives, in
which it originated, with my objections to its approval.
“The bill provides, in the usual form, for the appropriations
required for the support of the Army during the next fiscal year. If it
contained no other provisions, it would receive my prompt approval.
It includes, however, further legislation, which, attached as it is to
appropriations which are requisite for the efficient performance of
some of the most necessary duties of the Government, involves
questions of the gravest character. The sixth section of the bill is
amendatory of the statute now in force in regard to the authority of
persons in the civil, military and naval service of the United States ‘at
the place where any general or special election is held in any State.’
This statute was adopted February 25, 1865, after a protracted
debate in the Senate, and almost without opposition in the House of
Representatives, by the concurrent votes of both of the leading
political parties of the country, and became a law by the approval of
President Lincoln. It was re-enacted in 1874 in the Revised Statutes
of the United States, sections 2002 and 5528.
“Upon the assembling of this Congress, in pursuance of a call for

an extra session, which was made necessary by the failure of the
Forty-fifth Congress to make the needful appropriations for the
support of the Government, the question was presented whether the
attempt made in the last Congress to engraft, by construction, a new
principle upon the Constitution should be persisted in or not. This
Congress has ample opportunity and time to pass the appropriation
bills, and also to enact any political measures which may be
determined upon in separate bills by the usual and orderly methods
of proceeding. But the majority of both Houses have deemed it wise
to adhere to the principles asserted and maintained in the last
Congress by the majority of the House of Representatives. That
principle is that the House of Representatives has the sole right to
originate bills for raising revenue, and therefore has the right to
withhold appropriations upon which the existence of the
Government may depend, unless the Senate and the President shall
give their assent to any legislation which the House may see fit to
attach to appropriation bills. To establish this principle is to make a
radical, dangerous, and unconstitutional change in the character of
our institutions. The various Departments of the Government, and
the Army and Navy, are established by the Constitution, or by laws
passed in pursuance thereof. Their duties are clearly defined, and
their support is carefully provided for by law. The money required
for this purpose has been collected from the people, and is now in the
Treasury, ready to be paid out as soon as the appropriation bills are
passed. Whether appropriations are made or not, the collection of
the taxes will go on. The public money will accumulate in the
Treasury. It was not the intention of the framers of the Constitution
that any single branch of the Government should have the power to
dictate conditions upon which this treasure should be applied to the
purpose for which it was collected. Any such intention, if it had been
entertained, would have been plainly expressed in the Constitution.”
The vote in the House on this Bill, notwithstanding the veto, was
148 for to 122 against—a party vote, save the division of the
Nationals, previously given. Not receiving a two-thirds vote, the Bill
failed.
The other appropriation bills with political riders shared the same
fate, as did the bill to prohibit military interference at elections, the
modification of the law touching supervisors and marshals at
congressional elections, etc. The debates on these measures were
bitterly partisan in their character, as a few quotations from the
Congressional Record will show:
The Republican view was succinctly and very eloquently stated by
General Garfield, when, in his speech of the 29th of March, 1879, he
said to the revolutionary Democratic House:
“The last act of Democratic domination in this Capitol, eighteen
years ago, was striking and dramatic, perhaps heroic. Then the
Democratic party said to the Republicans, ‘If you elect the man of
your choice as President of the United States we will shoot your
Government to death;’ and the people of this country, refusing to be
coerced by threats or violence, voted as they pleased, and lawfully
elected Abraham Lincoln President of the United States.
“Then your leaders, though holding a majority in the other branch
of Congress, were heroic enough to withdraw from their seats and
fling down the gage of mortal battle. We called it rebellion; but we
recognized it as courageous and manly to avow your purpose, take all
the risks, and fight it out on the open field. Notwithstanding your
utmost efforts to destroy it, the Government was saved. Year by year
since the war ended, those who resisted you have come to believe
that you have finally renounced your purpose to destroy, and are
willing to maintain the Government. In that belief you have been
permitted to return to power in the two Houses.
“To-day, after eighteen years of defeat, the book of your
domination is again opened, and your first act awakens every
unhappy memory and threatens to destroy the confidence which
your professions of patriotism inspired. You turned down a leaf of
the history that recorded your last act of power in 1861, and you have
now signalized your return to power by beginning a second chapter
at the same page; not this time by a heroic act that declares war on
the battle-field, but you say if all the legislative powers of the
Government do not consent to let you tear certain laws out of the
statute book, you will not shoot our Government to death as you
tried to do in the first chapter; but you declare that if we do not
consent against our will, if you cannot coerce an independent branch
of this Government against its will, to allow you to tear from the
statute books some laws put there by the will of the people, you will
starve the Government to death. [Great applause on the Republican
side.]
“Between death on the field and death by starvation, I do not know
that the American people will see any great difference. The end, if
successfully reached, would be death in either case. Gentlemen, you
have it in your power to kill this Government; you have it in your
power, by withholding these two bills, to smite the nerve-centres of
our Constitution with the paralysis of death; and you have declared
your purpose to do this, if you cannot break down that fundamental
element of free consent which up to this hour has always ruled in the
legislation of this Government.”
The Democratic view was ably given by Representative Tucker of
Virginia, April 3, 1879: “I tell you, gentlemen of the House of
Representatives, the Army dies on the 30th day of June, unless we
resuscitate it by legislation. And what is the question here on this
bill? Will you resuscitate the Army after the 30th of June, with the
power to use it as keepers of the polls? That is the question. It is not a
question of repeal. It is a question of re-enactment. If you do not
appropriate this money, there will be no Army after the 30th of June
to be used at the polls. The only way to secure an Army at the polls is
to appropriate the money. Will you appropriate the money for the
Army in order that they may be used at the polls? We say no, a
thousand times no. * * * The gentlemen on the other side say there
must be no coercion. Of whom? Of the President? But what right has
the President to coerce us? There may be coercion one way or the
other. He demands an unconditional supply. We say we will give
him no supply but upon conditions. * * * When, therefore, vicious
laws have fastened themselves upon the statute book which imperil
the liberty of the people, this House is bound to say it will
appropriate no money to give effect to such laws until and except
upon condition that they are repealed. [Applause on the Democratic
side.] * * * We will give him the Army on a single condition that it
shall never be used or be present at the polls when an election is held
for members of this House, or in any presidential election, or in any
State or municipal election. * * * Clothed thus with unquestioned
power, bound by clear duty, to expunge these vicious laws from the
statute book, following a constitutional method sanctioned by
venerable precedents in English history, we feel that we have the
undoubted right, and are beyond cavil in the right, in declaring that
with our grant of supply there must be a cessation of these
grievances, and we make these appropriations conditioned on
securing a free ballot and fair juries for our citizens.”
The Senate, July 1, passed the House bill placing quinine on the
free list.
The extra session finally passed the Appropriation bills without
riders, and adjourned July 1st, 1879, with the Republican party far
more firmly united than at the beginning of the Hayes
administration. The attempt on the part of the Democrats to pass
these political riders, and their threat, in the words of Garfield, who
had then succeeded Stevens and Blaine as the Republican
Commoner of the House, reawakened all the partisan animosities
which the administration of President Hayes had up to that time
allayed. Even the President caught its spirit, and plainly manifested
it in his veto messages. It was a losing battle to the Democrats, for
they had, with the view not to “starve the government,” to abandon
their position, and the temporary demoralization which followed
bridged over the questions pertaining to the title of President Hayes,
overshadowed the claims of Tilden, and caused the North to again
look with grave concern on the establishment of Democratic power.
If it had not been for this extra session, it is asserted and believed by
many, the Republicans could not have so soon gained control of the
lower House, which they did in the year following; and that the plan
to nominate General Hancock for the Presidency, which originated
with Senator Wallace of Pennsylvania, could not have otherwise
succeeded if Tilden’s cause had not been kept before his party,
unclouded by an extra session which was freighted with disaster to
the Democratic party.
The Negro Exodus.
During this summer political comment, long after adjournment,

was kept active by a great negro exodus from the South to the
Northwest, most of the emigrants going to Kansas. The Republicans
ascribed this to ill treatment, the Democrats to the operations of
railroad agents. The people of Kansas welcomed them, but other
States, save Indiana, were slow in their manifestations of hospitality,
and the exodus soon ceased for a time. It was renewed in South
Carolina in the winter of 1881–82, the design being to remove to
Arkansas, but at this writing it attracts comparatively little notice.
The Southern journals generally advise more liberal treatment of the
blacks in matters of education, labor contracts, etc., while none of the
Northern or Western States any longer make efforts to get the benefit
of their labor, if indeed they ever did.
Closing Hours of the Hayes Administration.
At the regular session of Congress, which met December 1st, 1879,

President Hayes advised Congress against any further legislation in
reference to coinage, and favored the retirement of the legal tenders.
The most important political action taken at this session was the
passage, for Congress was still Democratic, of a law to prevent the
use of the army to keep the peace at the polls. To this was added the
Garfield proviso, that it should not be construed to prevent the
Constitutional use of the army to suppress domestic violence in a
State—a proviso which in the view of the Republicans rid the bill of
material partisan objections, and it was therefore passed and
approved. The “political riders” were again added to the
Appropriation and Deficiency bills, but were again vetoed and failed
in this form to become laws. Upon these questions President Hayes
showed much firmness. During the session the Democratic
opposition to the General Election Law was greatly tempered, the
Supreme Court having made an important decision, which upheld its
constitutionality. Like all sessions under the administration of
President Hayes and since, nothing was done to provide permanent
and safe methods for completing the electoral count. On this
question each party seemed to be afraid of the other. The session
adjourned June 16th, 1880.
The second session of the 46th Congress began December 1st,
1880. The last annual message of President Hayes recommended the
earliest practicable retirement of the legal-tender notes, and the
maintenance of the present laws for the accumulation of a sinking
fund sufficient to extinguish the public debt within a limited period.
The laws against polygamy, he said, should be firmly and effectively
executed. In the course of a lengthy discussion of the civil service the
President declared that in his opinion “every citizen has an equal
right to the honor and profit of entering the public service of his
country. The only just ground of discrimination is the measure of
character and capacity he has to make that service most useful to the
people. Except in cases where, upon just and recognized principles,
as upon the theory of pensions, offices and promotions are bestowed
as rewards for past services, their bestowal upon any theory which
disregards personal merit is an act of injustice to the citizen, as well
as a breach of that trust subject to which the appointing power is
held. Considerable space was given in the Message to the condition
of the Indians, the President recommending the passage of a law
enabling the government to give Indians a title-fee, inalienable for
twenty-five years, to the farm lands assigned to them by allotment.
He also repeats the recommendation made in a former message that
a law be passed admitting the Indians who can give satisfactory proof
of having by their own labor supported their families for a number of
years, and who are willing to detach themselves from their tribal
relations, to the benefit of the Homestead Act, and authorizing the
government to grant them patents containing the same provision of
inalienability for a certain period.
The Senate, on the 19th, appointed a committee of five to
investigate the causes of the recent negro exodus from the South. On
the same day a committee was appointed by the House to examine
into the subject of an inter-oceanic ship-canal.
The payment of the award of the Halifax Fisheries Commission—
$5,500,000—to the British government was made by the American
minister in London, November 23, 1879, accompanied by a
communication protesting against the payment being understood as
an acquiescence in the result of the Commission “as furnishing any
just measure of the value of a participation by our citizens in the
inshore fisheries of the British Provinces.”
On the 17th of December 1879, gold was sold in New York at par. It
was first sold at a premium January 13, 1862. It reached its highest
rate, $2.85, July 11, 1864.
The electoral vote was counted without any partisan excitement or
disagreement. Georgia’s electoral college had met on the second
instead of the first Wednesday of December, as required by the
Federal law. She actually voted under her old Confederate law, but as
it could not change the result, both parties agreed to the count of the
vote of Georgia “in the alternative,” i. e.—“if the votes of Georgia
were counted the number of votes for A and B. for President and
Vice-President would be so many, and if the votes of Georgia were
not counted, the number of votes for A and B. for President and Vice-
President would be so many, and that in either case A and B are
elected.”
Among the bills not disposed of by this session were the electoral
count joint rule; the funding bill; the Irish relief bill; the Chinese
indemnity bill; to restrict Chinese immigration; to amend the
Constitution as to the election of President; to regulate the pay and
number of supervisors of election and special deputy marshals; to
abrogate the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty; to prohibit military interference
at elections; to define the terms of office of the Chief Supervisors of
elections; for the appointment of a tariff commission; the political
assessment bill; the Kellogg-Spofford case; and the Fitz-John Porter
bill.
The regular appropriation bills were all completed. The total
amount appropriated was about $186,000,000. Among the special
sums voted were $30,000 for the centennial celebration of the
Yorktown victory, and $100,000 for a monument to commemorate
the same.
Congress adjourned March 3d, 1881, and President Hayes on the
following day retired from office. The effect of his administration
was, in a political sense, to strengthen a growing independent
sentiment in the ranks of the Republicans—an element more
conservative generally in its views than those represented by
Conkling and Blaine. This sentiment began with Bristow, who while
in the cabinet made a show of seeking out and punishing all
corruptions in government office or service. On this platform and
record he had contested with Hayes the honors of the Presidential
nominations, and while the latter was at the time believed to well
represent the same views, they were not urgently pressed during his
administration. Indeed, without the knowledge of Hayes, what is
believed to be a most gigantic “steal,” and which is now being
prosecuted under the name of the Star Route cases, had its birth, and
thrived so well that no important discovery was made until the
incoming of the Garfield administration. The Hayes administration,
it is now fashionable to say, made little impress for good or evil upon
the country, but impartial historians will give it the credit of

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Heterogeneous Media: Local Fields,

Effective Properties, and Wave

Wave Fields in Real Media: Wave Propagation in

Heterogeneous Catalysis: Materials and Applications 1st

Heterogeneous Catalysis Fundamentals, Engineering and

Geophysical potential fields: geological and

Dietary Fiber: Properties, Recovery and Applications

(eBook PDF) Millimeter Wave Wireless Communications

Thermophysical Properties of Individual Hydrocarbons of

Nonlinear Wave and Plasma Structures in the Auroral and

HETEROGENEOUS MEDIA HETEROGENEOUS

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

For information on all Elsevier publications

Publisher: Matthew Deans

2 Homogeneous media with external and internal field sources 7

3 Volume and surface integral equations for physical fields in

3.7 A cavity subjected to pressure of injected fluid in a poroelastic

4 Numerical calculation of volume and surface potentials 103

5 Numerical solution of volume integral equations for static fields in

Appendix 5.A The computational program for numerical solution of

6 Cracks in heterogeneous media 193

7 Time-harmonic fields in heterogeneous media 245

8 Quasistatic crack growth in heterogeneous media 335

Appendix 8.A The computational program for construction of

9 The homogenization problem 387

ui , εij , Cij kl , ... Lower case latin indices are tensorial.

L(C)u = −f, (1.1)

C(x) = C0 + C1 (x), (1.2)

L(C0 )u = −f − L(C1 )u. (1.3)

G(C0 )L(C0 ) = −I, (1.4)

u = u0 + G(C0 )L(C1 )u, u0 = G(C0 )f. (1.5)

If the operator G(C0 ) can be presented in the integral form

The problem of calculation of fields in heterogeneous media with arbitrary varying

Here, m ∈ Z d is a vector with integer components in the space of the dimension d,

|u(x) − u(h,H ) (x)| ≤ C1 ||u||h + O(exp(−π 2 H )). (1.9)

Chapter 5 is devoted to the numerical solution of the volume integral equations

in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 is independent and devoted to approximation by the Gaussian

2.1 Electro- and magnetostatic fields in homogeneous

We consider a homogeneous dielectric medium with the tensor of dielectric permit-

∂i Di (x) = q(x), Di (x) = Cij Ej (x), rotij Ej (x) = 0. (2.1)

Here, rot is the differential operator

Ei (x) = −∂i u(x), (2.3)

Cij ∂i ∂j u(x) = −q(x). (2.4)

Cij ∂i ∂j g(x) = −δ(x). (2.5)

The system of equations of magnetostatics of homogeneous media is formulated in

∂i Bi (x) = 0, Bi (x) = Mij Hj (x), rotij Hj (x) = −ηi (x). (2.8)

Mj k ∂j ∂k Ai = Mj k ∂i ∂j Ak − rotik rotkl Al , (2.10)

A = ∇ div A − rot(rotA). (2.12)

Here, A = A(x) is a vector function in 3D space,  = ∂i ∂i is the Laplace operator,

Mij ∂i ∂j g(x) = −δ(x). (2.13)

sij (x) = −rotij g(x). (2.16)

∂i Ji (x) = 0, Ji (x) = Cij Ej (x), rotij Ej (x) = 0. (2.19)

Ei (x) = −∂i u(x), (2.20)

Cij ∂i ∂j u(x) = 0. (2.21)

2.2 Green functions of electro- and magnetostatics

Cij = cδij , (2.22)

c∂i ∂i g(x) = cg(x) = −δ(x). (2.23)

where k · x = ki xi is the scalar product of √

In the case of an anisotropic medium, linear transformation of the Cartesian coor-

converts Eq. (2.5) into the following:

Cij Aik Aj l ∂k ∂l g(A−1 y) = −δ(A−1 y). (2.29)

If the tensor Aij satisfies the equation

A = ∇ div A − rot(rotA). (2.12)

Here, A = A(x) is a vector function in 3D space, = ∂i ∂i is the Laplace operator,

c∂i ∂i g(x) = cg(x) = −δ(x). (2.23)

Eq. (2.31) is similar to Eq. (2.23), and therefore,

(λ + μ)∂i ∂j uj (x) + μ∂j ∂j ui (x) + ρt ω2 ui (x) −