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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 175 (2020) 105516
Original papers
A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Time series of satellite images have been widely used in a range of applications, specially involving the green
Remote sensing biomass monitoring in the Earth surface. A set of land surface products, including images of vegetation indices
Land-use monitoring (VI), is derived from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor since 2000. This paper
Geospatial database reports the development of the Temporal Vegetation Analysis System (SATVeg), a free web-based tool designed
Time series
to provide instantaneous access to temporal profiles of MODIS VI in South America. The system’s architecture is
based on a geospatial database specially modeled to store the time series of images and ensure instantaneous
queries and efficient updating. The results of the geospatial database modelling and respective response time for
queries and updates, as well as the main functionalities of the system, are presented and discussed. Instantaneous
reconstruction of time series provided by a set of filtering procedures is also related. Application examples of VI
temporal profiles generated by SATVeg are presented and the system’s limitations are also discussed. Our results
show the potential of the web-system for supporting a set of land use and land cover monitoring activities in
South America through a simple and friendly user interface.
1. Introduction 1983). VI present high correlation with the green biomass and leaf area
index (LAI) and the most used are the Normalized Difference Vegetation
In recent years, time series of satellite images have been increas- Index (NDVI) (Rouse et al., 1974) and the Enhanced Vegetation Index
ingly used in a wide range of applications, especially involving the (EVI) (Huete et al., 1994). When organized and observed chron-
Earth's surface monitoring. Examples of using time series include the ologically, these indices can be used to generate long term curves, re-
mapping of agricultural crops (Arvor et al., 2011; Picoli et al., 2018), presenting the green biomass variations over time, which can be related
the detection of land use and land cover (LULC) changes (Klein et al., to LULC patterns and their dynamics, such as deforestations, burnings,
2012; Usman et al., 2015), the agricultural intensification studies floods, productive system changes, among others.
(Kastens et al., 2017; Oliveira et al., 2014), the vegetation seasonality One of the most important sensors used in multi-temporal studies is
and phenology identification (Martínez and Gilabert, 2009; Sakamoto the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), the
et al., 2005), among others. The spectral-temporal approach explores main instrument aboard the Terra and Aqua orbital platforms of the
the short time of revisiting by some orbital sensors in order to obtain Earth Observing System (EOS) program, led by the National
more often spectral information from the Earth's surface, bringing ad- Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). MODIS time series
vantages over the traditional approach, based on a limited set of comprises 20 years of good radiometric and spatial quality data and is
images. available by US Government repositories, like the Land Processes
Multi-temporal analyses of land cover monitoring are usually based Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC).
on vegetation indices (VI), derived from mathematical combinations In general, time series analysis requires handling a large volume of
between spectral bands, which seek to enhance the response of the data derived from the satellite images and involves robust computer
vegetation and decrease the soil and atmospheric influences (Jackson, processing. Programming languages and other computational tools for
⁎
Corresponding author at: Embrapa Agricultural Informatics, Av. André Tosello, Campinas, SP, Brazil.
E-mail address: julio.esquerdo@embrapa.br (J.C.D.M. Esquerdo).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2020.105516
Received 19 June 2019; Received in revised form 30 April 2020; Accepted 16 May 2020
Available online 04 June 2020
0168-1699/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J.C.D.M. Esquerdo, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 175 (2020) 105516
batch downloading and automatic processing are typically employed to 2.2. Time series smoothing methods available by SATVeg
deal with this issue. LP DAAC Data Pool repository allows batch
downloading of MODIS products using specific software or program- Orbital remote sensing data is susceptible to several factors that
ming scripts. Some applications and programming codes developed for affect the values collected by the instruments. Atmospheric inter-
automatic processing of MODIS products are also available and allow ference, sun-sensor-surface geometry, instrument calibration and
automatizing basic image processing steps, like format conversions, transmission failures are examples of disturbances sources while col-
reprojection, spatial resampling and layer stacking. lecting spectral information by remote sensing.
However, in the last few years a sort of websites has been developed In general, these inconsistencies are mainly due to the presence of
to provide the visualization and analysis of geospatial data, without clouds and aerosols in the atmosphere, which mainly decrease the near-
needing to download, process or handle a large amount of data, such as infrared reflectance, affecting the quality of satellite-derived VI. Despite
satellites images. New geospatial database models, map servers and the use of maximum value compositions (Holben, 1986), these inter-
data visualization libraries have been developed and used to build the ferences may not be fully eliminated from the images, especially in
back-end and front-end infrastructures of websites, resulting in an in- regions with frequent cloud cover, leading to inconsistent drops in the
creasing number of web-tools specially designed to provide fast and time series values and affecting the results of several types of analyzes.
easy access to geoinformation. Some web-tools were available to pro- Thus, a set of time series smoothing and reconstruction techniques
vide visualization and analysis of MODIS VI times series (Eberle et al., has been proposed to eliminate or reduce such inconsistences, from the
2013; Freitas et al., 2011), although issues related to response time, simplest methods to the most complex ones (Bradley et al., 2007; Chen
database updating or even the lack of continuity of these services have et al., 2004; Gu et al., 2009; Jönsson and Eklundh, 2004; Roerink et al.,
not been completely resolved. On the other hand, on-demand services, 2000). In SATVeg, time series reconstruction is carried out through a
such as AppEEARS – Application for Extracting and Exploring Analysis two-step procedure, the pre-filtering and the filtering.
Ready Samples (https://lpdaac.usgs.gov/tools/appeears/) – have also Pre-filtering is an on-the-fly time series reconstruction method
been available to provide users with a variety of remote sensing data based on the bilinear interpolation to replace missing data or cloud and
products, including MODIS VI time series, by submitting requests to snow pixels flagged by the Pixel Reliability (PR) product. Filtering is
subset data spatially and temporally, which are later available for also an on-the-fly time series reconstruction, but it is not dependent on
download. information from PR product and can be applied to the pre-filtered or to
Considering the increasing interest in this theme, the demands for the original time series. SATVeg offers three filtering methods with
more efficient and faster computational tools and solutions for data different complexity levels: Flat-bottom smoother, Wavelet Coiflet 4
storage, organization, processing, publication and interoperability have and Savitzky-Golay filters.
also grown. The lack of available web-based systems for fast data
querying on historical times series of MODIS NDVI and EVI images,
including a set of specific features for data visualization, stimulated the 2.2.1. Flat-bottom smoother filter
seek for new alternatives. Thus, this article aims to report the devel- Flat-bottom is a simple and conservative filter adapted from the
opment of the Temporal Vegetation Analysis System (SATVeg), a free method proposed by Wardlow et al. (2006), which runs from two steps.
online tool designed to provide instantaneous access to temporal pro- In the first one, the local minimum values, or negative oscillations of
files of MODIS VI in South America through a simple and friendly user the VI, are identified. That is, given a value Xt (in which t refers to
interface. time), the local minimum is identified when Xt-1 > Xt < Xt+1. In the
second step, the local minimum values (Xt) are replaced by the smallest
adjacent value (Xt-1 or Xt+1). In order to avoid the elimination of small
2. Material and methods negative oscillations of vegetation indices, not necessarily inconsistent,
the user has the option of selecting a factor to identify the local mini-
2.1. Remote sensing data mums, that is, a percentage value that defines the minimal difference so
that a local minimum is changed (0, 10, 20 and 30%).
The MODIS images used in the development of SATVeg were ob-
tained from the LP DAAC Data Pool repository (http://lpdaac.usgs.gov). 2.2.2. Wavelet Coiflet 4 filter
We acquired the complete time series of MOD13Q1 and MYD13Q1 Wavelets are defined as small waves with properties that make them
products (version 6), in HDF (Hierarchical Data Format) format and suitable to serve as the basis for representing and describing other
sinusoidal projection, covering the South America territory. These functions. The Wavelet Transform allows the decomposition of a time
products include 16-days image composites with spatial resolution of series at different scales to obtain information in the frequency and time
250 m and geometric, radiometric and atmospheric correction levels. domain, in which each scale is represented by a specific frequency. Its
MODIS composites are built from the best radiometric and geo- application in time series of satellite images has the purpose of elim-
metric quality pixels in the 16-days period, that is, those with lower inating sudden variations, resulting in filtered curves that make easier
cloud presence and lower angle of view. MOD13Q1 product is derived the understanding of the temporal dynamics. The filter available by
from the Terra satellite (starting in February 2000) and MYD13Q1 SATVeg uses the Wavelet Transform with Coiflet (order = 4) as pro-
product is derived from the Aqua satellite (starting in July 2002). Terra posed by Sakamoto et al. (2005), which achieved the best results for
has a sun-synchronous, near-polar descending orbit timed to cross the crop’s phenological stages detection.
equator at approximately 10:30 A.M. local time while Aqua has a near-
polar ascending orbit timed to cross the equator at approximately
1:30P.M. local time. These products are generated and distributed by LP 2.2.3. Savitzky-Golay filter
DAAC in adjacent non-overlapping 1200 × 1200 km tiles, covering The digital filter proposed by Savitzky and Golay (1964) is based on
most of the world, 30 of them over the South America territory. The a moving window that uses a linear least square fitting by means of
complete time series of both products were downloaded and the NDVI, successive polynomial equations. In SATVeg, the user has the option to
EVI and Pixel Reliability (PR) layers were extracted for each date. PR set the moving window as 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6. The larger the window, the
layer provides quality reliability information about MODIS VI pixels in greater the smoothing effect. Several authors have proposed this filter
four levels (good, marginal, snow/ice and cloudy). for VI times series reconstruction (Chen et al., 2004; Jönsson and
Eklundh, 2004; Ren et al., 2008) with satisfactory results in several
applications.
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J.C.D.M. Esquerdo, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 175 (2020) 105516
2.3. Architecture and implementation of SATVeg a script extracted the NDVI, EVI and PR images in GeoTIFF format and
performed the mosaicking process. Due to limitations of the MODIS
The SATVeg’s development architecture is shown by Fig. 1. The processing software, two mosaics of images covering the South America
front-end is composed by the web interface by which the user interacts territory were generated for each date, which were later reprojected
with a map display, a time series viewer and some query tools. The from the original sinusoidal projection to the geographic projection,
back-end is composed by a PostGIS database and a set of procedures of WGS-84 datum (Fig. 2).
data acquisition and processing. The development tools are mainly
based on free software. Basically, the user accesses the application 2.3.1.2. Geospatial database design. The SATVeg geospatial database
through a friendly interface and uses the map viewer to select any lo- was built using PostgreSQL 9.5 with the PostGIS 2.2 spatial extension,
cation of South America in order to make queries to the geographic which supports geographic objects with functions for spatial queries
database and generate a chart with the NDVI or the EVI time series and provides storage of raster data efficiently. The database was
profile. The most important feature of this system is the database divided into four schemas, three for raster data storage (NDVI, EVI
modeling, which provides optimized performance of time series queries and PR) and one for textual and vector data storage, including
on large databases of satellite images. administrative information, user registration, personal user
configurations, vector files, among others.
2.3.1. Back-end processing In order to improve the management of raster data and optimize the
The back-end is composed mainly by a geospatial database specially database queries performance, the image storage was carried out
modeled and structured to store a robust volume of time series of sa- thought partitioned tables, allowing data retrieval at finer granularity
tellite images and allow optimized queries. Automated procedures were levels. These partitions define spatial coverage areas that contain the
developed to build the geographic database as well as to update it with NDVI, EVI and PR data constrained to a given piece of the image
new images. (quadrant), optimizing the response time of queries. This happens be-
cause the system’s data access layer uses a spatial index to identify
2.3.1.1. Download and processing of MODIS images. The download and quickly the location of the table partition where the time series required
processing of MODIS images were automated using c-shell scripts and by a query is located. Thus, using the partitioning tables approach and
the MODIS Reprojection Tool (MRT) software, a free package designed the spatial indexing allowed fast retrieving of the time series from the
to process the MODIS HDF-EOS image format (Dwyer and Schmidt, user request.
2006). The quadrant size adopted to store the images can affect the time to
Batch downloading was carried out from the LP DAAC repository in import them to the database, as well as the response time of queries.
order to obtain the 30 image tiles covering the South America territory Empirical tests were performed to define the size of image quadrant by
for each available date of the MOD13Q1 and MYD13Q1 products. Then, measuring the PostGIS database importation time, as well as the
3
J.C.D.M. Esquerdo, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 175 (2020) 105516
Fig. 2. Example of a set of original MODIS sinusoidal tiles of one date covering the South America (left) and the processed images (NDVI, EVI and Pixel Reliability)
after mosaicking and cartographic reprojection (right) procedures.
response time of queries considering three dimensions: 100x100, municipalities. In this case, the municipalities are located from a vector
150x150 and 200x200 pixels. So, 700 pairs of NDVI mosaics were used layer made available from a GeoServer map server (http://geoserver.
to measure the average importation time into the PostGIS databse and org) via Tomcat, which is accessed by the application using a Web
3,000 random sampling points were used to measure the response time Feature Services (WFS) protocol, considering the OGC (Open Geospatial
of database queries. The points were sampled in different locations of Consortium) standards.
South American territory, but in non-coincident tables in order to avoid
colleting data allocated in the PostGIS cache. 3. Results and discussion
2.3.1.3. Importing images into the database. After creating the partition 3.1. Geospatial database development
tables according to the defined quadrant size, the complete time series
of NDVI, EVI and PR images were imported into the geospatial Building the SATVeg database involved choosing the optimal
database. In this process, pixels covering the ocean were put way quadrant size for storing the time series in partitioned tables. Table 1
considering a 1.5 km buffer from the continental and islands presents the results of the performance analysis of three different da-
boundaries, saving storage space and optimizing the queries. tabase setups, taking into account the importation of 700 pairs of
partitioned NDVI images in quadrants of 100x100, 150x150 and
2.3.2. Web application 200x200 pixels.
The web application was implemented in Primefaces, a suite of The smaller the quadrants size the greater the amount of partitions
components that meets the JSF specification of Java EE technology and in the database table and, consequently, the longer the image import
is available on a JBoss application server. The web interface is basically time. According to Table 1, there was a significant difference in the
divided into two main parts: the map viewer and the time series chart average time when importing images using 100x100 pixels quadrant
viewer. The map viewer uses Google Maps layer to support the search compared to the others, due to the high number of partitions of this
for points or areas of interest, making possible the navigation in an setup and the high I/O in the disk. Considering the 150x150 and
intuitive way. The implementation of these features was carried out 200x200 pixels quadrants, the average import time was very close. The
through OpenLayers 2 (http://openlayers.org/two/), which is a library decrease in processing time using both quadrant size was around 67%
of JavaScript maps for spatial data rendering. Once the point or area of
interest is selected, the application retrieves the data stored in the da- Table 1
tabase and displays the time series in the chart viewer, which uses the Average image import time and number of partitions created in the database
using three sizes of quadrants.
Dygraphs (http://www.dygraphs.com) JavaScript graphical library.
A control panel and a side menu located on the map viewer offer the Size of partitions (pixels)
user a set of functionalities with effects in the map or in the chart vi- 100 × 100 150 × 150 200 × 200
sualization, as well as options to save favorite places and upload vector
Number of partitions 38,046 17,117 9765
files. Another feature of the control panel is the search form where the Average import time 27′38″ 9′26″ 8′41″
user inserts the geographic coordinates of any location or the name of
4
J.C.D.M. Esquerdo, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 175 (2020) 105516
5
J.C.D.M. Esquerdo, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 175 (2020) 105516
Fig. 3. Effects of pre-filtering on the NDVI time series reconstruction of Forest (A), Pasture (B) and Agriculture (C) lands using the Savitzky-Golay filter.
curve is greater and depends on the number of MODIS pixels contained 3.4. Application of VI time series
within the polygon, whose maximum area should not exceed 3,000 ha.
Another issue affecting the response time of polygon queries is the in- SATVeg has supported several modalities of land surface monitoring
tersection of the vector boundaries with the database partitions. Fig. 6 by the productive, academic and governmental sectors. Usually, the
illustrates three square polygons with the maximum acceptable area system has been used to identify the LULC at a particular moment, as
intercepting one, two, and four database partition boundaries and the well as its changes over time. Fig. 7 shows a set of NDVI curves gen-
respective response time of the spatial queries. The measured response erated by the SATVeg illustrating the temporal behavior of the green
time considered the query of approximately 470 pixels in each of the biomass obtained from different LULC types in Brazil along the com-
polygons and indicated a significant increase when the intersection plete time series available by the system. The curves comprise the
happens in more than one quadrant of the database partitions. When period between February 2000 and February 2019 and show variations
the polygons intercept two or four partitions, the system’s response time due to the plant’s phenological cycle or LULC changes. These examples
is 1.7 and 3.4 times greater, respectively, when compared to the query show the pre-filtered NDVI curve (green line, based on the Terra and
restricted to one partition. Aqua satellites) and the smoothed NDVI curve using the Savitzky-Golay
filter (red line), adopting a moving window of size 4.
Fig. 4. SATVeg web interface, consisting mainly of map and chart areas, control panel and side menu.
6
J.C.D.M. Esquerdo, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 175 (2020) 105516
Fig. 5. MODIS pixels with different (A) or single (B) land use and land cover type(s); and a set of pixels selected from a polygon drawn on the screen (C).
exploring the window of the rainy season. This process is quite typical
in several regions of Brazil and has been responsible for the increase of
agricultural production in the country in the last decades, without in-
creasing the area of croplands in the same proportion.
Fig. 7C shows the NDVI evolution obtained from a eucalyptus pro-
duction area, whose productive cycle extends for years. During the
observed period it is possible to identify two complete growing cycles,
separated by NDVI “valleys”, when the harvest is done and another
planting is started.
Finally, Fig. 7D presents the NDVI profile from a native natural
cover area in the municipality of Mariana, in the state of Minas Gerais,
Brazil. In the end of 2015, the NDVI values drop significantly and began
to oscillate in levels lower than those observed during the previous
years. In this case, the native vegetation was covered by mud after a
dam collapse, one of the worst environmental disasters in Brazil's his-
tory (Phillips, 2016), when a liquid mix of water, sands and clays has
spread over vast areas, destroying villages, killing people and affecting
Fig. 6. Response time of polygon queries with different intersections with the seriously the local fauna and flora.
database partitions boundaries. The analysis performed from the charts of Fig. 7 was carried out by
visual interpretation of the curves and depends on some basic technical
knowledge about how the vegetative index works. A set of further ex-
Fig. 7A presents the evolution of the green biomass over time ob-
amples of LULC patterns and transitions can be found in the Pattern
tained from an area in the north of the State of Mato Grosso, in the
Library page, available in SATVeg.
Brazilian Amazon. Until the middle of 2002 the vegetal cover was
SATVeg has successfully contributed as a tool for fast generation of
composed by primary natural forest, with high and stable NDVI values,
vegetation indices profiles through a friendly and intuitive web inter-
due to the large amount of green biomass. A deforestation process oc-
face, free of charge. The system has been used in a set of activities, such
curred at the end of 2002 and the NDVI values dropped sharply with the
as the crop biomass assessment, inspection of agricultural losses for
shallow cut-off of the natural forest cover. Thereafter, a new green
insurance support, deforestation detection, monitoring of native pro-
biomass variation pattern started, resulting from the practice of pasture
tected areas, forest recovery evaluation, among others. Large-scale
cultivation, represented by curves with annual seasonal fluctuations,
LULC mapping projects have also used SATVeg as a supporting tool or
with high NDVI values in the rainy seasons and lower values during
even as a source of information to validate the results achieved by
droughts. By the end of 2012, there was a third biomass variation
traditional methods of image classifications. In Brazil, initiatives like
pattern, since the area was converted to grain production of annual
the TerraClass Amazonia Project (Almeida et al., 2016) and TerraClass
crops, with shorter productive cycles and higher fluctuations of NDVI
Cerrado Project (Scaramuzza et al., 2017), which are Governmental
values. This LULC changes sequence corresponds to a traditional pro-
actions responsible for mapping the LULC in the Amazon and in the
cess of forest occupation in the regions of the Legal Amazon’s agri-
Cerrado Brazilian biomes, respectively, have used SATVeg as a sup-
cultural frontier, where forest clearing gives space to pasturelands fol-
porting tool. The maps produced by these projects are based on
lowed by croplands.
Landsat-like images obtained during the dry season, when the cloud
Fig. 7B shows the historical NDVI evolution of a consolidated
coverage is lower; however, traditional mapping classification based on
cropland, with successive cultivation cycles over the years. Each crop
few or unique images may led to misclassification, mainly when dif-
cycle is defined by a curve section, in which the initial NDVI values start
ferent targets have similar spectral behavior. In these cases, the spec-
low (after the crop sowing) and then grow until reaching the vegetative
tral-temporal approach, represented here by VI time series curves, may
peak (moment of greatest green biomass production). Then, the values
be an effective source of information to assess the accuracy of the tra-
decrease (due to crop senescence) until reaching the same initial levels,
ditional spectral-based methods.
when the harvest is carried out. Such behavior is characteristic of an-
The novel solutions presented in the development of SATVeg allow
nual grain and fiber crops, such as soybean, maize and cotton. This
the fast visualization of MODIS VI time series. The geospatial database
example also shows the agricultural intensification process, once this
was conceived to deal with queries based on points or small polygons.
area used to be cultivated with single crops (in this case one phenolo-
Regional analyzes based on larger areas, such as municipalities or even
gical cycle of cotton per year) until 2008 and, from then on, the area
states boundaries, include a large number of pixels to be retrieved
started to be used for double cropping cultivation (in this case the
during the queries and are not feasible considering the strategy adopted
soybean cycle followed by the corn cycle in the same cropping season),
to model the SATVeg’s geospatial database. The low spatial resolution
7
J.C.D.M. Esquerdo, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 175 (2020) 105516
Fig. 7. NDVI time series obtained from different land use and land cover types between February 2000 and February 2019 using SATVeg. A) Forest/pasture/
agriculture transitions; B) Agricultural intensification (single crop to double crop); D) Silviculture (eucalyptus); E) Environmental disaster in Mariana, MG (Brazil).
The green lines represent the pre-filtered NDVI data and the red lines the smoothed data using the Savitzky-Golay filter.
of the MODIS VI products can also limit the use of SATVeg in regions CRediT authorship contribution statement
with a very segmented land-ownership structure, based on small fields
and properties. Further works must provide new solutions to improve Júlio César Dalla Mora Esquerdo: Conceptualization, Software,
the geospatial database modeling in order to deal with higher spatial Investigation, Validation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review &
resolution images, such as those provided by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 editing, Visualization, Supervision, Funding acquisition. João
mission, which combine high spatial and temporal resolutions. Francisco Gonçalves Antunes: Conceptualization, Investigation,
Validation, Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisi-
tion. Alexandre Camargo Coutinho: Conceptualization, Investigation,
4. Conclusions Validation, Resources, Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Funding
acquisition. Eduardo Antonio Speranza: Methodology, Software,
We presented the Temporal Vegetation Analysis System (SATVeg), a Writing - review & editing. Andréa Akemi Kondo: Methodology,
web-based system for fast access and visualization of time series of Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing - original draft. João Luis
vegetation indices in South America. The back-end architecture was dos Santos: Software.
implemented through an open source relational geospatial database to
store the complete time series of MODIS VI data. The strategy of using
Declaration of Competing Interest
thousands of partition tables in a geospatial database to store the VI
time series data ensured quick queries and efficient updating. The front-
end was developed to provide the user with a friendly interface, in- The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
cluding a set of data filtering procedures to improve the visualization of interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
the time series. The novel solutions presented in the development of the ence the work reported in this paper.
geospatial database allowed fast queries for points and small polygons.
Examples of application were presented and showed the potential of Acknowledgments
SATVeg for supporting a set of land use and land cover monitoring
activities. SATVeg was partially funded by Agroicone company through a
technical and financial cooperation agreement between the Brazilian
Agricultural Research Corporation (Embrapa) and the Arthur Bernardes
8
J.C.D.M. Esquerdo, et al. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 175 (2020) 105516
Foundation (Funarbe). The authors thank NASA’s Land Processes Kastens, J.H., Brown, J.C., Coutinho, A.C., Bishop, C.R., Esquerdo, J.C.D.M., 2017. Soy
Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC) for providing the MODIS moratorium impacts on soybean and deforestation dynamics in Mato Grosso, Brazil.
PLoS One 12, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176168.
images used by SATVeg. Klein, I., Gessner, U., Kuenzer, C., 2012. Regional land cover mapping and change de-
tection in Central Asia using MODIS time-series. Appl. Geogr. 35, 219–234. https://
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Seigneur. Dans les temps modernes saint Michel est honoré surtout comme
le vainqueur de l’hérésie et de l’impiété.
Fig. 12.—Saint Michel terrassant le Dragon. Miniature d’un livre d’heures du quinzième siècle.
Bibliothèque de M. Ambr. Firmin-Didot.
CHAPITRE PREMIER
I
SAINT MICHEL DANS LES TEMPS PRIMITIFS.
n remontant le cours des âges, on trouve dès la plus haute
antiquité les traces certaines de la croyance aux esprits, bons
ou mauvais, inférieurs à Dieu, mais supérieurs à l’homme.
Les juifs, héritiers des saines traditions, et les autres peuples,
qui avaient emporté, en se dispersant, quelques lambeaux plus
ou moins défigurés des révélations primitives, ont attribué à
ces mêmes esprits une large part dans la lutte incessante du bien contre le
mal; comme nous, ils ont pensé et ils pensent encore que les anges veillent
sur les hommes, que les démons s’acharnent à leur perte; bien plus, d’après
une découverte récente faite en Assyrie, le grand combat livré au ciel dès
l’origine du monde n’était pas ignoré des anciens. De tout temps on a placé à
la tête des célestes phalanges un chef invincible, personnification vivante de
la vérité, de la justice et de la fidélité, ennemi à jamais irréconciliable du
prince des ténèbres et des mauvais génies rangés sous son empire, ami des
âmes et défenseur des droits de Dieu.
Ces croyances furent altérées et mélangées de grossières erreurs en
Égypte, en Chaldée, chez les Assyriens et les autres nations infidèles; mais
les juifs, instruits par les prophètes, ne s’écartèrent pas sur ce point des
traditions de leurs ancêtres; au témoignage de Daniel, ils admirent
l’existence d’un ange, dont le nom signifiait dans leur langue la majesté
incomparable de Dieu, et désignait une mission spéciale: Michel, c’est-à-
dire, qui est semblable à Dieu. Ils le reconnurent pour leur génie tutélaire,
leur chef dans les combats, leur guide et leur conseiller; ils lui donnèrent le
titre de «prince,» de «grand prince;» et, si l’on s’en tient aux règles de
l’exégèse usitée chez les Hébreux, il est permis de croire que la Synagogue
lui attribua la plupart des faits merveilleux consignés dans les livres saints, et
accomplis par le ministère des anges. D’après ces interprétations, saint
Michel fut regardé comme l’intermédiaire des révélations du Sinaï; c’est lui
qui mit à mort les nouveau-nés des Égyptiens, pour hâter la fin de la
première captivité et l’acheminement vers la terre promise; c’est lui qui
sauva le trésor du temple de la cupidité des Séleucides et infligea un terrible
châtiment à l’impie Héliodore (fig. 13). Il faisait sans doute partie de
l’ambassade qu’Abraham reçut sous le chêne de Mambré; Moïse l’entendit
lui adresser la parole dans le buisson ardent; Ézéchiel le vit peut-être sous le
voile énigmatique du tétraphorme. Il fut, en un mot, le principal messager du
Seigneur dans ses rapports avec le peuple élu; il prit part à tous les actes
destinés à exalter ou à humilier, à défendre ou à punir la famille d’adoption,
«la nation domestique de Dieu,» selon l’expression de Tertullien.
Les juifs ne pouvaient ignorer le combat dont le récit a été gravé sur les
monuments chaldéens, et que saint Jean nous a dépeint avec des couleurs si
vives dans son Apocalypse; ils savaient que saint Michel avait reçu la
mission de combattre Satan, de s’opposer à ses projets et de défendre les
âmes contre ses séductions. Une tradition, célèbre autrefois en Israël, vient
jeter sur ce point une lumière éclatante. On racontait qu’une altercation
s’était engagée entre les deux antagonistes, à la mort de Moïse; saint Michel
fit enlever par un ange le corps du grand législateur et alla l’ensevelir dans
une vallée du pays de Moab, afin de le soustraire au culte des Hébreux qui
n’auraient pas manqué de lui rendre les honneurs divins. Le démon,
souhaitant avoir les restes de Moïse en sa puissance pour faire tomber le
peuple de Dieu dans l’idolâtrie, voulut mettre obstacle au dessein de
l’Archange; mais
Fig. 13.—Le châtiment d’Héliodore. Fragment de la peinture à fresque de Raphaël dans une des salles
du Vatican. Seizième siècle.
III