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Subjects: LCSH: Social sciences–Research. | Qualitative research.

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16 17 18 19 20 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Brief Contents
1. Preface
2. Acknowledgments
3. About the Authors
4. PART I: TAKING A QUALITATIVE APPROACH TO
RESEARCH
1. 1 An Invitation to Qualitative Research
2. 2 Paradigmatic Approaches to Qualitative Research
3. 3 Designing Qualitative Approaches to Research
4. 4 The Ethics of Social Research
5. PART II: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PRACTICE
1. 5 In-Depth Interviewing
2. 6 Focus Group Research
3. 7 Ethnography
4. 8 Case Study
5. 9 Researching Mass Media: Images and Texts, by Heather
McIntosh and Lisa Cuklanz
6. 10 Mixed Methods Research
6. PART III: TYING THE STRANDS TOGETHER
1. 11 Analysis and Interpretation of Qualitative Data
2. 12 Writing and Representation of Qualitative Research Projects
3. Conclusion: Future Directions of Qualitative Research Inquiry
7. References
8. Index
Detailed Contents
1. Preface
2. Acknowledgments
3. About the Authors
4. PART I: TAKING A QUALITATIVE APPROACH TO
RESEARCH
1. 1 An Invitation to Qualitative Research
1. What’s Wrong With This Picture?
2. What Is Qualitative Research?
1. Dimensions of Qualitative Research
1. Ontology
2. Epistemology
3. Methodology
4. Methods
3. A Holistic Approach to Research
1. Quantitative Research and Positivism
2. What Kinds of Questions and Problems Can Be
Addressed With Qualitative Research?
3. Illustrations of Qualitative Studies
1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive
3. Explanatory
4. What to Learn From This Book
5. Glossary
6. Discussion Questions
7. Resources
2. 2 Paradigmatic Approaches to Qualitative Research
1. What Are the Major Paradigmatic Approaches to Qualitative
Research?
2. Positivism
3. The Interpretive Strand
1. Symbolic Interactionism
2. Dramaturgy
3. Phenomenology
4. Ethnomethodology
 4. The Critical Strand
1. Postmodernism
2. Post-structuralism
3. Feminisms
4. Critical Race Theory
5. Queer Theory
5. Conclusion
6. Glossary
7. Discussion Questions
8. Resources
3. 3 Designing Qualitative Approaches to Research
1. How Do We Know What We Know?
2. What Is a Qualitative Approach to Research? Qualitative
Research Inquiry: A Dynamic Dance
1. How Does a Quantitative Research Design Differ From
a Qualitative Research Design?
2. Creating a Research Design: Step-by-Step
1. Step 1. Reflect on Your Own Research Standpoint
Before You Begin
2. Step 2. Maintain a Tight Link Between the
Research Question and Your Research Design
3. Step 3. Formulate Your Research Question: What
Do You Want to Ask?
4. Step 4. Drawing a Research Sample
5. Step 5. Determine Method of Data Collection
6. Step 6. Determine How You Will Analyze and
Interpret Your Data
7. Step 7. Determine How You Will Write Up Your
Study
8. Step 8. Detail Any Issues of Validity and Any
Limitations in Your Study
3. Conclusion
4. Glossary
5. Discussion Questions
6. Resources
4. 4 The Ethics of Social Research
1. Why Is Ethical Practice Important?
 2. A Short History of Ethics in Research
1. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study
2. Further Developments in the History of Research Ethics
3. When Ethical Standards Get Compromised: Case Study
of Ethics Violations by the American Psychological
Association
3. How Are Research Participants Protected Today?
1. The Informed Consent Letter
2. The Principle and the Reality
4. Beyond Informed Consent: What Are the Ethical Dilemmas
in Social Research?
1. The Ethical Predicament of Deception in Research
2. An Ethics Tale: When an Undergraduate Research
Project Turns Into an Ethical Conundrum
3. The Gray Ethical Waters Encountered by Ethnographers
5. How Can I Observe Ethical Values in My Research Practice?
6. Do New Technologies Impact the Practice of Ethical
Research?
1. Overcoming Ethical Dilemmas of Social Software
Technologies
7. Conclusion
8. Glossary
9. Discussion Questions
10. Resources
5. PART II: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PRACTICE
1. 5 In-Depth Interviewing
1. What Is an In-Depth Interview?
1. When Is It Appropriate to Use In-Depth Interviews?
2. How Do You Design and Conduct an In-Depth Interview
Study?
1. Interview Structures and Levels of Control
2. Preparing an Interview Guide
3. How Do You Conduct an In-Depth Interview?
1. How Do I Interview Across Differences Between Me
and My Participant?
2. Insider or Outsider?
 1. Example: Gender Differences—What Women Are
Talking About
2. Example: Knowing What Differences Matter in
Any Given Research Project
3. Reflexivity and Difference
1. Interview Tips for Dealing With a Reluctant
Interview Participant: A Scenario
4. Peer-to-Peer Reciprocal Interviewing
1. Limitations and Risks of Peer Interviewing
5. Online In-Depth Interviewing
1. Benefits and Drawbacks of Conducting Online
Research
4. How Do You Analyze and Interpret Interviews?
5. Conclusion
6. Glossary
7. Discussion Questions
8. Resources
2. 6 Focus Group Research
1. What Are Focus Group Interviews?
1. Some Background on Focus Groups
2. Differences Between Focus Group Interviews and In-
Depth Interviews During Data Collection
2. Online Focus Groups
3. Ethics and Focus Group Research
1. How to Design a Focus Group Project: Step-by-Step
1. 1. Determine Your Research Problem
2. 2. Determine Your Focus Group Format
3. 3. Determine Your Focus Group Sample: Whom
Will You Interview? How Many Focus Groups and
Individuals per Focus Group?
4. 4. Determine the Type of Focus Group You Seek:
Heterogeneous or Homogeneous
5. 5. Determine How You Will Structure Your Focus
Group Study
6. 6. Determine What Types of Questions You Want
to Ask and How You Will Structure the Overall
Question-Asking Process
 7. 7. Determine How You Will Set Up Your Focus
Group Environment to Ensure High and Ongoing
Participation and Satisfaction With the Overall
Focus Group Experience
8. 8. Select the Moderator and Determine His or Her
Role in the Focus Group
9. 9. Analyze and Represent Focus Group Data
2. A Class Focus Group Exercise: The “Freshman 15”
4. Conclusion
5. Glossary
6. Discussion Questions
7. Resources
3. 7 Ethnography
1. What Is Ethnography?
2. Using an Ethnographic Approach: When Is It Appropriate?
1. How Do You Get Started? Negotiating the Research
Setting
1. Gaining Entry Into the Setting
2. Your Research Role in the Setting
2. The Ethics of Deception in Ethnographic Research
3. Ethnographic Traps in “Going Native”
4. Exiting the Field
3. Virtual Ethnographic Methods
4. How Do You Gather and Manage Your Ethnographic Data?
1. Tips for Student Researchers in the Field: Common
Foibles to Avoid
2. Keeping Field Notes
1. Tips for the Beginner Taking Field Notes
2. Analyzing Your Field Notes: The Ethnographic
Puzzle
3. Common Analysis and Interpretation Problems
5. Conclusion
6. Glossary
7. Discussion Questions
8. Resources
4. 8 Case Study
1. What Is a Case Study?
 1. Emergence of a Case Study Approach
2. Types of Case Study Methodologies
3. Case Study Design
2. Reasons for Adopting a Case Study Approach
1. How Can I Generalize My Findings From a Single Case
Study?
2. Step-by-Step Approach to Conducting a Case Study
Project
1. Step 1. Determine Your Research Question. What
Do You Want to Know?
2. Step 2. Review the Literature of Your Overall
Research Interest
3. Step 3. Select a Case Study Research Design
4. Step 4. Determine the Methods of Data Collection
5. Step 5. Analyze and Interpret Your Case Study
Data
6. Step 6. Report Your Findings
3. Why Conduct Case Study Research?
4. Case Study Examples
1. Case Study 1. Toward Social Justice in a Private
Elementary School: The Case of St. Malachy
2. Case Study 2. Understanding the Function, Climate,
and Maintenance of Sororities on College Campuses (a
Hypothetical Case Study)
5. Conclusion
6. Glossary
7. Discussion Questions
8. Resources
5. 9 Researching Mass Media: Images and Texts
1. What Is Content Analysis?
1. Historical Background
2. Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative and Qualitative
Content Analysis
3. Qualitative Content Analysis of Online Texts
4. How Is the Research Database for Content Analysis Defined
and Delimited?
1. Research Databases for Mediated Texts
 2. Online Texts and Materials
3. Defining or Delimiting the Text for Analysis
1. How Is the Text Analyzed?
2. Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis
3. Analyzing Texts Without Analytic Software
5. Making a Theoretical Contribution
6. Conclusion
7. Glossary
8. Discussion Questions
9. Resources
10. Appendix: Formal Analysis in Film and Television
6. 10 Mixed Methods Research
1. What Is Mixed Methods Research?
1. What Are the Advantages in Using a Mixed Methods
Research Design?
2. What Are Some Drawbacks to Using a Mixed Methods
Research Design?
2. What Is a Mixed Methods Research Design?
3. What Is a Qualitatively Driven Approach to Mixed Methods
Research Inquiry?
1. Case Study 1: Studying Sexual Abuse
2. Case Study 2: Studying Health Inequalities
4. Why Do Qualitative Researchers Use Mixed Methods?
1. Steps in Conducting a Qualitatively Driven Mixed
Methods Project
1. Step 1. What Is Your Research Problem?
2. Step 2. What Mixed Methods Research Design?
3. Step 3. What Ethical Issues Should I Consider?
4. Step 4. What Specific Data Will I Collect?
5. Step 5. What Type of Analysis Will You Conduct
on Your Data?
6. Step 6. How Will You Interpret and Write Up Your
Study?
5. What to Consider When Conducting a Mixed Methods
Research Project
1. Important Ingredients for Effective Collaboration in a
Team-Based Mixed Methods Project
 6. Conclusion
7. Glossary
8. Discussion Questions
9. Resources
6. PART III: TYING THE STRANDS TOGETHER
1. 11 Analysis and Interpretation of Qualitative Data
1. What Is Qualitative Data Analysis?
1. Steps in Analyzing and Interpreting Qualitative Data
1. Step 1. Data Preparation
2. Step 2. Data Exploration
3. Step 3. Specification and Reduction of Data
2. What Is Coding?
3. A Grounded Theory Approach to Coding
1. Example of the Grounded Theory Coding Process
4. How Do You Code Data?
1. How Can Writing a Memo Assist With Coding Data?
1. Step 4. Interpretation
2. How Do You Establish Validity and Reliability of
Interpretation?
3. Reliability and Validity Checks
5. Software for Qualitative Data Analysis
1. Which Software Program Should I Choose?
6. How Can I Use a Software Program to Analyze My
Qualitative Data?
7. Conclusion
8. Glossary
9. Discussion Questions
10. Resources
2. 12 Writing and Representation of Qualitative Research Projects
1. Who Is Your Audience?
2. Getting It Done: Writing Up Your Qualitative Research
Project
1. 1. Title Page and Abstract
2. 2. Introduction
1. Topic, Purpose, Significance, and Guiding
Research Questions
2. How Do I Write Up My Research Question?
 3. 3. Literature Review
4. 4. Research Design
1. Sampling
2. Methods of Data Collection
3. Ethical Considerations
5. 5. Data Analysis and Interpretation
6. 6. Conclusion and Implications
7. 7 and 8. References and Appendices
3. Editing and Revising Your Research Paper
4. How Do I Represent the Voices of My Respondents?
1. Qualitative Approaches to Representations
1. The Postmodern Turn Toward Representation
2. Experimental Writing Styles
2. Writing Artfully: Arts-Based Approaches to Writing Up
Qualitative Research Studies
1. The Rise of Arts-Based Research Inquiry and
Creative Writing Forms
2. Arts-Based Writing
3. Poetic Approaches to Representation
3. Conclusion
4. Glossary
5. Discussion Questions
6. Resources
3. Conclusion: Future Directions of Qualitative Research
Inquiry
1. The Future of Qualitative Research: Coming at Things
Differently
2. What’s New in Qualitative Research Practice?
3. Emergent Methods: New Approaches to Old Methods
1. Arts-Based Research Practices
2. Autoethnographic Method
3. Movement of Qualitative Approaches Toward Mixed
Methods Inquiry
4. New Technologies in the Service of Qualitative
Research Inquiry
5. Rise of Big Data and the Increasing Importance of
Qualitative Approaches
 4. Impact of Online Research on the Process of Qualitative
Inquiry
5. Staying Centered and Building Ethical Knowledge
6. Glossary
7. Discussion Questions
8. Resources
4. References
5. Index
Preface
The third edition of The Practice of Qualitative Research continues to be
committed to providing students and teachers with a practice model of
qualitative approaches to research. Differing from other qualitative methods
texts, it provides a problem-centric approach to engaging with qualitative
research by linking the practice of any research method to specific research
questions. Underscored is the importance of having a “tight fit” between the
specific research question and the method or set of methods selected to
answer a given research problem. Engaging with a qualitative approach to
research that often calls for understanding the lived experiences of research
participants requires a range of listening and reflexive skills that calls on the
researcher, who is the data collector, to be reflective about the values and
agendas he or she may bring into any given research endeavor. To practice
research reflexively means to be aware of your own researcher standpoint,
that is the set of values and attitudes you bring to any given research
project, as well as an examination of those philosophical assumptions you
have about the nature of the social world.

The third edition, while remaining true to these goals, also integrates the
most current scholarly work in the area of qualitative approaches to
research and integrates the use of online methods and computer-assisted
qualitative data analysis software that can offer students new ways of
collecting and analyzing data that allow for the asking of and addressing
new questions.

The third edition continues to add to the pedagogical lessons garnered from
the collective wisdom and feedback of the students and instructors who
have used this book along with those insights I have gained in the teaching
of qualitative research during the course of my teaching career.

Major Themes and New Features

Creating a Pedagogy of Engagement

My pedagogical experience in the research methods classroom has been
that students need to be engaged with the learning of research methods. It is
critical to provide them with a range of hands-on activities that allow them
to take learning risks and to apply the more abstract ideas they have learned
in the classroom setting in a more formal way. The in-classroom mini
exercises in each chapter allow instructors to go “back and forth” with their
students while engaging them in reflexive learning through small-group
exercise engagements. Students then conduct their own small research
projects as a way for them to put together the strands of their learning.
Toward that end, the third edition contains a step-by-step process of
engagement to offer guidance for students carrying out their research
projects using a range of research methods. There is also a chapter devoted
to writing up an entire research project in a step-by-step format that offers
students a general research methods project template to guide them through
the research project as a whole.

I have observed how critical it is for students to share what they have found
difficult in the application of concepts to their own research activities. The
in-class mini exercises serve to solidify a student’s knowledge and skills
regarding a specific method. Each chapter also contains a set of discussion
questions that serve to engage students and their peers in the nitty-gritty of
issues involved in the practice of a particular method. Instructors and
students also have access to methods-specific websites listed at the end of
each chapter with an annotated description of each website for further
enrichment.

All pedagogical features contained in the book are aimed at engaging

students in a dialogue aimed to place them in a dynamic communication
process whose goal is to challenge their preconceived ideas about how
knowledge is built. Creating a dialogue among students involves asking
them to interrogate their ideas by tracing their reasoning behind a given
perspective or conclusion they reach as they go about learning and
practicing new research methods skills. In addition, dialogue encourages
students to work together by deeply listening to each other’s points of view
and to explore and engage with the course material as a whole.

A Practice Model
The third edition continues to provide a practice model of learning about
qualitative research. This means several things. First, the field of qualitative
research is framed as a process. By emphasizing process, students are
shown how researchers make decisions along the way that impact the
research findings. Second, each chapter offers a holistic approach to
research. A holistic approach emphasizes the foundations on which research
as a whole is based—the text emphasizes the interconnections between
research questions and methods. It presents clear examples that illustrate the
linkage of theory and methods. Also retained are key features from the
second edition. Inspired by Erving Goffman’s notion of “back stage” and
“front stage,” the book again presents “behind-the-scenes” boxes written by
leading qualitative researchers. Each behind- the-scenes piece offers
students a window into the real-world practice of qualitative research,
which at times is messy and unpredictable. Like the other key features
throughout the book, these pieces are also a part of our pedagogy of
engagement.

Ethical Decision Making

Differing from many research methods texts that only briefly address
ethical practice, the third edition of The Practice of Qualitative Research
continues to center ethics in social research. The ethics chapter has
expanded to include more examples of ethical issues that students are most
likely to confront as they go about engaging in their own research projects.
Additionally, because the world students live in is rapidly changing due to
technological advances, the ethical issues that emerge as a result of Internet
research and personal networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter are
addressed. Finally, issues regarding ethical practice are integrated
throughout the methods chapters in the book. I note examples of places
where ethical issues emerge in practice with respect to the different methods
reviewed in the book.

What’s New in the Third Edition?

The Practice of Qualitative Research, third edition, presents a truly
comprehensive review of qualitative and mixed methods research. Part I is
restructured and renamed “Taking a Qualitative Approach to Research.”
Chapter 1 presents an invitation to qualitative research. Chapter 2 focuses
on approaches to framing qualitative research. For reader ease, I have
categorized various approaches under two umbrella categories: interpretive
and critical. Perspectives are given equal weight. Under the interpretive
umbrella, I review symbolic interactionism, dramaturgy, the Chicago
school, phenomenology, and ethnomethodology. Under the critical
umbrella, I review postmodernism, post-structuralism, feminism, queer
studies, and critical race theory. Using clear tables for visual learners helps
to illustrate the differences between these approaches. This also
demonstrates a larger theme interwoven throughout the book: the
integration of theory and methods. Chapter 3 presents qualitative research
designs that provide students with an overview of the “nuts and bolts” of
qualitative research designs, and Chapter 4 offers an in-depth review of
ethical practice drawing on new technology-based examples.

Part II, “Qualitative Research Practice,” focuses on a range of specific

research methods. Retained are many of the methods chapters from the
second edition, and these have been updated to reflect the most current
scholarship in the field of qualitative research. New in Part II is Chapter 9,
“Researching Mass Media: Images and Text,” authored by leading
communications researchers Dr. Lisa Cuklanz and Dr. Heather McIntosh.

Part III, “Tying the Strands Together,” retains our focus on walking students
through the ins and outs of analyzing and interpretation of qualitative data
and provides a range of specific examples to illustrate the process of
meaning making. The text also provides a range of short exercises for
students to practice their analytical and interpretative skills. A newly
revised chapter on research writing provides tips for writing up student
research projects and contains step-by-step specific illustrations and
examples of this process.

The third edition of The Practice of Qualitative Research can be used in

research methods and qualitative research methods courses. In fact, given
the new material, this book can serve as the primary textbook in a survey of
research methods course with a smaller supplemental text on purely
quantitative methods such as survey research and quasi experiments.
Online Resources
A companion website at study.sagepub.com/hessebiber3e offers
PowerPoint slides and suggested exam questions for instructors, as well as
full-text SAGE journal articles and quizzes for students.

Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber

Boston College

Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts

Acknowledgments
The third edition of The Practice of Qualitative Research would not be
possible without the assistance and support of many members within my
academic community.

First, I want to thank all the scholars who shared their research journeys in
the Behind the Scenes segments that appear throughout the book. I want to
express my heartfelt gratitude to the Boston College Undergraduate
Research Fellowship Committee, especially the support I have received
from Dean William Petri in my research endeavors throughout my years at
Boston College. I want to thank Boston College undergraduates Sarah Van
Schaik, Zainab Kiyam, Bailey Flynn, and Cecilia Dolan for their leadership
in keeping this book project organized and also for providing editorial
assistance. Thanks as well to my former undergraduate research assistants,
Hilary Flowers and Lauren Simao.

The Practice of Qualitative Research, third edition, would not be possible

without the vision, wisdom, and support of my research methods editor at
SAGE, Helen Salmons. Her editorial expertise and guidance were
invaluable. I want to also extend a thank-you to the SAGE copyeditor, Mark
Bast, who did a stellar job in the final production of this book. I extend a
heartfelt thank-you to SAGE project editor Jane Haenel for her excellent
editorial oversight on the book project as a whole.

I want to express my love and deepest appreciation to my family, in

particular my daughters, Julia Ariel and Sarah Alexandra, for their patience,
love, and forbearance. I also want to thank my extended family: my mother
Helene Stockert, sister Georgia Geraghty, and brother Charles Nagy.

Finally, I want to thank my wonderful Portuguese water dogs, Zoli and his
brother Max. They both remind me of the importance of play in our lives,
and they keep me connected to the things that matter to me outside of my
work life.

Best wishes,
Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber

Boston College

Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts

SAGE Publishing acknowledges the following reviewers:

John B. Bartkowski, University of Texas at San Antonio

Kristen K. Bowen, Florida A&M University

Brian Creech, Temple University

JoAnn DiGeorgio-Lutz, Texas A&M University at Galveston

J. S. Frideres, University of Calgary

Amrita Hari, Carleton University

Aya Kimura Ida, California State University, Sacramento

Brooke Fisher Liu, University of Maryland

Karrie Ann Snyder, Northwestern University

Jeanne L. Surface, University of Nebraska Omaha

Susan L. Wortmann, Nebraska Wesleyan University

About the Authors

Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber, PhD,

is professor of sociology and the director of the Women’s and Gender
Studies Program at Boston College in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts.
She has published widely on the impact of sociocultural factors on
women’s body image, including her book Am I Thin Enough Yet? The
Cult of Thinness and the Commercialization of Identity (Oxford,
1996), which was selected as one of Choice magazine’s best academic
books for 1996. She published The Cult of Thinness (Oxford, 2007)
and is coeditor of Approaches to Qualitative Research: A Reader on
Theory and Practice (Oxford, 2004) and Emergent Methods in Social
Research (Sage, 2006). She is editor of the Handbook of Feminist
Research: Theory and Praxis (2nd ed.) (Sage, 2012), which was
selected as one of the Critics’ Choice Award winners by the American
Education Studies Association and was also chosen as one of Choice
magazine’s Outstanding Academic Titles for 2007. She is editor of
Feminist Research Practice: A Primer (Sage, 2014). She publishes
widely on mixed methods research, and her publications appear in
Qualitative Health Research (QHR), Qualitative Inquiry (QI), and The
Journal of Mixed Methods Research (JMMR). She was appointed an
associate editor of JMMR. She is coeditor of the Handbook of
Emergent Methods (Guilford, 2008). She is author of Mixed Methods
Research: Merging Theory with Practice (Guilford, 2010). Her most
recent coedited book is titled The Oxford Handbook of Multimethod
and Mixed Methods Research Inquiry (Oxford, 2015).
She was recently recognized by Alpha Sigma Nu, the honor society for
Jesuit higher education institutions, with a 2015 Alpha Sigma Nu Book
Award for excellence in publishing in science, for her monograph,
Waiting for Cancer to Come: Women’s Experiences with Genetic
 Testing and Medical Decision Making for Breast and Ovarian Cancer
(University of Michigan Press, 2014).
She is codeveloper of the software program HyperRESEARCH, a
computer-assisted program for analyzing qualitative and mixed
methods data, and the new transcription tool HyperTRANSCRIBE. A
fully functional free demo of these programs is available at
www.researchware.com. This website, www.researchware.com,
provides links to a free teaching edition for both programs.

Lisa M. Cuklanz
is professor and chair of the Communication Department at Boston
College, where she has also served as director of Women’s Studies.
Her research focuses on media representations of gender-based
violence. She has published three books and numerous articles in
journals within the field of communication, including Critical Studies
in Media Communication, Communication Quarterly, and Women’s
Studies in Communication.

Heather McIntosh
is an assistant professor at Minnesota State University, Mankato. Her
research explores documentary media in a converging media
environment, focusing particularly on distribution and advocacy
documentary. She earned her PhD in mass communications from The
Pennsylvania State University.
Part I Taking a Qualitative Approach to Research
1 An Invitation to Qualitative Research
Photo 1.1 Can qualitative research shed new light on eating disorders like
bulimia in a way that statistical surveys cannot?

© iStockphoto.com/RapidEye

What’s Wrong With This Picture?

Pretty, vivacious, and petite, Delia was a picture of fashionable perfection
when she first walked into my office. Her tight jeans and fringed western
shirt showed off her thin, 5-foot frame; her black cowboy boots and silver
earrings completed a presentation that said, Look at me!

The perfect picture had a serious price. Delia had come to me to talk about
her problem. She is bulimic. In secret, she regularly binges on large
amounts of food and then forces herself to vomit. It has become a powerful
habit, one that she is afraid to break because it so efficiently maintains her
thin body. For Delia, as for so many others, being thin is everything. Delia
shared with me:

I mean, how many bumper stickers have you seen that say “No Fat
Chicks”? Guys don’t like fat girls. Guys like little girls. I guess
 because it makes them feel bigger and, you know, they want somebody
who looks pretty. Pretty to me is you have to be thin and you have to
have, like, good facial features. My final affirmation of myself is how
many guys look at me when I go into a bar.

In recent years binge eating, a type of eating disorder, has garnered

considerable concern from administrators at colleges and universities across
the country. Statistics gathered through surveys show marked increases in
such behavior among college students and their pressure and concern about
the extent and severity of eating disorders on college campuses. The
surveys also introduce how college administrators can more adequately
address this issue to stem the tide of this growing social problem
(Eisenberg, Nicklett, Roeder, & Kirz, 2011; Hesse-Biber, 2007). Many
colleges often fall short of providing their students with nutritional
education and outreach programs to combat eating disorders. What makes
things more complicated is that those with an eating disorder like binge
eating often fly under the radar of potential college outreach services that
might be helpful to them. Many college-age women are also reluctant to
seek help for their eating problem because they feel they will be stigmatized
by being labeled with an eating disorder. Many also worry about what their
peers think of them and, more importantly, what might happen if their
parents find out (Geerling & Saunders, 2015; Puhl, Neumark-Sztainer,
Austin, Luedicke, & King, 2014).

What do you think you might do to tackle this issue on your campus? At
this point I invite you to spend 5–10 minutes jotting down a list of questions
you think are important to investigate in order to better understand the
phenomenon of binge eating on your college campus.

What Is Qualitative Research?

The qualitative approach to research provides a unique grounding position
from which to conduct research that fosters particular ways of asking
questions and provides a point of view onto the social world whose goal is
to obtain understanding of a social issue or problem that privileges
subjective and multiple understandings. As noted in the opening discussion
of binge eating in college, the questions asked in this type of research
usually begin with words like how, why, or what. Look at the list of
questions you generated—what words do they begin with? As I asked you
to think about understanding this topic, you likely framed your questions
from a qualitative perspective. Qualitative researchers are after meaning.
The social meaning people attribute to their experiences, circumstances, and
situations, as well as the meanings people embed into texts, images, and
other objects are the focus of qualitative research. Therefore, at the heart of
it, qualitative researchers extract the co-created meanings they gather from
their participants’ data in order to get at multiple subjective accounts. The
focus of research is generally words, texts, and images as opposed to the
gathering of statistical data (numbers) whose goal is the testing out of
hypotheses using a variable language, with the goal of generalizing and
confirming their research hypotheses. However, this does not mean that
qualitative researchers do not use numbers or that quantitative researchers
do not use words.

Numbers can be used by a qualitative researcher as a way to summarize

some of the major qualitative themes generated from participants’ in-depth
interviews. So, for example, when Delia talks about her eating disorder she
often uses words that focus on weight and appearance. If we look at the
excerpt from her interview at the beginning of this chapter, we notice she
uses the word thin and the word fat several times. She also mentions
appearance-related words such as pretty and good facial features. We might
want to obtain a frequency count of the number of times Delia mentions
words related to weight and appearance in order to get a quantitative
measure of just how focused her narrative is on weight and appearance
issues across her entire interview. Doing this type of frequency count might
serve as an important quantitative indicator of just how focused Delia is on
these two issues in her entire interview. We might then want to compare
Delia’s word counts on these two issues with others in the study, in order to
get a sense of how often these weight- and appearance-related words appear
across the interviews collected for the entire study. We then might want to
compare and contrast participants whose frequency count is high or low
with regard to weight, appearance issues, and so on.
A quantitatively driven researcher, on the other hand, would usually begin
with a why question but quickly reframe this into a testable hypothesis that
posits a cause-effect relationship using a variable language, as in the
following hypothesis: “The higher the self-esteem among college women
the lower the rates of binge-eating disorders.” Self-esteem and rates of
binge-eating disorders would be treated as variables that take on a set of
numerical values. The researcher would most likely test out this hypothesis
on a large-scale data set selecting among a wide spectrum of college-age
women and seeking to find whether the relationship between self-esteem
and binge eating, both treated as variables and expressed in numerical
terms, is statistically significant even after controlling for other likely causal
factors in the literature that are also said to be related to college-age
women’s binge-eating behaviors. This type of study aims to confirm a given
hypothesis, unlike a qualitative approach, whose goal is to explore and
discover subjective meaning. This does not mean, however, that qualitative
researchers do not also develop some ideas they also test out on their
qualitative data. We might, for example, find that in our study of college
students with eating disorders, we have a group of women, whom we label
Group A, who appear more obsessed with issues of weight and appearance
than a second group, Group B. Group B students do not talk about these
issues very much. We might then begin to speculate about what makes these
two groups so different by looking at what other factors we think might
contribute to weight and appearance obsession, which we garnered from
studying the research literature on this topic, that might also serve to
differentiate these two groups we found in our data. So, for example, some
of the literature on eating disorders looks at the impact of peer group
pressure on weight and appearance (Hesse-Biber, 2007), so we might see if
there are any differences we can discern in the way in which Group A
women and Group B women talk about their peers. You can see we are
beginning to test out in a very informal way some of our hunches about
what might be going on in our qualitative data.

It’s important to keep in mind that these two approaches also share common
elements. We might think of these qualitative and quantitative approaches
as lying along a continuum rather than two distinct approaches. Also keep
in mind that each of these approaches is valuable to research inquiry. Which
approach you select will depend on your overall research goals and the
specific questions derived from your overall methodology. And, as shown
in the mixed methods chapter to come, sometimes both of these approaches
are used in the same study, especially when dealing with complex
multilayered problems with the goal of getting a more complex
understanding of a given issue.

Qualitative research is an exciting interdisciplinary landscape composed of

diverse perspectives and practices for generating knowledge. Researchers
across departments in the social and behavioral sciences use qualitative
methods.

Dimensions of Qualitative Research

There are many important aspects of research aside from methods, although
college-level courses are often misleadingly called “research methods”
instead of “research practice.” A major dimension of research that is often
subjugated is the set of assumptions researchers bring with them that guides
the research process. Researchers’ views stem from the philosophical
assumptions they hold about the social world in general. We can think of a
paradigm as comprising a researcher’s view of social reality in general,
consisting of a range of critical philosophical components we term ontology
and epistemology. A researcher’s methodology is derived from his or her
specific paradigmatic stance toward the social reality in terms of what a
researcher assumes we know about the social world, the types of questions
that can be asked, and how the research process itself should proceed. You
can think of this philosophical layer as providing a point of view onto the
social world that in turn serves to frame how the research process should
proceed, from the type of research questions addressed to the methods and
types of analysis and interpretation of one’s data. Multiple philosophical
points of view are explored in this chapter to give you an idea of just how
powerful and important it is to be cognizant as a researcher regarding the
assumptions contained in any given research endeavor and how different
philosophical assumptions can result in different ways of understanding and
constructing knowledge about the social world.

Ontology
An ontology is a philosophical belief system about the nature of social
reality—what can be known and how. For example, is the social world
patterned and predictable, or is the social world continually being
constructed through human interactions and rituals? These assumptions
represent two very different ontological perspectives. A researcher’s
ontological assumptions impact topic selection, the formulation of research
questions, and strategies for conducting the research.

There are three major ontological positions in qualitative research:

positivism, interpretive, and critical. Positivism posits that the social world
is patterned and causal relationships can be discovered and tested via
reliable strategies. The interpretive position assumes the social world is
constantly being constructed through group interactions, and thus social
reality can be understood via the perspectives of social actors enmeshed in
meaning-making activities. Critical perspectives also view social reality as
an ongoing construction but go further to suggest that discourses created in
shifting fields of social power shape social reality and our study of it. These
ontological approaches are reviewed in-depth in Chapter 2.

Epistemology
An epistemology is a philosophical belief system about who can be a
knowledge builder (Guba & Lincoln, 1998; Harding, 1987; Hesse-Biber &
Leavy, 2004). An epistemology includes how the relationship between the
researcher and research participants is understood. Although qualitative
research is characterized in part by numerous epistemological stances we
can again turn to the same three major umbrella categories: positivist,
interpretive, and critical. A positivist perspective privileges the researcher
as the authority in the research process due to his or her objective, value-
neutral stance and his or her use of standardized measurement instruments.
This creates a clear delineation between the roles of the researcher and
research participants. An interpretive perspective views the researcher and
research participants as co-creators in the knowledge-building process and
emphasizes the perspective of the participants. A critical approach pays
particular attention to how power is infused in the knowledge-building
process. I discuss these umbrella categories in more detail in Chapter 2.
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hardware,
estimating, and mill design
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Title: Hardware, estimating, and mill design

Editor: William S. Lowndes

Release date: February 8, 2024 [eBook #72897]

Language: English

Original publication: Scranton, PA: International Textbook Company,

1909

Credits: Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARDWARE,

ESTIMATING, AND MILL DESIGN ***
 International Library of Technology
333

Hardware, Estimating,
and Mill Design
223 Illustrations

Prepared Under Supervision of

W. S. LOWNDES, Ph. B.
DIRECTOR, SCHOOLS OF ARCHITECTURE
AND BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS

BUILDERS’ HARDWARE
ESTIMATING AND CALCULATING
QUANTITIES
MILL DESIGN

Published by
INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY
SCRANTON, PA.
1925
Builders’ Hardware: Copyright, 1908,
by International Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.
Estimating and Calculating Quantities, Part 1:
Copyright, 1899, by The Colliery Engineer Company.
Copyright, 1908, by International Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.
Estimating and Calculating Quantities, Part 2:
Copyright, 1899, by The Colliery Engineer Company.
 Copyright, 1909, by International Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.
Mill Design: Copyright, 1907,
by International Textbook Company.
Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London.

All rights reserved

Printed in U. S. A.
Press of
International Textbook Company
Scranton, Pa.
 PREFACE
The volumes of the International Library of Technology are made
up of Instruction Papers, or Sections, comprising the various courses
of instruction for students of the International Correspondence
Schools. The original manuscripts are prepared by persons
thoroughly qualified both technically and by experience to write with
authority, and in many cases they are regularly employed elsewhere
in practical work as experts. The manuscripts are then carefully
edited to make them suitable for correspondence instruction. The
Instruction Papers are written clearly and in the simplest language
possible, so as to make them readily understood by all students.
Necessary technical expressions are clearly explained when
introduced.
The great majority of our students wish to prepare themselves for
advancement in their vocations or to qualify for more congenial
occupations. Usually they are employed and able to devote only a
few hours a day to study. Therefore every effort must be made to
give them practical and accurate information in clear and concise
form and to make this information include all of the essentials but
none of the non-essentials. To make the text clear, illustrations are
used freely. These illustrations are especially made by our own
Illustrating Department in order to adapt them fully to the
requirements of the text.
In the table of contents that immediately follows are given the
titles of the Sections included in this volume, and under each title are
listed the main topics discussed. At the end of the volume will be
found a complete index, so that any subject treated can be quickly
found.

International Textbook Company

 CONTENTS
Builders’ Hardware Section Page
Staple Hardware 55 1
Cut and Wire Nails 55 2
Wood Screws, Expansion and Special Bolts 55 11
Sash Weights 55 18
Finishing Hardware 55 20
Metals and Their Manipulation 55 20
Hinges, Hinge Butts, and Special Hinges 55 24
Locks and Their Appurtenances 55 55
Window and Sash Hardware 55 77
Door Hardware and its Application 55 102
Shutter Hardware 55 129
Cabinet Trim 55 132
Design and Specification of Hardware for Buildings 55 138
Hardware of Special Design 55 138
Selection, Estimation, and Application of Hardware 55 146
Schedules and Drawings for the Hardware Contractor 55 154
Glass and Glazing 55 157

Estimating and Calculating Quantities

Scope of Subject 60 1
Approximate Estimating 60 3
Accurate Estimating Schedule 60 5
Excavation 60 11
Concrete Work 60 18
Masonry 60 24
Brickwork 60 31
Carpentry 60 38
Roofing 60 46
Plastering 60 58
Joinery 60 61
Structural Steel 60 69
 Heating and Ventilating System 60 69
Plumbing and Gas-Fitting 60 70
Painting and Papering 60 72
Glazing 60 78

Example in Estimating 61 1
Excavation 61 2
Stonework 61 4
Brickwork 61 8
Carpentry 61 10
Roofing 61 21
Lathing and Plastering 61 22
Joinery 61 23
Hardware 61 33
Heating and Ventilating System 61 35
Plumbing 61 37
Gas-Fitting 61 40
Wiring 61 41
Painting 61 42
Summary of Cost of Building 61 44

Mill Design
Site and Arrangement 64 1
Preliminary Considerations 64 1
Types of Mill Construction 64 13
Girder and Plank-on-Edge Construction 64 13
Standard Slow-Burning Construction 64 18
Factory Buildings of Reinforced Concrete 64 23
Steel-Frame Mill Buildings 64 31
Details of Mill Construction and Design 64 34
The Power Plant 64 41
Chimneys 64 45
Fire-Protection of Mill Buildings 64 50

INDEX i
 BUILDERS’ HARDWARE
STAPLE HARDWARE
INTRODUCTION
1. The hardware used in building construction may be classified as
staple and finished. Staple hardware may be considered as including
such materials as nails and spikes, bolts and screws, sash weights, and
other materials of this character, while finished hardware may include
such devices and appliances as locks and latches, hinges, door and
window trimmings, and the various metallic fixtures used in equipping the
different classes of buildings. To this last classification the term builders’
hardware is frequently applied.
Strictly speaking, glass cannot be considered as hardware;
nevertheless, it is frequently supplied to the builder through hardware
supply houses, and it is so closely allied to the hardware of building
construction that the subject of glass, its trade terms, and other information
relating to its characteristics, will not be out of order in this Section.
While little consideration is given to the hardware on the average
building, there is no more important part of the construction, nor one to
which greater attention should be given. On the quality and the selection of
proper hardware depends the avoidance of the petty annoyances often
found in buildings where this subject has not received proper
consideration.
The architect should be well informed regarding this subject, and
should be in a position to know the kind and quality of hardware that, when
specified, will give the best results. He will find that a thorough knowledge
of builders’ hardware will assist him materially in writing comprehensive
specifications for this portion of the work. Consequently, the writing of the
hardware specifications will receive attention in this Section, and the
proper manner of estimating, or “taking off,” hardware will also be
considered.

CUT AND WIRE NAILS

 2. Cut Nails.—The primitive nail was made or forged by hand, and this
mode of manufacture still exists in certain sections of Europe. These hand-
made nails sold at exorbitant prices compared with the machine-made
nails of today.
The manufacture of cut nails is less automatic and requires more
manual labor than is necessary in the making of wire nails. The iron or
steel is first rolled into sheets, the thickness of which is equal to the
thickness of the nail; it is then cut into strips as wide as the nail is long.
This strip of metal is fed into the nail machine and sheared off in tapering
strips having the form of the nail, when it is seized by clamps that hold it
just long enough for the heading hammer to strike the blow that forms the
head.
The nail manufactured in this manner is known as the cut nail, and is
much superior to the wire nail, which is of more recent production. Not only
has the cut nail greater holding power, but it is more durable, especially
when used in damp places.
3. Nearly all cut nails used at the present time are made from sheet
steel, a small percentage only being manufactured of iron, for which the
makers charge a slightly higher price. The steel nail is undoubtedly the
best for use in hardwoods, but the iron nail will outlast it where dampness
exists, as, for instance, in shingling, etc.
As shown in Fig. 1, cut nails are made in many styles and sizes, and
for various purposes. They are also known by the same trade term for the
various styles. Cut nails are heavier than wire nails, and as they count
fewer to the pound, are more expensive at equivalent prices. All nails are
sold at base prices per keg of 100 pounds, the “extras” for smaller and
special nails being added to the base price. For special work, certain types
of nails can be obtained in copper and brass.
4. Size and Gauge of Nails.—Both cut and wire nails are designated
by the trade term penny. The term penny as applied to nails is a relic of
medieval England. This designation was due, it is said, to the fact that it
defined the cost per hundred nails, so that tenpenny nails would mean that
100 of such nails cost ten pence. A more likely interpretation of the term is
that it implied the weight and not the cost, and that the term penny is a
corruption of the Old English word pun’ (for pound), so that tenpunny or
tenpenny implied that 1,000 of such nails weighed 10 pounds. The
smallest standard size of nail is known as twopenny or threepenny, while
the largest is designated as sixtypenny. These sizes range in length from 1
to 6 inches. In designating the size of the nail in list prices, the symbol “d”
(for penny) is used, so that a nail about 2 inches long is designated as 6d.
The thickness, or diameter, is indicated by the gauge number, the gauge of
cut nails being an indication of the thickness of plate from which they are
cut, while the gauge of wire nails is the size of the wire from which the
nails are formed. The different wire gauges and their decimal equivalents
of an inch are given in Table I. The special wire gauge commonly used to
indicate the size of the nail is the Birmingham. In Table II is given a list of
the stock sizes of standard, common, cut nails. This table, besides giving
the thickness of the nail and its length, gives the number of nails to the
pound.

TABLE I
STANDARD WIRE GAUGES AND THEIR
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF AN INCH
Washburn Old English
Number American, Trenton United
& Moen From Brass
of Wire or, Brown Iron States
Birming- Manufacturing Manufacturers’
Gauge & Sharpe Company Standard
ham Company Lists
000000 .4600 .46857
00000 .4300 .4500 .43750
0000 .460000 .454 .3930 .4000 .40625
000 .409640 .425 .3620 .3600 .37500
00 .364800 .380 .3310 .3300 .34375
0 .324950 .340 .3070 .3050 .31250
1 .289300 .300 .2830 .2850 .28125
2 .257630 .284 .2630 .2650 .26563
3 .229420 .259 .2440 .2450 .25000
4 .204310 .238 .2250 .2250 .23438
5 .181940 .220 .2070 .2050 .21875
6 .162020 .203 .1920 .1900 .20313
7 .144280 .180 .1770 .1750 .18750
8 .128490 .165 .1620 .1600 .17188
9 .114430 .148 .1480 .1450 .15625
10 .101890 .134 .1350 .1300 .14063
11 .090742 .120 .1200 .1175 .12500
12 .080808 .109 .1050 .1050 .10938
13 .071961 .095 .0920 .0925 .09375
14 .064084 .083 .0800 .0800 .07813 .08300
15 .057068 .072 .0720 .0700 .07031 .07200
16 .050820 .065 .0630 .0610 .06250 .06500
 Washburn Old English
Number American, Trenton United
& Moen From Brass
of Wire or, Brown Iron States
Birming- Manufacturing Manufacturers’
Gauge & Sharpe Company Standard
ham Company Lists
17 .045257 .058 .0540 .0525 .05625 .05800
18 .040303 .049 .0470 .0450 .05000 .04900
19 .035390 .042 .0410 .0390 .04375 .04000
20 .031961 .035 .0350 .0340 .03750 .03500
21 .028462 .032 .0320 .0300 .03438 .03150
22 .025347 .028 .0280 .0270 .03125 .02950
23 .022571 .025 .0250 .0240 .02813 .02700
24 .020100 .022 .0230 .0215 .02500 .02500
25 .017900 .020 .0200 .0190 .02188 .02300
26 .015940 .018 .0180 .0180 .01875 .02150
27 .014195 .016 .0170 .0170 .01719 .01875
28 .012641 .014 .0160 .0160 .01563 .01650
29 .011257 .013 .0150 .0150 .01406 .01550
30 .010025 .012 .0140 .0140 .01250 .01375
31 .008928 .010 .0135 .0130 .01094 .01225
32 .007950 .009 .0130 .0120 .01016 .01125
33 .007080 .008 .0110 .0110 .00938 .01025
34 .006304 .007 .0100 .0100 .00853 .00950
35 .005614 .005 .0095 .0090 .00781 .00900

TABLE II
SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND
OF COMMON CUT NAILS
Length Number to
Trade Term
Inches Gauge Pound
3d fine 1⅛ 16 720
3d flat 1¼ 15 full 430
4d flat 1½ 14 full 275
5d flat 1¾ 13 regular 215
6d common 2 12 regular 150
7d common 2¼ 11 light 120
8d common 2½ 11 regular 96
9d common 2¾ 10 light 72
10d common 3 10 regular 64
12d common 3¼ 9 regular 44
16d common 3½ 8 regular 32
 Length Number to
Trade Term
Inches Gauge Pound
20d common 4 7 regular 28
30d common 4½ 6 regular 18
40d common 5 5 regular 14
50d common 5½ 4 regular 12
60d common 6 3 regular 10

Fig. 1
5. Wire Nails.—The term wire nail is applied to nails made from drawn
wire, or wire rods. Since their introduction some years ago, wire nails have
become decidedly popular, and in some localities are used in preference
to the old-style cut nails, owing to the fact that there are a greater number
to the pound, which makes them cheaper than cut nails at the same price
per keg. The size and number of common wire nails to the pound are
given in Table III. By comparing the columns in Tables II and III giving the
number of nails to the pound for both cut and wire nails, it can be readily
seen that the wire nails are greater in number for a given weight than cut
nails of the same size. For this reason, the wire nails are used by
contractors on cheap work.
Wire nails are more liable to rust than cut or wrought nails, and are
consequently not so durable in damp situations; they also have less
holding power and more must be used to obtain the same strength.

TABLE III
SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND
OF COMMON WIRE NAILS
Approximate Advance Over
Length Gauge
Number to Base Price
Size Inches Number
the Pound per 100 Pounds
2d 1 15 876 $0.70
3d 1¼ 14 568 .45
4d 1½ 12½ 316 .30
5d 1¾ 12½ 271 .30
6d 2 11½ 181 .20
7d 2¼ 11½ 161 .20
8d 2½ 10¼ 106 .10
9d 2¾ 10¼ 96 .10
10d 3 9 69 .05
12d 3¼ 9 63 .05
16d 3½ 8 49 .05
20d 4 6 31 Base
30d 4½ 5 24 Base
40d 5 4 18 Base
50d 5½ 3 14 Base
60d 6 2 11 Base
 Fig. 2
Common wire nails in sizes from twentypenny to sixtypenny are sold at
base price, say $2 per keg, the smaller sizes costing an advance over the
base price. Thus, an eightpenny common nail would cost 10 cents
additional, or $2.10 per hundred pounds, while a twopenny nail would cost
$2.70 per hundred pounds, etc. The present advance above the base
price on 100-pound kegs for the several sizes is also given in this table. All
wire nails can be procured “barbed” at an additional advance of 15 cents
above base and extra prices.
The relative sizes of the common wire nail are best learned from
samples of the same, but Fig. 2, which shows these nails full size, from
sixtypenny to twopenny, clearly indicates their proportions.
 Fig. 3
6. Wire Nails for Special Purposes.—Wire nails as well as wrought or
cut nails are made in a variety of forms especially suitable for the specific
purpose for which they are intended. The several kinds of wire nails in
common use are illustrated in Fig. 3.
A nail used about buildings for putting the trim, or finishing work,
together is illustrated at (a), and from its use is known as a finishing nail.
These nails are used almost exclusively for this purpose and are very light.
They have a small head, so that when they are set into the wood with a
nail set, a very small opening is left for puttying.
Another nail having practically the same use as the one just described
is designated as a casing nail, and is shown at (b). This nail is a trifle
lighter in gauge than the finishing nail, and from the fact that it is
countersunk under the head, it draws better than the finishing nail. The
fivepenny and sixpenny sizes are used for putting on siding.
The common wire brad, shown at (c), is used for practically the same
purposes as the regular finishing nail, but it is from two to four gauges
heavier. This wire brad is useful when a heavy nail with a small head is
required, particularly in hardwood, where a light finishing nail will not
penetrate without bending.
The flooring brad, shown at (d), is a nail used almost exclusively for
flooring. This nail is made of heavier gauge wire than other nails of this
type, and drives easily, even in hard, maple floor. The construction of the
head of this type of nail allows for severe “drawing” without splitting the
tongue of the flooring boards.
The fine-wire nail, shown at (e), commonly called a lath nail, is made
in four sizes and is used for nailing lath to studding. Owing to its
smoothness, cleanliness, and easy-driving qualities, this type of nail is
extensively used.
A short, heavy nail, the whole length of which is barbed to increase its
holding qualities, is shown at (f). This nail is known as a barbed roofing
nail, and is generally used for nailing tin roofs and ready, or prepared,
roofing of every description. It is also used with tin roofing caps.
At (g) is shown a slating nail. This type of nail is formed from heavy
gauge wire, and has a flat head that is large in proportion to its length. This
nail is used only for slating, but is not so durable as the cut nail made for
this purpose. Nails of this kind are made in only five sizes.
A type of nail used for attaching wooden shingles, and known as the
shingle nail, is shown at (h). This nail is seldom carried in stock, however,
as threepenny and fourpenny common nails answer the purpose. These
shingle nails are clean and easily driven, but are not so durable as cut
nails.
A very heavy nail of the same character as the common wire nail, but
made much heavier, in order to increase the holding qualities and to
provide greater durability, is known as the fence nail. This nail is made as
shown at (i).
At (j) is shown a clinch nail that is manufactured from soft wire or
annealed hard wire. This nail answers the same purpose as the old-style
wrought, or clinch-cut, nail commonly used in the construction of batten
doors, etc. The metal being very soft at the end of the nail, allows the point
to be bent and driven back into the wood to form the clinch. These nails do
not differ from the common wire nail, except in the form of the head and
the material from which they are made, as will be seen from Fig. 3 (j) and
Fig. 2.
There is a form of headless wire nail, known as a barbed dowel-pin,
which is made as shown in Fig. 3 (k). This type of nail, or dowel, is used
for doweling through the mortises and tenons of sash, blinds, and frames
of every description. In the mill, it has displaced the wooden dowel used in
former times. The length of pin to be employed is regulated by the
thickness of the wood to be secured, as the pins are used ¼ inch shorter
than the thickness of the woodwork.

Fig. 4
An exceptionally heavy nail, or spike, is made from heavy wire or round
bar. These spikes are used for heavy construction work, such as splined
flooring, for slow-burning mill construction, and for bridge flooring. They
are made with both chisel points, as shown in Fig. 4, and diamond points,
and in ordering them, the kind of point, as well as the style of head wanted
should be specified. Spikes of this kind are made in all sizes from
tenpenny, which is of No. 6 gauge and 3 inches long, to spikes ⅜ inch in
diameter and 12 inches long.
7. Galvanized Nails and Spikes.—Nails and spikes, either cut or wire,
that have been dipped into molten zinc and become coated with this metal
are termed galvanized. By this process they are rendered practically rust-
proof. Cut or wire galvanized nails can be obtained in the same sizes and
types as ordinary nails, and if dealers do not regularly carry them in stock,
they will as a rule have them galvanized to order. In order to secure
durability, it is advisable to use galvanized nails in places that are exposed
to dampness, as in shingling, in slating, in fence building, or in structures
erected near the seashore, as it has been proved by numerous tests that
ordinary nails rust through in such places in a few years. The galvanized
nails cost from $1.50 to $3 more per keg than the plain cut or wire nails.
The cheaper grades of galvanized nails are frequently coated only with
lead, and will not withstand the government test; that is, dipping them into
vitriol. A simple way to test the coating of a galvanized nail is to rub the
nail on a piece of white paper. A lead-coated nail will mark the paper the
same as a lead pencil and should be rejected, as it is only a sham and has
no redeeming qualities.

WOOD SCREWS, EXPANSION

AND SPECIAL BOLTS
8. Wood Screws.—The ordinary wood screw, which is one of the
staple articles of hardware, is very necessary in the application of all
builders’ hardware about the building. Except in some lines of cheap or
rough, unfinished goods, hardware manufacturers now pack with all
hardware, screws that match the finish of the goods. The various types of
screws now on the market are illustrated in Fig. 5, and the common types,
such as flat-, round-, oval-, and fillister-headed screws are easily procured.
Iron screws are made with either flat, round, or oval heads and the
following finishes: Bright, blued, japanned, tinned, galvanized, bronze-
plated, brass-plated, coppered, silvered, and nickel-plated. Brass and
bronze metal screws can also be procured with flat, round, or oval heads,
in either natural color or, on special order, finished to match the hardware.
Special screws are also manufactured for various purposes, which are
sufficiently explained by the illustration, Fig. 5.