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PAVEMENT
PAVEMENT DESIGN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
MASTER THE PRINCIPLES, ANALYSIS, AND
DESIGN
DESIGN IN PAVEMENT ENGINEERING
This student-friendly textbook offers comprehensive coverage of pavement design
and highways. Written by two seasoned civil engineering educators, the book contains
precise explanations of traditional and computerized mechanistic design methods along
with detailed examples of real-world pavement and highway projects. Pavement Design:
Materials, Analysis, and Highways shows, step by step, how to apply the latest, software-
based AASHTOWare Pavement Mechanistic-Empirical Design method. Each design topic is
covered in separate, modular chapters, enabling you to tailor a course of study. Fundamentals
of Engineering (FE) sample questions are also provided in each chapter. M AT E R I A L S , A N A LY S I S , A N D H I G H W AY S
Coverage includes:
• Stress-strain in pavement • Overlay and drainage design
M AT E R I A L S , A N A LY S I S , A N D H I G H W AY S
• Soils, aggregates, asphalt, and portland • Sustainable and rehabilitation pavement
cement concrete design, pavement management, and
• Traffic analysis for pavement design recycling
• Distresses and distress-prediction • Geometric design of highways
models in flexible and rigid pavement
• Flexible and rigid pavement design by
AASHTO 1993 and AASHTOWare
M. Rashad Islam, Ph.D., P.E., is an assistant professor of civil engineering at Colorado State K Explains both the AASHTO 1993 and AASHTOWare design methods
University, Pueblo. He also serves as an ABET evaluator and a journal reviewer for ASCE, TRB,
ASTM, and Elsevier. Dr. Islam has more than 100 publications in pavement engineering. K Covers the pavement design topics that are tested on the FE and PE exams
Rafiqul A. Tarefder, Ph.D., P.E., is a professor of civil engineering at the University of New K Instructor ancillaries include PowerPoint slides and a solutions manual
Mexico, where he developed the pavement engineering graduate program. He also serves
as an associate editor of ASCE’s International Journal of Geomechanics. Dr. Tarefder has
more than 400 refereed journal and conference publications, and is a registered Professional
Engineer in New Mexico and Idaho.
Tarefder
Islam
M. Rashad Islam
Rafiqul A. Tarefder
Pavement
Design
FM.indd 1 29-05-2020 19:39:41

FM.indd 2 29-05-2020 19:39:41
Pavement
Design
Materials, Analysis,
and Highways
M. Rashad Islam
Colorado State University
Pueblo, Colorado
Rafiqul A. Tarefder
University of New Mexico
Albuquerque, New Mexico
New York Chicago San Francisco

Athens London Madrid
Mexico City Milan New Delhi
Singapore Sydney Toronto
FM.indd 3 29-05-2020 19:39:49

Library of Congress Control Number: 2020936569

McGraw Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales
promotions or for use in corporate training programs. To contact a representative, please visit
the Contact Us page at www.mhprofessional.com.
Pavement Design: Materials, Analysis, and Highways
Copyright © 2020 by McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.
Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or
retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 CD 25 24 23 22 21 20
ISBN 978-1-260-45891-6
MHID 1-260-45891-1
This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Sponsoring Editor Copy Editor
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Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw Hill from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither
McGraw Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw
Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work
is published with the understanding that McGraw Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to
render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional
should be sought.
FM.indd 4 29-05-2020 19:39:49

About the Authors
M. Rashad Islam, Ph.D., P.E., is an assistant professor of civil engineer-
ing at Colorado State University, Pueblo. He also serves as an ABET
evaluator and a journal reviewer for ASCE, TRB, ASTM, and Elsevier.
Dr. Islam has more than 100 publications in pavement engineering.
Rafiqul A. Tarefder, Ph.D., P.E., is a professor of civil engineering at
the University of New Mexico, where he developed the pavement
engineering graduate program. He also serves as an associate editor
of ASCE’s International Journal of Geomechanics. Dr. Tarefder has more
than 400 refereed journal and conference publications, and is a regis-
tered Professional Engineer in New Mexico and Idaho.
FM.indd 5 29-05-2020 19:39:49

FM.indd 6 29-05-2020 19:39:49
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Pavement Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Flexible Pavements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Rigid Pavements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Design Philosophy of Pavements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Major Pavement Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1 The AASHTO 1993 Pavement Design Guide. . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.2 The AASHTOWare Pavement Mechanistic-Empirical
(ME) Design Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.3 Other Design Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.4 International Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Other Design Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Exam–Style Questions . . . . . 11
1.8 Practice Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Stress-Strain in Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Stress-Stain in Flexible Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Single-Layer Elastic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.2 Two-Layer Elastic Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.3 Multilayer Elastic Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Stress-Stain in Rigid Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.1 Curling Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.2 Traffic-Induced Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.3 Friction-Induced Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.4 Joint Opening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4 Stress in Dowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.5 Finite Element Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5.2 The User’s View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5.3 Pre-Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.4 Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.5 Post-Processing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.6 Numerical Analysis Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
vii
FM.indd 7 29-05-2020 19:39:49

viii Contents
3 Soils and Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

3.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 Physical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2.1 Sieve Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.2 Atterberg Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.2.3 Soil Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2.4 Proctor Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.5 Flat and Elongated Particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.2.6 Fine Aggregate Angularity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.2.7 Coarse Aggregate Angularity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.8 Clay Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.9 Los Angeles (LA) Abrasion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.2.10 Soundness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.11 Deleterious Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3.1 Resilient Modulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.3.2 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) in Laboratory. . . . . . . . 72
3.3.3 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) in Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.3.4 R-Value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.3.5 Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.3.6 Resilient Modulus from Soil Physical Testing . . . . . . . . 78
3.3.7 Resilient/Elastic Modulus of Chemically
Stabilized Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.4 Resilient Modulus Variations Due to Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.5 Resilient Modulus Variations Due to Stress Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.6 Other Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4 Asphalt Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2 Asphalt Binder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2.1 Asphalt Emulsion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.2.2 Cutback Asphalt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2.3 Foamed Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2.4 Recycled Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.3 Grading of Asphalt Binder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3.1 Penetration Grading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3.2 Viscosity Grading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.3.3 Performance Grading (PG). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.4 Other Tests on Asphalt Binder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4.1 Absolute Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4.2 Kinematic Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4.3 Brookfield Viscosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.4.4 Specific Gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
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Contents ix
4.4.5 Ring and Ball Softening Point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

4.4.6 Flash Point Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.4.7 Ductility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.4.8 Solubility in Trichloroethylene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5 Asphalt Mixtures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5.1 Hot-Mix Asphalt (HMA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5.2 Warm-Mix Asphalt (WMA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.5.3 Cold-Mix Asphalt (CMA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6 Recycled Asphalt Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.6.1 Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.6.2 Reclaimed Asphalt Shingles (RAS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.6.3 Rubberized Asphalt Concrete (RAC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.6.4 Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) in Base and
Subgrade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.7 Surface Treatment Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.7.1 Fog Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.7.2 Slurry Seal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.7.3 Chip Seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.7.4 Microsurfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.7.5 Scrub Seal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.7.6 Cape Seal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.7.7 Coats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.8 Characterization of New Asphalt Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.8.1 Dynamic Modulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.8.2 Indirect Tensile Strength Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.8.3 Fatigue Endurance Limit (FEL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.8.4 Creep Compliance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.8.5 Poisson’s Ratio Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.8.6 Miscellaneous Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.9 Characterization of Existing Asphalt Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5 Portland Cement Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.2 PCC Characterizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.2.1 Elastic Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.2.2 Flexural Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.2.3 Indirect Tensile Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.2.4 Unit Weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.2.5 Air Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.2.6 Other Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.3 Chemically Stabilized PCC Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
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x Contents
6 Traffic Analysis for Pavement Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

6.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.2 Fundamentals of Traffic Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.2.1 Tire Imprint Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.2.2 Axle Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.2.3 Counting Traffic and Measuring Axle Load. . . . . . . . . . 152
6.2.4 FHWA Vehicle Classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.3 Traffic Analysis for the AASHTO 1993 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.3.1 Equivalent Single-Axle Load (ESAL). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.3.2 Equivalent Axle Load Factor (EALF). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.3.3 Calculation of Projected Design ESAL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.4 Traffic Analysis for the AASHTOWare Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.4.1 Traffic Data Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.4.2 Developing Traffic Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.5 Details of Traffic Inputs for the AASHTOWare Design. . . . . . . . . 166
6.5.1 Type 1: Traffic Volume–Base Year Information. . . . . . . . 166
6.5.2 Type 2: Traffic Volume Adjustment Factors . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.5.3 Type 3: Axle Load Distribution Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.5.4 Type 4: General Traffic Inputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.6 Traffic Data Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7 Flexible Pavement Design by AASHTO 1993. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.2 AASHTO 1993 Design Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.3 Load Repetitions (W18). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.4 Structural Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.4.1 Definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.4.2 Layer Coefficient of Asphalt Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.4.3 Layer Coefficient of Base Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.4.4 Layer Coefficient of Subbase Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.4.5 Drainage Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.5 Effective Roadbed Soil Resilient Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.6 Terminal Serviceability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.7 Reliability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.8 Selection of Layers’ Thicknesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
7.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8 Distresses in Flexible Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.2 Major Distresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.2.1 Alligator Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.2.2 Top-Down Longitudinal Cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
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8.2.3 Rutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

8.2.4 Transverse Cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.3 Minor Distresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.3.1 Stripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.3.2 Raveling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.3.3 Potholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.3.4 Bleeding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.3.5 Block Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.3.6 Reflection Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.3.7 Depression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.3.8 Corrugation and Shoving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.3.9 Slippage Cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.3.10 Microcracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.3.11 Water Bleeding and Pumping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.3.12 Polished Aggregate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.3.13 Mat Tearing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.3.14 Nonuniform Texture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
8.3.15 Miscellaneous Distresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
9 Distress Models in Flexible Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

9.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9.2 Alligator Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.3 Top-Down Longitudinal Cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
9.4 Rutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.5 Transverse Cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.6 International Roughness Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.7 Reflective Cracking in HMA Overlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
9.8 Recommended Design-Performance Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
9.9 Reliability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.10 Calibration of Local Calibration Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
9.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10 Flexible Pavement Design by AASHTOWare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

10.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.2 AASHTOWare Design Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.2.1 Starting the Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.2.2 Materials and Layers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
10.2.3 Presence of Rigid Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.2.4 Presence of Water Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.2.5 Drainage System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.2.6 Soil Stabilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
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10.2.7 Base/Subbase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

10.2.8 Initial IRI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
10.2.9 Traffic Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
10.2.10 Climate Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
10.2.11 Analysis Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
10.3 AASHTOWare Input Hierarchy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.4 Getting Started with the AASHTOWare Pavement ME
Design Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.5 Interpretation and Analysis of the Trial Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
10.6 Special Features of the Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.6.1 Thickness Optimization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.6.2 Batch Run. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.6.3 Structural Response. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.6.4 Calibration Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
10.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
11 Asphalt Overlay Design by AASHTOWare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

11.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
11.2 AASHTOWare Design Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
11.3 Overlay Design Using the AASHTOWare Software. . . . . . . . . . . 274
11.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
12 Rigid Pavement Design by AASHTO 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
12.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
12.2 AASHTO Thickness Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
12.3 Design Inputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
12.3.1 Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction. . . . . . . . . . . . 282
12.3.2 Concrete Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
12.3.3 Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
12.3.4 Load Transfer Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
12.3.5 Reliability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
12.3.6 Change in Present Serviceability Index (ΔPSI). . . . . . . . 287
12.4 Thickness Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
12.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
13 Distresses in Rigid Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

13.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
13.2 Major Distresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
13.2.1 Transverse Slab Cracking in Jointed Plain Concrete
Pavement (JPCP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
13.2.2 Transverse Joint Faulting in JPCP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
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13.2.3 Punchouts in Continuously Reinforced Concrete

Pavement (CRCP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
13.2.4 Smoothness in JPCP and CRCP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
13.3 Selected Minor Distresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
13.3.1 Spalling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
13.3.2 Polished Aggregates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
13.3.3 Shrinkage Cracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
13.3.4 Linear Cracking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
13.3.5 Corner Break. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
13.3.6 Blowup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
13.3.7 Pumping/Water Bleeding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
13.3.8 Other Minor Cracks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
13.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
14 Distress Models in Rigid Pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

14.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
14.2 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
14.2.1 Transverse Slab Cracking (Bottom-Up and
Top-Down)—JPCP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
14.2.2 Mean Transverse Joint Faulting—JPCP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
14.2.3 Smoothness—JPCP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
14.3 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
14.3.1 CRCP Punchouts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
14.3.2 Smoothness—CRCP. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
14.4 Recommended Design-Performance Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
14.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
15 Rigid Pavement Design by AASHTOWare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

15.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
15.2 Pavement Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
15.3 JPCP Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
15.4 CRCP Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
15.5 Usage of the Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
15.5.1 Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
15.5.2 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement. . . . . . . . 336
15.6 Interpretation and Analysis of the Trial Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
15.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
16 Drainage Design in Pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
16.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
16.2 Surface Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
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16.2.1 Transverse Slopes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

16.2.2 Longitudinal Slopes and Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
16.2.3 Curbs and Gutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
16.2.4 Calculating the Runoffs by Rational Method. . . . . . . . . 347
16.2.5 Calculating the Runoffs by U.S. Soil Conservation
Service (SCS) Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
16.2.6 Designing of Open Channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
16.3 Subsurface Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
16.3.1 Drainage Geometry and Permeability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
16.3.2 Computation of Subsurface Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
16.3.3 Thickness Design of Permeable Base. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
16.3.4 Materials Requirements for Permeable Base . . . . . . . . . 377
16.3.5 Design of Separator Layer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
16.3.6 Design of Longitudinal Collector Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
16.3.7 DRIP Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
16.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
17 Sustainable Pavement Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
17.1 Concept of Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
17.2 Role of Pavement in Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
17.3 Pavement Life Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
17.4 Materials Considerations for Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
17.4.1 Aggregates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
17.4.2 Asphaltic Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
17.4.3 Concrete Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
17.4.4 Other Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
17.5 Rehabilitation Design for Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
17.6 Construction Considerations for Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
17.7 Maintenance for Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
17.8 End-of-Life Considerations for Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
17.8.1 Asphalt Pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
17.8.2 Concrete Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
17.9 Measuring Pavement Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
17.9.1 Performance Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
17.9.2 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
17.9.3 Life-Cycle Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
17.9.4 Rating System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
17.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
18 Pavement Rehabilitation Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
18.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
18.2 Overall Condition Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
18.3 Fully Defining Condition Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
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18.4 Analysis of Pavement Evaluation Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

18.5 General Overview of Rehabilitation Design Using
AASHTOWare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
18.6 Rehabilitation Design with HMA Overlays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
18.7 Rehabilitation Design with PCC Overlays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
18.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
19 Geometric Design of Highways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

19.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
19.2 Cross Section of Highways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
19.3 Lane Widths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
19.4 Shoulders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
19.5 Rumble Strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
19.6 Curbs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
19.7 Drainage Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
19.8 Sideslopes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
19.9 Traffic Barriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
19.9.1 Longitudinal Barriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
19.9.2 Bridge Railings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
19.9.3 Crash Cushions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
19.10 Medians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
19.11 Pedestrian Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
19.11.1 Sidewalks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
19.11.2 Grade-Separated Pedestrian Crossings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
19.11.3 Curb Ramps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
19.12 Bicycle Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
19.13 On-Street Parking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
19.14 Horizontal Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
19.14.1 Types of Horizontal Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
19.14.2 Simple Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
19.14.3 Simple Curve Formulas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
19.14.4 Design of Simple Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
19.14.5 Design Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
19.14.6 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
19.14.7 Setting Simple Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
19.14.8 Spiral Curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
19.14.9 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment. . . . . . . . . . 451
19.15 Vertical Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
19.15.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
19.15.2 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Curve . . . . . . . . 452
19.15.3 Sight Distances Related to Crest Vertical Curve. . . . . . 457
19.15.4 Sight Distances Related to Sag Vertical Curve. . . . . . . . 462
19.15.5 Sight Distances Related to Sag Vertical Curve at
Undercrossing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
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19.15.6 Setting Vertical Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

19.15.7 General Controls for Vertical Alignment. . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
19.16 Other Features Affecting Geometric Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
19.16.1 Erosion Control and Landscape Development . . . . . . . 473
19.16.2 Rest Areas, Information Centers, and Scenic
Overlooks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
19.16.3 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
19.16.4 Utilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
19.17 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
A Global Contexts of Pavement Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
A.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
A.2 U.K. Flexible Pavement Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
A.2.1 Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
A.2.2 Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
A.2.3 Thickness Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
A.3 U.K. Rigid Pavement Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
A.4 Australian Flexible Pavement Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
A.5 Australian Rigid Pavement Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
A.6 South African Flexible Pavement Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
A.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
B Pavement Management System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
B.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
B.2 Inventory Data Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
B.3 Pavement Condition Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
B.3.1 Distress Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
B.3.2 Developing Pavement Condition Indices. . . . . . . . . . . . 494
B.4 Pavement Performance Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
B.4.1 Performance Modeling Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
B.4.2 Family Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
B.4.3 Site-Specific Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
B.5 Treatment Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
B.5.1 Identifying Treatment Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
B.5.2 Techniques for Treatment Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
B.6 Presenting Pavement Management Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
B.7 Implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
B.8 Future Directions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
B.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
C Recycling and Rehabilitation of Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
C.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
C.2 Asphalt Pavement Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
C.2.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
C.2.2 Asphalt Recycling Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
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Contents xvii
C.2.3 Hot Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503

C.2.4 Hot In-Place Recycling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
C.2.5 Cold Planing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
C.2.6 Full-Depth Reclamation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
C.2.7 Cold Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
C.2.8 Summary of Rehabilitation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
C.3 Concrete Pavement Recycling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
C.3.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
C.3.2 Production of RCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
C.3.3 Properties of RCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
C.3.4 Properties of Concrete with RCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
C.3.5 Uses of RCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
C.3.6 Considerations for Mix Design Using RCA. . . . . . . . . . 514
C.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
D Superpave Asphalt Mix Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
D.1 Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
D.2 Superpave Mix Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
D.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
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Preface
T
he authors are delighted to introduce this pavement design book to civil engi-
neering students. It focuses on the most recent invention in pavement design, the
pavement mechanistic-empirical (ME) design approach. Practical design exam-
ples are included in this textbook to help students understand the pavement mechanics
and models used in this new approach. Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam–style
questions are also included so that this book can be helpful for the FE examination as
well. The authors believe that this text will be valuable for understanding pavement
engineering.
Being the first edition, this book might contain some errors or confusing expla-
nations. Please send any suggestions on improving it to books.mrislam@gmail.com.
The authors will address these, with appropriate acknowledgment, in the next edition.
Thank you.
M. Rashad Islam, Ph.D., P.E.
Rafiqul A. Tarefder, Ph.D., P.E.
xix
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1. Introduction
1.1. Background
Pavement design is one of the most important parts of transportation engineering. To carry traffic from one place to another
place comfortably, economically, and safely, an engineering design of pavements is essential. In this textbook, the required
background knowledge about pavement materials, structural design of pavements, pavement design software, geometric
design of pavements, and pavement maintenance procedures is discussed. Students are expected to be competent in
pavement engineering after mastering this book.
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of layers of natural and processed materials above the natural ground (often
called subgrade). A pavement's primary function is to distribute the vehicle loads from the top of the pavement to a larger
area of the subgrade without causing any damage to the subgrade. The pavement structure should be able to provide an
acceptable riding quality, satisfactory skid resistance, favorable light-reflecting characteristics, and low noise. The aim is to
ensure that the transmitted wheel loads are sufficiently reduced, so that they do not exceed the capacity of all the layers of
pavement including the subgrade. This chapter gives an overview of pavement types, layers and their functions, and pavement
design methods.
A pavement is expected to meet the following requirements:
Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel-induced stresses to a reduced value on the subgrade soil
Structurally adequate to keep the cracking and deformation within tolerable limits
Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it
Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles
Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at the expected speed
Produces least noise from moving vehicles
Dust and waterproof surface for avoiding reduced visibility
Drains water laterally or vertically without washing layer particles
Long service life with a desirable level of comfort considering the economy
1.2. Pavement Types

Two types of pavements are generally recognized: flexible pavement and rigid pavement, as shown in Fig. 1.1. A combination
of these two pavements is also possible, and is termed composite pavement. Simply, a layer of asphalt layer can be placed on
top of a concrete layer to create a composite pavement.
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Figure 1.1 Flexible and rigid pavements.
1.2.1. Flexible Pavements

Flexible pavements are usually surfaced with asphalt materials. These pavements are called flexible because the pavement
structures can flex or bend under a traffic loading. A flexible pavement structure requires several layers of materials because
these layers are not stiff enough to distribute the wheel load to a large area (Fig. 1.2). Beneath the asphalt layer, a crushed
aggregate base layer is commonly seen. Below the base layer, a subbase layer is also used based on the subgrade strength.
The natural subgrade soil can be improved by compaction or mixing of some improved soil, asphalt millings, low-quality
aggregate based on the availability of these materials, and degree of improvement required.
Figure 1.2 Deformation behavior of flexible and rigid pavements.
1.2.2. Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements are composed of reinforced or non-reinforced portland cement concrete (PCC) surface course. Such
pavements are stiffer than flexible pavements due to the high modulus of elasticity [typically 3,000–4,000 ksi (21–28 GPa) for
PCC and 500–1,000 ksi (3.4–6.9 GPa) for asphalt layer] of the PCC material. These pavements can have reinforcing steel to
reduce thermal cracking or eliminate joints. Each of these pavement types distributes load over the subgrade in a different
fashion. Rigid pavement, because of PCC's high elastic modulus, tends to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of a
subgrade (see Fig. 1.2). The concrete slab itself supplies most of a rigid pavement's structural capacity. On the other hand, a
flexible pavement having a low modulus distributes loads over a smaller area. It requires a thicker pavement, which is
achieved through a combination of thin layers due to field compaction difficulty of constructing a thicker layer.
Compared to flexible pavements, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared subgrade or on a single layer of
granular or stabilized material called base course. On a rigid pavement, a load is distributed by the slab action, in which the
pavement behaves like an elastic plate resting on an elastic medium. Rigid pavements should be analyzed by plate theory
instead of layer theory, assuming an elastic plate resting on an elastic foundation. Plate theory assumes the concrete slab as
a medium-thick plate that is plane before loading and remains plane after loading. Bending of the slab due to wheel load and
temperature variation causes tensile and flexural stress within the pavement layers.
Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:
1. Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP)
2. Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)
3. Continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP)
4. Prestressed concrete pavement (PCP)
1.2.2.1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

Jointed plain concrete pavement (Fig. 1.3) uses plain concrete slabs without any reinforcement and it has transverse and
longitudinal joints between slabs. Dowel bars are typically used at transverse joints to assist in load transfer. Epoxy-coated
bars with a diameter of 1.0 or 1.5 in. (2.50 or 3.75 cm) and length of 18 in. (45 cm) are widely used in JPCP. Currently, fiber
reinforced polymer (FRP) dowel bars are being used to avoid corrosion (FHWA-HRT-06-106) (FHWA, 2009). Dowel bars are
placed in male-female fashion so that no tensile stress develops when a slab contracts. More clearly, dowel bars are tightly
bonded to one slab and axially move freely in another slab. This action just transfers the load from one slab to another.
However, no tensile stress is developed during the contraction of the slabs. Transverse joint spacing is selected such that
temperature and moisture stresses do not produce intermediate cracking between joints. This typically results in a spacing no
longer than about 20 ft (6 m). Tie bars are typically used at longitudinal joints or between an edge joint and a curb or shoulder
for holding faces of rigid slabs in contact to maintain aggregate interlock. Tie bars are not load-transferring device, but they
transfer some loads. Tie bars are about 0.5 in. (12.5 mm) in diameter and between 24 and 40 in. (0.6 and 1.0 m) long.
Figure 1.3 Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP) in Route 219, Elkins, WV. (Courtesy of FHWA
(2009). FHWA-HRT-06-106. Design and Evaluation of Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement with Fiber
Reinforced Polymer Dowels. McLean, VA: Office of Research and Technology Services, Federal
Highway Administration.)
In JPCP pavements, if no dowel bars are provided or if inadequate amount of dowel bars are provided, then load transfer
across the joint causes substantially higher stresses and deflections due to joint loading than those due to interior loading
(Fig. 1.4). A dowel bar transfers a portion of the applied wheel load from the loaded slab across the joint to the adjacent
unloaded slab. Load transfer through dowel bars significantly reduces stresses and deflections due to joint loading and
minimizes faulting and pumping. Faulting is a difference in elevation across the joint of two slabs, while pumping is defined as
the expulsion of subgrade material through joints and along the edges of the pavement.
Figure 1.4 Faulting and pumping phenomena.
1.2.2.2. Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)

Jointed reinforced concrete pavement is similar to the JPCP with the exception that some reinforced is used in the concrete
slabs to control cracking with contraction joints. Using reinforced slabs, transverse joint spacing can be provided longer than
that for JPCP and ranges from about 25 ft (7.5 m) to 50 ft (15 m). Temperature and moisture stresses are expected to cause
cracking between joints. Reinforcing steel or a steel mesh is used to avoid these cracks or hold these cracks tightly together.
Dowel bars are typically used at transverse joints to assist in load transfer.
1.2.2.3. Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)

Continuous reinforced concrete pavement completely eliminates the transverse joints, except as required at end-of-day
construction and at bridge approaches and transitions to other pavement structures, by providing continuous reinforcement
as shown in Fig. 1.5. In newly constructed CRCP, volumetric change occurs due to cement hydration, thermal effects, and
external drying. This volumetric change is restrained by the underneath base layer creating tensile stresses in the CRCP. Due
to this developed tensile stresses, full-depth transverse cracks form and divide the pavement into short, individual slabs.
However, CRCP provides long-term and high load transfer across the transverse cracks, resulting in a smooth and quiet ride.
Figure 1.5 Continuous reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) construction. (Courtesy of FHWA
(2016). FHWA-HIF-16-026. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement Manual: Guidelines for
Design, Construction, Maintenance, and Rehabilitation. McLean, VA: Office of Research and
Technology Services, Federal Highway Administration.)
1.2.2.4. Prestressed Concrete Pavement (PCP)

Prestressed concrete pavement is built using precast concrete pavement slabs that are fabricated at manufacturers' plant and
transported to and installed at the project site. PCP is very applicable in busy areas where high traffic volume requires
stronger pavement and construction time is very challenging considering traffic controls. Panels (Fig. 1.6) are manufactured
in sizes to match the width of one, two, or three lanes of the pavement permitting one or multiple lanes of an existing
pavement to be reconstructed at one time. Panels are pretensioned in the longer direction during fabrication, and post-
tensioned together in groups longitudinally (in the direction of traffic). Thus, the installed slabs act as a continuous slab.
Figure 1.6 Prestressed concrete panel being placed over a base. (Courtesy of FHWA (2009). FHWA-
HIF-09-008. Concrete Pavement Technology Program (CPTP) TechBrief. McLean, VA: Office of
Research and Technology Services, Federal Highway Administration.)
1.3. Design Philosophy of Pavements

The design philosophy of a pavement is quite different from the other classical civil engineering structures such as steel
structures, reinforced concrete structures, and so on. These classical structures are designed such that they do not show any
crack, significant deformation, or collapse during the service life. For example, a concrete beam in a building is not expected
to show any crack. However, a pavement structure is designed with the consideration that there might be many cracks or
some permanent deformation, and or roughness, during its service life, as shown in Fig. 1.7. However, these distress severities
are expected to be within some tolerable limits set by the designers. The threshold values of distresses are determined
considering the riding quality, safety, and economy. This means even after showing some distresses, pavement structures
provide some services for some time.
Figure 1.7 Cracked pavements in service.
1.4. Major Pavement Design Methods
Two major pavement design guides used in the United States are the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1993 pavement design guide and the AASHTOWare pavement mechanistic-empirical (ME)
design guide, also known as pavement ME design. They are briefly described in this section.
1.4.1. The AASHTO 1993 Pavement Design Guide

The AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures (AASHTO, 1993) was developed based on field performance data
collected from the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) road test project during 1956–1960 at Ottawa,
IL, shown in Fig. 1.8. That project focused on the performance of pavement structures of known thickness under moving
loads of known magnitude and frequency. It consisted of six two-lane loops along the alignment of Interstate 80 (I-80). The
pavement structure within each loop was varied so that the interaction of vehicle loads with pavement structure could be
investigated. The results from the AASHO road test were used to develop some regression equations for a pavement design
guide, first issued in 1961 as the AASHO Interim Guide for the Design of Rigid and Flexible Pavements, with major updates
issued in 1972, 1986, and 1993. The 1993 version (Fig. 1.9a) was in widespread use in the world until the AASHTOWare
pavement ME design came out in 2008. The design philosophy of the AASHTO (1993) method is to limit vertical stress on
subgrade within a tolerable limit. It does not consider the performance of the pavement such as cracking, rutting, and
smoothness with its service life.
Figure 1.8 AASHO road test in 1958–1960 in Ottawa, IL.
Figure 1.9 Pavement design guides.
The AASHTO 1993 design method is purely empirical. The design equations, methodology, reliability, etc. were developed
based on the road test data from Ottawa, IL. However, the climate, materials, and traffic behavior in that test section are not
similar to other areas in the United States or in any other countries. In fact, the climate varies city to city, material behavior
varies pavement site to pavement site, traffic behavior (speed, distribution, load spectra, etc.) changes highway to highway. In
addition, the material and traffic condition change with time. More specifically, the climate, materials, and traffic in a city in
Illinois are not similar to another city (e.g., New York City). Even the climate, materials, and traffic in a city in Illinois in 1950
and at present are not the same. Therefore, the AASHTO 1993 method is not appropriate to other pavement sites.
1.4.2. The AASHTOWare Pavement Mechanistic-Empirical (ME) Design

1.4.2. The AASHTOWare Pavement Mechanistic-Empirical (ME) Design
Guide
To overcome the limitations of the AASHTO 1993 pavement design guide, a new mechanistic-empirical (ME) method was
started to develop about the year 2000. The advancements in computational tools and invention of performance models
enable pavement designers to predict certain distress more accurately. These performance models use mechanistic
pavement responses (such as stress and strain) while conducting analysis and design. The AASHTOWare pavement ME
design (also termed pavement ME design) was officially implemented in 2008 as the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design
Guide (MEPDG) under NCHRP project 1-37A (AASHTO, 2015; NCHRP, 2004). This guide has been improved to a new version
with the new name of the AASHTOWare pavement ME design software. Different sequences of the AASHTOWare pavement
ME design software are listed below:
First released in 2004 as an experiment with the name of Design Guide 2002 (DG 2002)
Revised in 2008 with the revised name of Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG)
Further revised in 2011 and renamed as Design, Analysis and Rehabilitation for Windows (DARWin ME)
Further revised in 2013 and renamed as AASHTOWare pavement ME design (Fig. 1.9b)
The latest version of the AASHTOWare pavement ME design software is available at https://me-design.com/MEDesign/. The
AASHTOWare pavement ME design software approach considers the performance of pavement with its service life. More
specifically, the AASHTOWare pavement ME design software first analyzes a trial pavement section for possible stress-strain
for an applied load using the software built-in numerical analysis program. Using the stress-strain data, the software predicts
the amount of cracking, rutting, and smoothness during its service life. If the trial pavement section is found to predict less or
equal to the threshold amount of distress during its service life, it is considered adequate. If otherwise, the pavement section
or layers are revised and trial continues. After several trials, an optimum section is reached considering demand and economy.
The input levels available in the AASHTOWare pavement ME design software method depend on the availability of the input
parameters at hand. Three levels are available for materials and traffic parameters:
Level 1. Level 1 is used for pavement design with the greatest accuracy. All or most of the input parameters such as
material density, modulus, strength, traffic volume, traffic distribution, axle load spectra, climate, etc. are measured directly
for the site or project.
Level 2. Level 2 input parameters represent measured regional average values. The input parameters and the calibration
coefficients of the software are estimated from correlations or regression equations developed based on local or state-
level conditions.
Level 3. Most of the input parameters and the calibration coefficients of the software are ME default values, which are
based on global or regional default values. This input level is the least accurate, and commonly used in noncrucial
pavements.
In the next few chapters, materials properties required for pavement design are discussed. For better understanding of these
materials properties, knowledge of the AASHTOWare pavement ME design input levels is essential. The input level to be used
in the AASHTOWare pavement ME design method depends on the availability of the input parameters at hand.
1.4.3. Other Design Methods

Some other design methods such as Asphalt Institute (AI) method and local methods are also available. These methods are
not discussed here as these methods are obsolete and have no trace of being used now-a-days. Noncritical local roads or
parking lots might be designed using these methods.
1.4.4. International Design Methods
Pavement design methodologies in different countries of the world are different. Some of the design methodologies followed
in certain countries are discussed in App. A.
1.5. Other Design Considerations

Besides the structural design of pavement, some other essential components of design need to be considered: for example,
drainage design to save pavement material from moisture damage, and geometric design for passengers' comfort and safety.
Drainage design includes design and selection of drainage materials section, installation, and slopping (grading) of pavement.
Geometric design includes designing vertical and horizontal curves for passengers' comfort and safety. Safety measure also
includes pavement marking, rumble strips, barriers, etc. The designs of these components are discussed in later chapters of
this textbook.
1.6. Summary
This chapter is the introduction to pavements, types, design methods, and philosophies. Pavement structure consists of layers
of materials and compacted in place to provide a smooth surface to drive traffic comfortably, efficiently, economically, and
safely. Different layers of pavement serve different purposes. The main purpose of all layers is to distribute the tire load to a
larger area of natural soil.
Pavements are classified into two broad categories: flexible and rigid. The combination of flexible and rigid pavements is also
possible and known as composite pavement. Flexible pavements use asphalt materials in the surface layer, which flexes with
load and temperatures, whereas rigid pavements use PCC slab as a surface layer, which are less flexible under loads. Rigid
pavements can be further classified into four types: JPCP, JRCP, CRCP, and PCP.
Pavement structures are designed with the consideration that there might be cracks, some permanent deformations,
roughness, etc. during its service life. Two major pavement design guides used in the United States are the AASHTO 1993
design guide, which is empirical in nature, and the AASHTOWare pavement ME design guide, which is mechanistic-empirical in
nature. The AASHTO 1993 method is decreasing its popularity and the AASHTOWare pavement ME design is rocketing up its
popularity.
1.7. Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) Exam–Style

Questions
FE1.1 A pavement is NOT expected to meet the requirement of:
A. Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel-induced stresses to a reduced value on the subgrade
B. Structurally adequate to keep the cracking and deformation within tolerable limits
C. Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it
D. Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles
E. Optimum traffic signal timing for efficient passage of vehicles
Solution E
Traffic signal timing is not covered in pavement design.
FE1.2 A pavement has 3.0-in. (75-mm) asphalt layer underlain by a 4.0-in. (100-mm) PCC layer. The pavement is a:
A. Flexible pavement
B. Rigid pavement
C. Composite pavement
D. Asphalt pavement
Solution C
Flexible pavement consists of asphalt layer only. Rigid pavement consists of PCC layer only. Composite pavement consists
of both asphalt and PCC layers.
FE1.3 The AASHTOWare pavement ME design method is:
A. Empirical in nature
B. Mechanistic in nature
C. Mechanistic-empirical in nature
D. Scientific in nature
Solution C
The AASHTOWare pavement ME design method is mechanistic-empirical in nature. The developed stress-strain in
pavement is determined using mechanics, but the amount of distress is predicted using empirical equations.
1.8. Practice Problems

1.1 List some requirements of pavements.
1.2 Classify the types of pavements.
1.3 Define and state the purpose of tie bars and dowel bars.
1.4 Differentiate the faulting and pumping phenomena.
1.5 Discuss the major two pavement design methods.
1.6 What are the three input levels of the AASHTOWare pavement ME design method?
2. Stress-Strain in Pavement
2.1. Background
Flexible or rigid pavement, undergoes deformation upon applying loading. The deformation behavior and the resulting stress-
strain at different layers of pavement are discussed in this chapter. Determining the stress-strain or deformation is essential
to analyze and design pavement. Damages in different layers of pavement depend on the repeated stress-strain developed in
pavement layers due to the applied repeated wheel load. The cracking or deformation is the consequence of the resulting
damages. Deformation behavior of pavement is not similar to that of other civil engineering structures.
Let us consider a simply supported beam used in classical civil engineering mechanics shown inFig. 2.1. Two concentrated
loads of equal magnitude (P) are acting on the beam. The beam deforms as shown and a horizontal tensile strain (εh or εt)
develops at the bottom of the beam. The supports A and B are rigid and do not undergo any deformation. The properties of the
beam such as modulus of elasticity also do not change with time and season. In fact, in all classical civil engineering
structures, supports are considered rigid, do not undergo any remarkable deformation, and do not change their properties with
time or season.
Figure 2.1 A classical structural member used in civil engineering.
The solution of this beam, that is, the resulting deflection, stress-strain, etc., can be obtained from knowledge of the strength
of materials. Now, let us consider the scenario for a flexible pavement. If we consider the loading of a single-axle (single axle
on each end) load on flexible pavement, it may look like as shown in Fig. 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Loading on a flexible pavement.
Each wheel on each end of the axle applies load on the pavement surface. The support of the asphalt slab is the underneath
unbound aggregate base layer which provides continuous support. The asphalt slab is not like a rigid beam; it is more like a
flexible member that can bend any point upon loading. The support base layer is also not a rigid support. It also undergoes
deformation remarkably upon loading. Horizontal tensile strain (εh or εt) develops at the bottom of asphalt layer and vertical
strain (εv) develops in all layers including the asphalt layer. Thus, the deformation behavior of the asphalt slab is different
from the traditional beam or slab. Another difference in flexible pavement compared to the classical beam/slab is that the
materials properties such as modulus change with time. For example, asphalt softens upon heating and hardens upon
cooling. Thus, its modulus changes with day-night or summer-winter temperature fluctuations. In addition, its modulus
changes with frequency of loading as well. The higher the frequency (fast loading), the higher the modulus and vice versa. For
underneath unbound layers, their modulus does not change with temperature variations unless they are asphalt treated.
However, the moduli of unbound aggregate layers or soil layers change with the moisture content and magnitude of loading.
Due to seasonal variations in moisture content or capillary rise of underground water or infiltration of surface water, modulus
of unbound aggregate layers or soil layers decreases with increase in moisture content. Thus, the reaction capacity of
unbound aggregate layers or soil layers changes throughout the year. The difference in mechanical properties between
classical and pavement structures is summarized in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Difference in Mechanical Properties between Classical and Pavement Structures
Parameter Classical structures Flexible pavement Rigid pavement
Modulus Constant for all members For asphalt: For concrete:
Decreases with temperature Increases with moisture
Increases with frequency of Decreases with temperature

loading
For base/soil: For base/soil:
Changes with magnitude of Changes with magnitude of

loading loading
Changes with moisture Changes with moisture
Support type Discrete Continuous Continuous
Loading Assumed constant throughout its life Changes every moment in terms Changes every moment in terms of
magnitude of magnitude and point of magnitude and point of
application. application.
Loading Static Dynamic with impact action Dynamic with impact action
mode
Serviceability Limited serviceability; the structure becomes Provides service even after severe Provides service even after some
unusable even if a small amount of cracking is amount of distresses amount of distresses
seen
2.2. Stress-Stain in Flexible Pavement

Analytical determinations of stress-strain in pavement layers are impossible. This is because the accurate mechanical and
nonmechanical properties of pavement layers are not known. For example, asphalt layer is very often considered elastic or
viscoelastic. However, it might have some plastic properties as well, which is still under research. Also, the loading on
pavement is considered static although dynamic loading is being considered in researches nowadays. In fact, the loading on
pavement is dynamic with impact action as there are so many large surface roughness in pavement that make the tire load as
impact-type load. The axle types and the distances among wheel vary from vehicle to vehicle. In addition, there are no well-
developed computational tools (equations) which can deal with all types of conditions in pavement. For learning purpose, only
few idealized cases whose solutions are available in the literature are discussed in this chapter. These computational
solutions available in the literature are rarely used while designing pavement. For accurate analysis, finite-element analysis is
performed nowadays. The following assumptions are used in the computational solutions available in the literature:
Each layer is homogeneous and behaves linear-elastic.
The material is infinite and weightless.
Each layer is fully bonded with adjacent layers and has a finite thickness.
2.2.1. Single-Layer Elastic Analysis

Different theories are available in the literature to determine the stress-strain at some depth from the surface. The simplest
way to determine the stress-strain under wheel load is to consider the pavement system as a homogeneous half-space. Half-
space means the domain with infinitely large area and an infinite depth with a top plane. Boussinesq (1885) theory was
developed based on a homogeneous linear-elastic half-space. However, the real pavement does not satisfy this assumption
as it has several layers of distinctly different properties. However, this theory is a good starting point for learning stresses-
strains in pavement layers.
2.1.1.1. Stress below a Concentrated Load

Boussinesq (1885) solved the problem of stresses produced at any point in a homogeneous and elastic medium as the result
of a point load applied on the surface of an infinitely large half-space. Let us consider a semi-infinite half-surface, as shown in
Fig. 2.3, where a concentrated load of P is acting at the surface. A point of concern is located at a depth ofz and radial
distance of r.
Figure 2.3 Stresses under a concentrated load for a single-layer elastic system.
In Fig. 2.3, P is the applied concentrated load, z is any vertical distance, r is any radial distance (zero along the centerline of the
wheel), σz is the vertical stress, σr is the radial stress, σθ is the tangential stress, and τ zr is the horizontal shear stress in the
radial direction. Arrows show the positive sign convention.
Boussinesq's solutions for stresses at a point caused by the point load P are presented in Eqs. (2.1) to (2.4):
3P
σz =
r 2 5/2
2πz2[1 + ( )]
z
(2.1)
[ ]
P 3r2z 1 − 2μ
σr = −
2π (r2 + z2) 2
5 / r2 + z2 + z√r2 + z2
(2.2)
(1 − 2μ) [ ]
P z 1
σθ = −
2π (r2 + z2) 3/2 r2 + z2 + z√r2 + z2
(2.3)
P 3rz2
τzr =
2π (r2 + z2) 5/2
(2.4)
where μ is Poisson's ratio of the material.
The resulting strains are presented in Eqs. (2.5) to (2.8):
1
εz = [σ − μ(σr + σθ)]
E z
(2.5)
1
εr = [σ − μ(σz + σθ)]
E r
(2.6)
1
εθ = [σ − μ(σr + σz)]
E θ
(2.7)
2τzr(1 + μ) τ
γzr = = zr
E G
(2.8)
where εz = Vertical strain
εr = Radial strain
εθ = Tangential strain
γzr = Horizontal shear strain in the radial direction
If Δz and Δh are the vertical and horizontal deflections, respectively, then:
∂Δ
∂Δz
εz =
∂z
(2.9)
Or, ∫ ∂Δz = ∫ εz∂z
(2.10)
On integrating,
[(1 + μ)z2(r2 + z2) 2 + 2(1 − μ2)(r2 + z2) 2 ]

P − 3/ − 1/
Δz =
2πE
(2.11)
It should be noted that at the surface (i.e., z = 0), the vertical deflection is:
P(1 − μ2)
Δz =
πEr
(2.12)
Similarly,
∂Δh
εr =
∂r
(2.13)
Or, ∫ ∂Δh = ∫ εr∂r
(2.14)
On integrating,
P(1 + μ)(1 − 2μ) 1

[z(r2 + z2) 2 − 1 + (r2z)(r2 + z2) 2 ]
− 1/ − 3/
Δh =
2πrE (1 − 2μ)
(2.15)
Example
Example 2.1: Responses Due to Concentrated Load
A wheel applies 4.5-kip load on a semi-infinite elastic space, as shown in Fig. 2.4. The modulus of elasticity of the material
is 12 ksi and Poisson's ratio is 0.40. Assume the load is applied on the surface as a concentrated force.
Figure 2.4 Profile of the semi-infinite elastic space for Example 2.1.
Calculate the following at a depth of 1.5 ft and a radial offset of 1.0 ft:
a. Vertical stress
b. Radial stress
c. Tangential stress
d. Horizontal shear stress in the radial direction
e. Vertical strain
f. Radial strain
g. Tangential strain
h. Vertical deformation
i. Horizontal deformation1.5 ft1.0 ft
Solution
Applied load, P = 4,500 lb
Modulus of elasticity, E = 12,000 psi
Poisson's ratio, μ = 0.40
Depth, z = 1.5 ft = 18 in.
Radial offset, r = 1.0 ft = 12 in.
a. Vertical stress
3P 3(4,500 lb)
σz = == = 2.645 psi
r 2 5/2 5/2
2πz [1 + ( ) ] 2π(18 in.)2[1 + ( )]

2
2 12 in.
z 18 in.
b. Radial stress
[ ]
P 3r2z 1 − 2μ
σr = −
2π (r2 + z2) 5/2 r2 + z2 + z√r2 + z2
(4,500) ⎡ 3(12)2(18) 1 − 2(0.40) ⎤

2π ⎣ (122 + 182) 5/2 122 + 182 + 18√122 + 182 ⎦
= −
= 1.008 psi
(1 − 2μ) [ ]
P z 1
σθ = −
2π (r2 + z2) 3/2 r2 + z2 + z√r2 + z2
(4,500) ⎡ 18 1 ⎤
⎣ (122 + 182) 3/2 122 + 182 + 18√122 + 182 ⎦
= [1 − 2(0.40)] −
2π
= 1.088 psi
d. Horizontal shear stress in the radial direction
P 3rz2 4,500 3(12)(18)2

τzr = = = 1.763 psi
2π (r2 + z2) 5/2 2π (122 + 182) 5/2
e. Vertical strain
1 1
εz = [σz − μ(σr + σθ)] = [2.645 − 0.40(1.008 + 0.088)] = 0.0001897
E 12,000
f. Radial strain
1 1
εr = [σr − μ(σz + σθ)] = [1.008 − 0.40(2.645 + 0.088)] = −0.000007
E 12,000
g. Tangential strain
1 1
εθ = [σθ − μ(σr + σz)] = [0.088 − 0.40(2.645 + 1.008)] = −0.0001145
E 12,000
h. Vertical deformation
[(1 + μ)z2(r2 + z2) 2 + 2(1 − μ2)(r2 + z2) 2 ]
P − 3/ − 1/
Δz =
2πE
4,500
[(1 + 0.40)(18)2(122 + 182) 2 + 2(1 − 0.402)(122 + 182) 2 ]
− 3/ − 1/
Δz =
2π(12,000)
= 0.0073 in.
i. Horizontal deformation
P(1 + μ)(1 − 2μ) 1

[z(r2 + z2) 2 − 1 + (r2z)(r2 + z2) 2 ]
− 1/ − 3/
Δh =
2πrE (1 − 2μ)
4,500(1 + 0.40)(1 − 2(0.40)) 1
[(18)(122 + 182) 2 − 1 + (122(18))(122 + 182) 2 ]
− 1/ − 3/
Δh =
2π(12)(12,000) (1 − 2(0.40))
= 0.00155 in.
Answers
a. Vertical stress: = 2.645 psi
b. Radial stress: 1.008 psi
c. Tangential stress: 0.088 psi
d. Horizontal shear stress in the radial direction: 1.763 psi
e. Vertical strain: 0.0001897
f. Radial strain: –0.000007
g. Tangential strain: –0.0001145
h. Vertical deformation: 0.0073 in.
i. Horizontal deformation: 0.00155 in.
Note: Strain has no unit. It is very often expressed as in./in. or m/m, or so.
2.1.1.1. Stress below a Uniform Circular Load

Let us consider a surface has a uniform distributed stress of p on a circular area of radius a. Note that tire-imprint area is most
often considered a circle. Two types of cases may be considered bearing in mind the rigidity of the load application method,
as shown in Fig. 2.5:
1. For flexible-plate load application such as load applied by rubber tire
2. For rigid-plate load application such as load applied during plate loading test
Figure 2.5 Deflection behavior under flexible and rigid plates.
For flexible-plate load application such as load applied by rubber tire, stress expressions for points on the centerline of the
circular load (i.e., r = 0) are as follows:
σz = p [1 − ]
z3
[a2 + z2] 3/2
(2.16)
[(1 + 2μ) − ]
p 2z(1 + μ) z3
σr = +
2 √a2 + z2 (a2 + z2) 3/2
(2.17)
σr = σθ
(2.18)
τzr = 0
(2.19)
The corresponding strains for the flexible-plate load application can be calculated as follows:
[1 − 2μ + ]
p(1 + μ) 2μz z3
εz = −
E (a2 + z2) 1/2 (a2 + z2) 3/2
(2.20)
[1 − 2μ − ]
p(1 + μ) 2(1 − μ)z z3
εr = +
2E (a2 + z2) 1/2 (a2 + z2) 3/2
(2.21)
The vertical deflection under the centerline of the circular load for the flexible-plate load application is given by:
[
pa(1 + μ) a 1 − 2μ
((a2 + z2) 2 − z)]
1/
Δz = +
2E (a2 + z2) 1/2 a
(2.22)
If z = 0 (i.e., at the surface), the vertical deflection under the centerline of the flexible-plate load application is given by:
2pa(1 − μ2)
Δzo =
E
(2.23)
For rigid-plate load application such as load applied by plate test, pressure distribution is nonuniform and can be expressed as
follows:
pa
p (r) =
2(a2 − r2) 1/2
(2.24)
where p is the average pressure (load divided by the application area) and r is the radial distance from the centerline.
According to this relationship, the pressure at the edge (r = a) of the plate is very high (infinity). To find out the pressure at the
edge (r = a) of the plate, the value of r can be considered very close to a.
By integration, the deflection of the rigid plate can be determined as:
πpa(1 − μ2)
Δzo =
2E
(2.25)
With comparison of the surface deflection [Eqs. (2.23) and (2.25)], the deflection produced by the rigid plate is 79% of that
produced by the flexible plate. This is reasonable as the pressure at the center of plate is less at the center of loading for rigid
plate.
Example
Example 2.2: Responses Due to Circular Load in Flexible Pavement
A wheel applies a 65-psi load on a 6-in.-diameter area on a semi-infinite elastic space, as shown in Fig. 2.6. The modulus
of elasticity of the material is 12 ksi and Poisson's ratio is 0.40. Assume the load is applied on the surface as a uniform
circular load using flexible plate.
Figure 2.6 Profile of the semi-infinite elastic space for Example 2.2.
Calculate the following at a depth of 1.5 ft under the centerline of the load:
a. Vertical stress
b. Radial stress
d. Vertical strain
e. Radial strain
f. Vertical deflection under the centerline
Also, calculate the vertical deformation at the surface just below the loading. 1.5 ft
Solution
Applied pressure, p = 65 psi
Modulus of elasticity, E = 12,000 psi
Depth, z = 1.5 ft = 18 in.
Radius of loading area, a = 3 in.
a. Vertical stress
⎡ ⎤
] = (65 psi) ⎢ ⎥
(18 in.)3
σz = p [1 −
z3
⎢1 − ⎥ = 2.62 psi
[a2 + z2] 3/2 ⎣ ⎦
3/2
[(3 in.)2 + (18 in.)2]
b. Radial stress
[(1 + 2μ) − ]
p 2z(1 + μ) z3
σr = +
2 √a2 + z2 (a2 + z2) 3/2
65 psi ⎡ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
2(18 in.)(1 + 0.40) (18 in.)3
2 ⎢ ⎥
= (1 + 2(0.40)) − +
⎣ √(3 in.)2 + (18 in.)2 ⎦
3/2
((3 in.)2 + (18 in.)2)
= −0.0705 psi
σθ = σr = −0.0705 psi
d. Vertical strain
[1 − 2μ + ]
p(1 + μ) 2μz z3
ε2 = −
E (a2 + z2) 1/2 (a2 + z2) 3/2
(65 psi)(1 + 0.40) ⎡ 2(0.40)(18 in.) (18 in.)3 ⎤

⎣ ⎦
= 1 − 2(0.40) + −
12,000 psi 1/2 3/2
((3 in.)2 + (18 in.)2) ((3 in.)2 + (18 in.)2)
= 0.0002228
e. Radial strain
[1 − 2μ − ]
p(1 + μ) 2(1 − μ)z z3
εr = +
2E (a2 + z2) 1/2 (a2 + z2) 3/2
(65 psi)(1 + 0.40) ⎡ 2(1 − 0.40)(18 in.) (18 in.)3 ⎤

2(12,000 psi) ⎣ ((3 in.)2 + (18 in.)2) ⎦
= 1 − 2(0.40) − +
1/2 3/2
((3 in.)2 + (18 in.)2)
= −0.0000908
f. Vertical deflection under the centerline
[
pa(1 + μ) a 1 − 2μ
((a2 + z2) 2 − z)]
1/
Δz = +
2E 1
(a2 + z2) 2/ a
⎡ ⎤
(65 psi)(3 in.)(1 + 0.40) ⎢
(((3 in.) + (18 in.) ) − 18 in.)⎥
3 in. 1 − 2 (0.40)
⎢ ⎥
1/2
2 2
= +
⎣ ((3 in.)2 + (18 in.)2) ⎦
2(12,000 psi) 1/2 3 in.
= 0.0021 in.
Vertical deformation at the surface just below the loading:
2pa(1 − μ2) 2(65 psi)(3 in.) (1 − (0.40)2)
Δzo = = = 0.0273 in.
E 12,000 psi
Answers
a. Vertical stress: 2.62 psi
b. Radial stress: – 0.0705 psi
c. Tangential stress: –0.0705 psi
d. Vertical strain: 0.0002228
e. Radial strain: – 0.0000908
f. Vertical deflection under the centerline: 0.0021 in. Vertical deformation at the surface just below the loading: 0.0273 in.
Example
Example 2.3: Responses Due to Circular Load in Rigid Pavement
A plate load test was conducted using a 0.3-m-diameter rigid plate applying a load of 80 kN on a subgrade, as shown in
Fig. 2.7. A deformation of 2.5 mm was measured after applying this load. Poisson's ratio of the subgrade is 0.45.
Determine the elastic modulus of the subgrade.
Figure 2.7 Plate load test for Example 2.3.
Solution
Applied load, P = 80,000 N
Radius of plate, a = 0.3 m/2 = 0.15 m
Surface deflection, Δzo = 2.5 mm = 0.0025 m
Applied average pressure,

P 80,000 N N
p= = = 1,131,766
πa 2
π(0.15 m) 2 m2
Now,
(1 − 2)
πpa(1 − μ2)
Δzo =
2E
πpa(1 − μ2)
E =
2Δzo
N
π (1,131,766 ) (0.15 m)(1 − 0.452)
m2
=
2(0.0025 m)
= 85,066,666 N/m2
= 85 MN/m2
= 85 MPa
Answer 85 MPa
2.2.2. Two-Layer Elastic Analysis

There are a few methods of solving layered elastic media. Method of equivalent thicknesses is an approximate method for
solving the elastic layered system problem and consists of translating multiple layers of different moduli into an equivalent
single layer, hence known as the method of equivalent thicknesses. For a system of two layers, such as the one shown in Fig.
2.8, the top layer with thickness h can be translated into an equivalent thickness he, with a modulus E2. For two-layer system of
equal Poison's ratio (i.e., μ1 = μ2), the equivalent layer thickness of the top layer is given by Odemark (1949):
1/3
)
E1
he = 0.9h(
E2
(2.26)
where 0.9 is an approximation factor. This allows utilizing the single-layer solutions in computing pavement responses in the
lower layer.
Figure 2.8 Schematics of two-layer system.
Example
Example 2.4: Responses in Two-Layer System
A flexible pavement surface layer is 0.25 m thick resting on a semi-infinite subgrade layer. The load consists of a circular
tire with a 0.12-m radius carrying a uniform pressure of 650 kPa. The layer moduli are 1,200 and 120 MPa, respectively,
and μ is 0.4 for both layers.
Calculate the following at the bottom of the surface layer at the centerline of the load:
a. Vertical stress
b. Radial stress
c. Vertical deformation
Solution
Equivalent thickness of the top layer in terms of the modulus of the bottom layer as:
1/ 1/3
3
1,200 MPa
he = 0.9h( ) 0.9 (0.25 m) ( )
E1
= 0.485 m
E2 120 MPa
This means the top of the 0.25-m-thick layer with a modulus of 1,200 MPa is equivalent to a 0.485-m-thick layer with a
modulus of 120 MPa.
Applied pressure, p = 650,000 Pa
Modulus of elasticity, E = 120,000,000 Pa
Depth, z = 0.485 m
Radial offset, r = 0
Radius of loading area, a = 0.12 m
a. Vertical stress
σz = p [1 − ]
z3
[a2 + z2] 3/2
⎡ (0.485 m)3 ⎤
⎣ ((0.12 m)2 + (0.485 m)2) ⎦
= 650,000 Pa 1 −
3/2
= 55,425 Pa
b. Radial stress
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And Orpha? What of her? How was she taking all this? In my
anxiety, I cast one look in her direction. To my astonishment she sat
unveiled and was gazing at Edgar with an intentness which slowly
but surely forced his head to turn and his eye to seek hers. An
instant thus, then she pulled down her veil, and the flush just rising to
his cheek was lost again in pallor.
Unconsciously the muscles of my hands relaxed; for some reason
life had lost some of the poignant terror it had held for me a moment
before. A drowning man will catch at straws; so will a lover; and I
was both.
In the absorption which followed this glimpse of Orpha’s face so
many days denied me, I lost the trend of the next few questions, and
only realized that we were approaching the crux of the situation
when I heard:
“You did not visit him again?”
“No.”
“Where did you go?”
“To my room.”
“Will you state to the jury just where your room is located?”
“On the same floor as Uncle’s, only further front and on the opposite
side of the hall.”
“We have here a chart of that floor. Will you be good enough to step
to it and indicate the two rooms you mention?”
Here, at a gesture from the Coroner, an official drew a string
attached to a roll suspended on one of the walls and a rudely drawn
diagram, large enough to be seen from all parts of the court-room,
fell into view.[A]
[A] A reduced copy of the plan will be found facing the title page of
this book.
Edgar was handed a stick with which he pointed out the two doors of
his uncle’s room and those of his own.
What was coming?
“Mr. Bartholomew, will you now tell the jury what you did on returning
to your room?”
“Nothing. I threw myself into a chair and just waited.”
“Waited for what?”
“To hear my cousin enter my uncle’s room.”
The bitterness with which he said this was so deftly hidden under an
assumption of casual rejoinder, as only to be detected by one who
was acquainted with every modulation of his fine voice.
“And did you hear this?”
“Very soon; as soon as he could come up from the lower hall where
Clarke, my uncle’s man, had been sent to summon him.”
“If you heard this, you must also have heard when he left your
uncle’s room.”
“I did.”
“Was the interview a long one?”
“I was sitting in front of the clock on my mantel-piece. He was in
there just twenty minutes.”
I felt my breast heave, and straightening myself instinctively I met the
concentrated gaze of a hundred pair of eyes leveled like one against
me.
Did I smile? I felt like it; but if I did it must have expressed the irony
with which I felt the meshes of the net in which I was caught tighten
with every word which this man spoke.
The Coroner, who was the only person in the room who had not
looked my way, went undeviatingly on.
“In what part of the house does this gentleman of whom we are
speaking have his room?”
“On the same floor as mine; but further back at the end of a short
hall.”
“Will you take the pointer from the officer and show the location of
the second Mr. Bartholomew’s room?”
The witness did so.
“Did you hear in which direction your cousin went on leaving your
uncle? Did he go immediately to his room?”
“He may have done so, but if he did, he did not stay long, for very
soon I heard him return and proceed directly down stairs.”
“How long was he below?”
“A long time. I had moved from my seat and my eye was no longer
on the clock so I cannot say how long.”
“Did you hear him when he came up for a second time?”
“Yes; he is not a light stepper.”
“Where did he go? Directly to his room?”
“No, he stopped on the way.”
“How, stopped on the way?”
“When he reached the top of the stairs he paused like one hesitating.
But not for long. Soon I heard him coming in the direction of my
room, pass it by and proceed to our uncle’s door—the one in front so
little-used as to be negligible—where he lingered so long that I finally
got up and peered from my own doorway to see what he was
doing?”
“Was the hall dark?”
“Very.”
“Darker than usual?”
“Yes, much.”
“How was that? What had happened?”
“The electric light usually kept burning at my end of the hall had been
switched off.”
“When? Before your cousin came up or after?”
“I do not know. It simply was not burning when I opened my door.”
“Will you say from which of the doors in your suite you were
looking?”
“From the one marked C on the chart.”
“That, as the jury can see if they will look, is diagonally opposite the
one at which the witness had heard his cousin pause. Will the
witness now state if the hall was too dark at the time he looked out
for him to see whether or not any one stood at his uncle’s door?”
“No, it was not too dark for that, owing to the light which shone in
from the street through the large window you see there.”
“Enough, you say, to make your uncle’s door visible?”
“Quite enough.”
“And what did you see there? Your cousin standing?”
“No; he was gone.”
“How gone? Could he not have been in your uncle’s room?”
“Not then.”
“Why do you say ‘not then’?”
“Because while I looked I could hear his footsteps at the other end of
the house rounding the corner where the main hall meets the little
one in which his room is situated.”
My God! I had forgotten all this. I had been very anxious to know
how Uncle had fared since I left him in such a state of excitement;
whether he were sleeping or awake, and hoped by listening I should
hear Wealthy’s step and so judge how matters were within. But a
meaning sinister if not definite had been given to this natural impulse
by the way Edgar’s voice fell as he uttered that word stopped; and
from that moment I recognized him for my enemy, either believing in
my guilt or wishing others to; in which latter case, it was for me to
fight my battle with every weapon my need called for. But the conflict
was not yet and “Patience” must still be my watch-word. But I held
my breath as I waited for the next question.
“You say that you heard him moving down the hall. You did not see
him at your uncle’s door?”
“No, I did not.”
“But you are confident he was there, previous to your looking out?”
“I am very sure that he was; my ear seldom deceives me.”
“Mr. Bartholomew, will you think carefully before you answer the
following question. Was there any circumstance connected with this
matter which will enable you to locate the hour at which you heard
your cousin pass down the hall?”
He hesitated; he did not want to answer. Why? I would have given all
that I possessed to know; but he only said:
“I did not look at my watch; I did not need to. The clock was striking
three.”
“Three! The jury will note the hour.”
Why did he say that?—the jury will note the hour? My action was
harmless. Everything I did that night was harmless. What did he
mean then by the hour? The mystery of it troubled me—a mystery he
was careful to leave for the present just where it was.
Returning to his direct investigation, the coroner led the witness back
to the time preceding his entrance into the hall. “You were listening
from your room; that room was dark, you were no longer watching
the clock which had not yet struck; yet perhaps you can give us
some idea of how long your cousin lingered at your uncle’s door
before starting down the hall.”
“No, I should not like to do that.”
“Five minutes?”
“I cannot say.”
“Long enough to have entered that room and come out again?”
“You ask too much. I am not ready to swear to that.”
“Very good; I will not press you!” But the suggestion had been made.
And for a purpose—a purpose linked with the mystery of which I
have just spoken. Glancing at Mr. Jackson, I saw him writing in his
little book. He had noted this too. I was not alone in my
apprehension which, like a giant shadow thrown from some unknown
quarter, was reaching slowly over to envelop me. When I was ready
to listen again, it was to hear:
“What did you do then?”
“I went to bed.”
“Did you see or hear anything more of your cousin that night?”
“No, not till the early morning when we were all roused by the news
which Wealthy brought to every door, that Uncle was very much
worse and that the doctor should be sent for.”
“Tell us where it was you met him then.”
“In the hall near Uncle’s door—the one marked 2 on the chart.”
“How did he look? Was there anything peculiar in his appearance or
manner?”
“He was fully dressed.”
“And you?”
“I had had no time to do more than wrap a dressing-gown about me.”
“At what time was this? You remember the hour no doubt?”
“Half past four in the morning; any one can tell you that.”
“And he was fully dressed. In morning clothes or evening?”
“In the ones he wore to dinner the night before.”
It was true; I had not gone to bed that night. There was too much on
my mind. But to them it would look as if I had sat up ready for the
expected alarm.
“Was he in these same clothes when you finally entered your uncle’s
room?”
“Certainly; there was no time then for changing.”
These questions might have been addressed to me instead of to
him. They would have been answered with as much truth; but the
suggestiveness would have been lacking and in this I recognized my
second enemy. I now knew that the Coroner was against me.
A few persons there may have recognized this fact also. But they
were all too much in sympathy with Edgar to resent it. I made no
show of doing so nor did I glance again at Orpha to see the effect on
her of these attacks leveled at me with so much subtlety. I felt, in the
humiliation of the moment, that unless I stood cleared of every
suspicion, I could never look her again in the face.
Meanwhile the inquiry had reached the event for which all were
waiting—the destruction of the one will and the acknowledgment by
the dying man that the envelope which held the other was empty.
“Were you near enough to see the red mark on the one he had
ordered burned?”
“Yes; I took note of it.”
“Had you seen it before?”
“Yes; when, in the interview of which I have spoken, my uncle
showed me the two envelopes and informed me of their several
contents.”
“Did he tell you or did you learn in any way which will was in the one
marked with red?”
“No. I did not ask him and he did not say.”
“So when you saw it burning you did not know with certainty whether
it was the will making you or your cousin his chief heir?”
“I did not.”
He said it firmly, but he said it with effort. Again, why?
The time to consider this was not now, for at this reply, expected
though it was, a universal sigh swept through the house, carrying my
thoughts with it. Emotion must have its outlet. The echo in my own
breast was a silent one, springing from sources beyond the ken of
the simple onlooker. We were approaching a critical part of the
inquiry. The whereabouts of the missing document must soon come
up. Should I be obliged to listen to further insinuations such as had
just been made? Was it his plan to show that I was party to a fraud
and knew where the missing will lay secreted,—where it would
always lie secreted because it was in his favor and not in mine? It
was possible; anything was possible. If I were really wise I would
prepare myself for the unexpected; for the unexpected was what I
probably should be called upon to face.
Yet it was not so, or I did not think it so, in the beginning.
Asked to describe his uncle’s last moments he did so shortly, simply,
feelingly.
Then came the question for which I waited.
“Your uncle died, then, without a sign as to where the remaining will
was to be found?”
“He did not have time. Death came instantly, leaving the words
unsaid. It was a great misfortune.”
With a gesture of reproof, for he would not have it seem that he liked
these comments, the Coroner pressed eagerly on:
“What of his looks? Did his features betray any emotion when he
found that he could no longer speak?”
Edgar hesitated. It was the first time we had seen him do so and my
heart beat in anticipation of a lie.
But again I did him an injustice. He did not want to answer—that we
could all see—but when he did, he spoke the truth.
“He looked frightened, or so I interpreted his expression; and his
head moved a little. Then all was over.”
In the silence which followed, a stifled sob was heard. We all knew
from whom it came and every eye turned to the patient little figure in
black who up till now had kept such strong control over her feelings.
“If Miss Bartholomew would like to retire into the adjoining room she
is at liberty to do so,” came from the Coroner’s seat.
But she shook her head, murmuring quietly:
“Thank you, I will stay.”
I blessed her in my heart. Still neutral. Still resolute to hear and know
all.
The inquiry went on.
“Mr. Bartholomew, did you search for that will?”
“Thoroughly. In a haphazard way at first, expecting to find it in some
of the many drawers in his room. But when I did not, I went more
carefully to work, I and my two faithful servants, who having been in
personal attendance upon him all through his illness, knew his habits
and knew the room. But even then we found nothing in any way
suggestive of the document we were looking for.”
“And since?”
“The room has been in the hands of the police. I have not heard that
they have been any more successful.”
There were more questions and more answers but I paid little
attention to them. I was thinking of what had passed between the
Inspector and myself at the time he visited me in my room. I have
said little about it because a man is not proud of such an experience;
but in the quiet way in which this especial official worked, he had
made himself very sure before he left me that this document was
neither on my person nor within the four walls of the room itself. This
had been a part of the search. I tingled yet whenever I recalled the
humiliation of that hour. I tingled at this moment; but rebuked myself
as the mystery of the whole proceeding got a stronger hold upon my
mind. Not with me, not with him, but somewhere! When would they
reach the point where perhaps the solution lay? Five hours had
elapsed between the time I left uncle and the rousing of the house at
Wealthy’s hurried call. What had happened during those hours? Who
could tell the tale—the whole tale, since manifestly that had never
been fully related. Clarke? Wealthy? I knew what they had told the
police, what they had confided to each other concerning their
experience in the sick-room; but under oath, and with the shadow of
crime falling across the lesser mystery what might not come to light
under the probe of this prejudiced but undoubtedly honest Coroner?
XXVII
My impatience grew with every passing moment, but fortunately it
was not to be tried much longer, for I soon had the satisfaction of
seeing Edgar leave the witness chair and Clarke, as we called him,
take his seat there.
This old and tried servant of a man exacting as he was friendly and
generous as he was just, had always inspired me with admiration, far
as I was from being in his good books. Had he liked me I would have
felt myself strong in what was now a doubtful position. But devoted
as he was to Edgar, I could not hope for any help from him save of
the most grudging kind. I therefore sat unmoved and unexpectant
while he took his oath and answered the few opening questions.
They pertained mostly to the signing of the first will to which he had
added his signature as witness. As nothing new was elicited this
matter was soon dropped.
Other points of interest shared the same fate. He could substantiate
the testimony of others, but he had nothing of his own to impart.
Would it be the same when we got to his final attendance on his
master—the last words uttered between them—the final good-night?
The Coroner himself seemed to be awake to the full importance of
what this witness might have to disclose, for he scrutinized him
earnestly before saying:
“We will now hear, as nearly as you can recall, what passed between
you and your sick master on the night which proved to be his last?
Begin at the beginning—that is, when you were sent to summon one
or other of his two nephews to Mr. Bartholomew’s room.”
“Pardon, sir, but that was not the beginning. The beginning was
when Mr. Bartholomew, who to our astonishment had eaten his
supper in his chair by the fireside, drew a small key from the pocket
in his dressing-gown and, handing it to me, bade me unlock the
drawer let into the back of his bedstead and bring him the two big
envelopes I should find there.”
“You are right, that is the beginning. Go on with your story.”
“I had never been asked to unlock this drawer before; he had always
managed to do it himself; but I had no difficulty in doing it or in
bringing him the papers he had asked for. I just lifted out the whole
batch, and laying them down in his lap, asked him to pick out the
ones he wanted.”
“Did he do it?”
“Yes, immediately.”
“Before you moved away?”
“Yes, sir.”
“Then you caught a glimpse of the papers he selected?”
“I did, sir. I could not help it. I had to wait, for he wished me to relieve
him of the ones he didn’t want.”
“And you did this?”
“Yes; I took them from his hand and laid them on the table to which
he pointed.”
“Now for the ones he kept. Describe them.”
“Two large envelopes, sir, larger than the usual legal size, brown in
color, I should say, and thick with the papers that were in them.”
“Had you ever seen any envelopes like these before?”
“Yes, on Mr. Bartholomew’s desk the day I was called in to witness
his signature.”
“Very good. There were two of them, you say?”
“Yes, sir, two.”
“Were they alike?”
“Exactly, I should say.”
“Any mark on either one?”
“Not that I observed, sir. But I only saw the face of one of them and
that was absolutely blank.”
“No red marks on either.”
“Not that I saw, sir.”
“Very good. Proceed, Mr. Clarke. What did Mr. Bartholomew say,
after you had laid the other papers aside?”
“He bade me look for Mr. Edgar; said he was in a hurry and wanted
to see him at once.”
“Was that all?”
“Yes, sir, he was not a man of many words. Besides, I left the room
immediately and did not enter it again till Mr. Edgar left him.”
“Where were you when he did this?”
“At the end of the hall talking to Wealthy. There is a little cozy corner
there where she sits and where I sometimes waited when I was
expecting Mr. Bartholomew’s ring.”
“Did you see Mr. Edgar, as you call him, when he came out?”
“Yes, sir; crossing over to his room.”
“And what did you do after that?”
“Went immediately to Mr. Bartholomew to see if he was wishing to go
to bed. But he was not. On the contrary, he had another errand for
me. He wanted to see his other nephew. So I went below searching
for him.”
“Was Mr. Bartholomew still sitting by the fire when you went in?”
“He was.”
“With the two big envelopes in his hands?”
“Not that I noted, sir; but he had pockets in his gown large enough to
hold them and they might have been in one of these.”
“Never mind the might have beens; just the plain answer, Mr.
Clarke.”
“Yes, sir. Excuse me, sir. Feeling afraid that he would get very tired
sitting up so long, I hurried downstairs, found Mr. Quenton, as we
call him, in the library and brought him straight up. Then I went back
to Wealthy.”
“Is there a clock in the cozy corner?”
“There is, sir.”
“Did you look at it as you came and went?”
“I did this time.”
“Why this time?”
“First, because I was anxious for Mr. Bartholomew not to tire himself
too much and—and—”
“Go on; we want the whole truth, Mr. Clarke.”
“I was curious to see whether Mr. Bartholomew would keep Mr.
Quenton any longer than he did Mr. Edgar.”
“And did he?”
“A little, sir.”
“Did you and the woman Wealthy exchange remarks upon this?”
“We—we did, sir.”
At this admission, I took a quick look at Mr. Jackson and was
relieved to see him make another entry in his little book. He had
detected, here, as well as I, an opening for future investigation. I
heard him, as it were in advance, putting this suggestive query to the
present witness:
“What had you and Wealthy been saying on this subject?” I know
very little of courts or the usages of court procedure, but I know that I
should have put this question if I had been conducting this
examination.
The Coroner evidently was not of my mind, which certainly was not
strange, seeing where his sympathies were.
“What do you mean by little?”
“Ten minutes.”
“By the clock?”
“Yes, sir,” said rather sheepishly.
“Proceed; what happened next?”
“I went immediately to Mr. Bartholomew’s room, thinking that of
course he would be ready for me now. But he was not. Instead, he
bade me leave him and not come back for a full half hour, and not to
allow any one else to disturb him. I was to give the same order to
Wealthy.”
“And did you?”
“Yes, sir; and left her on the watch.”
“And where did you go?”
“To my room for a smoke.”
“Were you concerned at leaving Mr. Bartholomew alone for so long a
time?”
“Yes, sir; we never liked to do that. He had grown to be too feeble.
But he was not a man you could disobey even for his own good.”
“Did you spend the whole half hour in smoking?”
“Yes, sir.”
“Not leaving your room at all?”
“Oh, I left my room several times, going no further, though, than the
end of my small hall.”
“Why did you do this?”
“Because Mr. Bartholomew had been so very peremptory about
anybody coming to his room. I had every confidence in Wealthy, but I
could not help going now and then to see if she was still on the
watch.”
“With what result?”
“She was always there. I did not speak to her, not wishing her to
know that I was keeping tabs on her. But each time I went I could
see the hem of her dress protruding from behind the screen and
knew that she, like myself, was waiting for the half hour to be up. As
soon as it was, I stepped boldly down the hall, telling Wealthy as I
passed that I should make short work of putting the old gentleman to
bed and for her to be ready to follow me in a very few minutes. And I
kept my word. Mr. Bartholomew was still sitting in his chair when I
went in. He had the two documents in his hand and asked me to
place them, together with the other papers, on the small stand at the
side of the bed. And there they stayed up to the time I gave place to
Wealthy. This is all I have to tell about that night. I went from his
room to mine and slept till we were all wakened by the ill news that
Mr. Bartholomew had been taken worse and was rapidly sinking.”
There was an instant’s lull during which I realized my own
disappointment. I had heard nothing that I had not known before.
Then the Coroner said:
“Did your duties in Mr. Bartholomew’s room during these months of
illness include at any time the handling of his medicines?”
“No, sir.”
“Did you ever visit his medicine cabinet, or take anything from its
shelves?”
“No, sir.”
“You must often have poured him out a glass of water?”
“Oh, yes, I have done that.”
“Did you do so on that night? Think carefully before you answer.”
“I do not need to, for I am very sure that I handed him nothing. I do
not even remember seeing the usual pitcher and glass anywhere in
the room.”
“Not on the stand at his side?”
“No, sir.”
“Nothing of the kind near him?”
“Not that I saw, sir.”
“Very good; you may step down.”
XXVIII
Wealthy was the next witness summoned, and her appearance on
the stand caused a flutter of excitement to pass from end to end of
the well packed room. All knew that from her, if from anybody,
enlightenment must come as to what had taken place in the few fatal
hours which had elapsed after Clarke’s departure from the room.
Would she respond to our hopes? Would she respond to mine? Or
would she leave the veil half raised from sheer inability to lift it
higher?
Conscious that the blood was leaving my cheeks and fearful that she
could not hold the attention of the crowd from myself, I sought for
relief in the face of Edgar. He must know her whole story. Also whom
it threatened. Would I be able to read in his lip and eye, ordinarily so
expressive, what we had to expect?
No. He was giving nothing away. He was not even looking with
anything like attention at anybody; not even my way as I had half
expected. The mobile lip was straight; the eye, usually sparkling with
intelligence, fixed to the point of glassiness.
I took in that look well; the time might come when I should find it wise
to recall it.
Wealthy is a good-looking woman, with that kind of comeliness
which speaks of a warm heart and motherly instincts. Seen in the
home, whether at work or at rest, she was the embodiment of all that
insured comfort and ease to those under her care. She was more
than a servant, more than nurse, and as such was regarded with
favor by every one in the house, even by my poor unappreciated
self.
In public and before the eyes of this mixed assemblage she showed
the same pleasing characteristics. I began to breathe more easily.
Surely she might be trusted not to be swayed sufficiently by malice,
either to evade or color the truth. For all her love for Edgar, she will
be true to herself. She cannot help it with that face and demeanor.
The Coroner showed her every consideration. This was but due to
the grief she so resolutely endeavored to keep under. All through the
opening questions and answers which were mainly corroborative of
much that had gone before, he let her sometimes garrulous replies
pass without comment, though the spectators frequently evinced
impatience in their anxiety to reach the point upon which the real
mystery hung.
It came at last and was welcomed by a long drawn breath from many
an overburdened breast.
“Mr. Clarke has said that on leaving Mr. Bartholomew’s room for the
last time that night, he saw the two envelopes about which so much
has been said still lying on the little stand drawn up by the bedside.
Were they there when you went into the room?”
“Yes, sir; I noticed them immediately. The stand is very near the door
by which I usually enter, and it was a matter of habit with me to take
a look at my patient before busying myself with making my final
preparations for the night. As I did this, I observed some documents
lying there and as it was never his custom to leave business papers
lying about I asked him if he would not like to have me put them
away for him. But he answered no, not to bother, for there was
something he wanted me to get for him which would take me down
into Miss Orpha’s room, and as it was growing late I had better go at
once. ‘Mind you,’ he said, ‘she is but a girl and may not remember
where she has put it; but, if so, she must look for it and you are not
to come back until she has found it, if you have to stay an hour.’
“As the thing he wanted was a little white silk shawl which had been
her mother’s, and as the dear child did not know exactly in which of
two or three chests she had hidden it, it did take time to find it, and it
was with a heart panting with anxiety that I finally started to go back,
knowing what a hard evening he had had and how often the doctor
had told us that he was to be kept quiet and above all never to be left
very long alone. But I was more frightened yet when I got about
halfway upstairs, for, for the first time since I have lived in the house,
though I have been up and down that flight hundreds of times, I felt
the Presence—”
“You may cut that out,” came kindly but peremptorily from the
Coroner, probably to the immense disappointment of half the people
there.
The Presence on that night!
I myself felt a superstitious thrill at the thought, though I had laughed
a dozen times at this old wives’ tale.
“Tell your story straight,” admonished the Coroner.
“I will, sir. I mean to, sir. I only wanted to explain how I came to
stumble in rushing up those stairs and yet how quick I was to stop
when I heard something on reaching the top which frightened me
more than any foolish fancy. This was the sound of a click in the hall
towards the front. Some one was turning the key in Mr.
Bartholomew’s door—the one nearest the street. As this door is only
used on occasion it startled me. Besides, who would do such a
thing? There was no one in the hall, for I ran quickly the length of it
to see. So it must have been done from the inside and by whom then
but by Mr. Bartholomew himself. But I had left him in bed! Here was
a coil; and strong as I am I found myself catching at the banisters for
support, for I did not understand his locking the door when he was in
the room alone. However, he may have had his reasons, and rather
ashamed of my agitation I was hurrying back to the other door when
I heard a click there, and realized that the doors were being
unlocked and not locked;—that he was expecting me and was
making the way open for me to come in. Had I arrived a few minutes
sooner I should not have been able to enter. It gave me a turn. My
sick master shut up there alone! Locked in by himself! I had never
known him to do such a thing all the time he was ill, and I had to
quiet myself a bit before I dared go in. When I did, he was lying in
bed looking very white but peaceful enough; more peaceful indeed
than he had at any time that day. ‘Is that you, Wealthy?’ he asked.
‘Where is the little shawl? Give it to me.’ I handed it to him and he
laid it, folded as it was, against his cheek. I felt troubled, I hardly
knew why and stood looking at him. He smiled and glancing at the
little pile of documents lying on the stand told me that I could put
them away now. ‘Here is the key,’ he said; I took it from his hand
after seeing him draw it from under the pillow. I had often used it for
him. Unlocking the drawer which was set into the head-board of his
bed where it jutted into the alcove, I reached for the papers and
locked them up in the drawer and handed him back the key. ‘Thank
you,’ he said and turned his face from the light. It was the signal for
me to drop the curtain hanging at that side of the bed. This I did—”
“One moment. In handling the papers you speak of did you notice
them particularly?”
“Not very, sir. I remember that the top one was in a dark brown
envelope and bulky.”
“Which side was up?”
“The flap side.”
“Sealed?”
“No, open; that is loose, not fastened down.”
“You noticed that?”
“I couldn’t help it. It was right under my eyes.”
“Did you notice anything else? That there was a second envelope in
the pile similar to the one on top.”
“I cannot say that I did. The papers were all bunched, you see, and I
just lifted them quickly and put them in the drawer.”
“Why quickly?”
“Mr. Bartholomew was looking at me, sir.”
“Then you did not note that there was another envelope in that pile,
just like the top one, only empty?”
“I did not, sir.”
“Very good. You may go on now. You dropped the curtain. What did
you do next?”
“I prepared his soothing medicine.” Her voice fell and an expression
of great trouble crossed her countenance. “I always had this ready in
case he should grow restless in the night.”
“A soothing medicine! Where was that kept?”
“With the rest of the medicines in the cabinet built into the small
passage-way leading to the upper door.”
“And you went there for the soothing medicine. At about what time?”
“Not far from eleven o’clock, sir: I remember thinking as I passed by
the mantel-clock how displeased Dr. Cameron would be if he knew
that Mr. Bartholomew’s light was not yet out.”
“Go on; what about the medicine? Did you give it to him every
night?”
“Not every night, but frequently. I always had it ready.”
“Will you step down a minute? I want to ask Dr. Cameron a few
questions about this soothing medicine.”
The interruption was welcome; we all needed a moment’s respite.
Dr. Cameron was again sworn. He had given his testimony at length
earlier in the day but it had been mainly in reference to a very
different sort of medicine, and it was of this simpler and supposedly
very innocent mixture that the Coroner wished to learn a few facts.
Dr. Cameron was very frank with his replies. Told just what it was;
what the dose consisted of and how harmless it was when given
according to directions. “I have never known,” he added, “of Mrs.
Starr ever making any mistake in preparing or administering it. The
other medicine of which I have already given a detailed account I
have always prepared myself.”
“It is of that other medicine taken in connection with this one of which
I wish to ask. Say the two were mixed what would be the result?”
“The powerful one would act, whatever it was mixed with.”
“How about the color? Would one affect the other?”

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Pavement Design: Materials, Analysis,

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MASTER THE PRINCIPLES, ANALYSIS, AND

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New York Chicago San Francisco

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Pavement Design: Materials, Analysis, and Highways

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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3 Soils and Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

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4.4.5 Ring and Ball Softening Point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

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6 Traffic Analysis for Pavement Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

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8.2.3 Rutting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

9 Distress Models in Flexible Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

10 Flexible Pavement Design by AASHTOWare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

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10.2.7 Base/Subbase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

11 Asphalt Overlay Design by AASHTOWare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

13 Distresses in Rigid Pavement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

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13.2.3 Punchouts in Continuously Reinforced Concrete

14 Distress Models in Rigid Pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

15 Rigid Pavement Design by AASHTOWare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

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16.2.1 Transverse Slopes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345

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18.4 Analysis of Pavement Evaluation Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

19 Geometric Design of Highways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419

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19.15.6 Setting Vertical Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

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C.2.3 Hot Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503

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A pavement is expected to meet the following requirements:

Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it

Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles

Produces least noise from moving vehicles

Dust and waterproof surface for avoiding reduced visibility

Drains water laterally or vertically without washing layer particles

1.2. Pavement Types

1.2.1. Flexible Pavements

Figure 1.2 Deformation behavior of flexible and rigid pavements.

1.2.2. Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types:

2. Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP)

3. Continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP)

4. Prestressed concrete pavement (PCP)

1.2.2.1. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)

1.2.2.2. Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement (JRCP)

1.2.2.3. Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)