(Ebook PDF) Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design (11th Ed.) 11th Edition Richard Budynas - Ebook PDF All Chapter

Shigley's Mechanical Engineering
Design (11th Ed.) 11th Edition Richard

Budynas - eBook PDF
Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/shigleys-mechanical-engineering-design-11th-ed-
ebook-pdf-2/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...
Shigley's mechanical engineering design (11th Ed.) 11th

Edition Richard G. Budynas - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/shigleys-mechanical-engineering-
design-11th-ed-ebook-pdf/
Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design in SI Units

(11th Ed.) 11th Edition Richard Budynas - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/shigleys-mechanical-engineering-
design-in-si-units-11th-ed-ebook-pdf/
(eBook PDF) Shigley's Mechanical Engineering design in

SI Units 11th Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-shigleys-mechanical-
engineering-design-in-si-units-11th-edition/
Roark's Formulas for Stress and Strain (9th Ed.) 9th

Edition Richard Budynas - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/roarks-formulas-for-stress-and-
strain-9th-ed-ebook-pdf/
An Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (4th Ed.) 4th
Edition Jonathan Wickert - eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/an-introduction-to-mechanical-
engineering-4th-ed-ebook-pdf/
(eBook PDF) Machine Elements in Mechanical Design 6th

Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-machine-elements-in-
mechanical-design-6th-edition/
Mechanical Design: Theory and Applications 3rd Edition

- eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/mechanical-design-theory-and-
applications-ebook-pdf/
Basic Mechanical Engineering 2nd Edition Pravin Kumar -

eBook PDF
https://ebooksecure.com/download/basic-mechanical-engineering-
ebook-pdf/
(eBook PDF) Theory and Design for Mechanical

Measurements 7th Edition
http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-theory-and-design-for-
mechanical-measurements-7th-edition/
Shigley’ s
Mechanical
Engineering
Design Eleventh Edition
Richard G.
Budynas
J. Keith
Nisbett
Shigley’s
Mechanical
Engineering
Design
E D
O C
2
2 A
xy
Shigley’s Mechanical
Engineering Design
Eleventh Edition
Richard G. Budynas
Professor Emeritus, Kate Gleason College of Engineering,
Rochester Institute of Technology
J. Keith Nisbett
Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering,
Missouri University of Science and Technology
SHIGLEY’S MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN, ELEVENTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2020 by McGraw-Hill Education. All
rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous editions © 2015, 2011, and 2008. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written
consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or
broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 21 20 19
ISBN 978-0-07-339821-1 (bound edition)
MHID 0-07-339821-7 (bound edition)
ISBN 978-1-260-40764-8 (loose-leaf edition)
MHID 1-260-40764-0 (loose-leaf edition)
Product Developers: Tina Bower and Megan Platt
Marketing Manager: Shannon O’Donnell
Content Project Managers: Jane Mohr, Samantha Donisi-Hamm, and Sandy Schnee
Buyer: Laura Fuller
Design: Matt Backhaus
Content Licensing Specialist: Beth Cray
Cover Image: Courtesy of Dee Dehokenanan
Compositor: Aptara®, Inc.
All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Budynas, Richard G. (Richard Gordon), author. | Nisbett, J. Keith,
author. | Shigley, Joseph Edward. Mechanical engineering design.
Title: Shigley’s mechanical engineering design / Richard G. Budynas,
Professor Emeritus, Kate Gleason College of Engineering, Rochester
Institute of Technology, J. Keith Nisbett, Associate Professor of
Mechanical Engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology.
Other titles: Mechanical engineering design
Description: Eleventh edition. ∣ New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2020]
∣ Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018023098 ∣ ISBN 9780073398211 (alk. paper) ∣ ISBN
0073398217 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Machine design.
Classification: LCC TJ230 .S5 2020 | DDC 621.8/15--dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2018023098
The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate
an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the
information presented at these sites.
mheducation.com/highered
Dedication
To my wife, Joanne. I could not have accomplished what I have without
your love and support.
Richard G. Budynas
To my colleague and friend, Dr. Terry Lehnhoff, who encouraged me

early in my teaching career to pursue opportunities to improve the
presentation of machine design topics.
J. Keith Nisbett
Dedication to Joseph Edward Shigley
Joseph Edward Shigley (1909–1994) is undoubtedly one of the most well-known

and respected contributors in machine design education. He authored or coauthored
eight books, including Theory of Machines and Mechanisms (with John J. Uicker, Jr.),
and Applied Mechanics of Materials. He was coeditor-in-chief of the well-known
Standard Handbook of Machine Design. He began Machine Design as sole author in
1956, and it evolved into Mechanical Engineering Design, setting the model for such
textbooks. He contributed to the first five editions of this text, along with coauthors
Larry Mitchell and Charles Mischke. Uncounted numbers of students across the world
got their first taste of machine design with Shigley’s textbook, which has literally
become a classic. Nearly every mechanical engineer for the past half century has
referenced terminology, equations, or procedures as being from “Shigley.” McGraw-Hill
is honored to have worked with Professor Shigley for more than 40 years, and as a
tribute to his lasting contribution to this textbook, its title officially reflects what many
have already come to call it—Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design.
Having received a bachelor’s degree in Electrical and Mechanical Engineering
from Purdue University and a master of science in Engineering Mechanics from the
University of Michigan, Professor Shigley pursued an academic career at Clemson
College from 1936 through 1954. This led to his position as professor and head of
Mechanical Design and Drawing at Clemson College. He joined the faculty of the
Department of Mechanical Engineering of the University of Michigan in 1956, where
he remained for 22 years until his retirement in 1978.
Professor Shigley was granted the rank of Fellow of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers in 1968. He received the ASME Mechanisms Committee
Award in 1974, the Worcester Reed Warner Medal for outstanding contribution to
the permanent literature of engineering in 1977, and the ASME Machine Design
Award in 1985.
Joseph Edward Shigley indeed made a difference. His legacy shall continue.
vi
About the Authors
Richard G. Budynas is Professor Emeritus of the Kate Gleason College of

Engineering at Rochester Institute of Technology. He has more than 50 years experi-
ence in teaching and practicing mechanical engineering design. He is the author of a
McGraw-Hill textbook, Advanced Strength and Applied Stress Analysis, Second
Edition; and coauthor of a McGraw-Hill reference book, Roark’s Formulas for Stress
and Strain, Eighth Edition. He was awarded the BME of Union College, MSME of
the University of Rochester, and the PhD of the University of Massachusetts. He is a
licensed Professional Engineer in the state of New York.
J. Keith Nisbett is an Associate Professor and Associate Chair of Mechanical

Engineering at the Missouri University of Science and Technology. He has more than
30 years of experience with using and teaching from this classic textbook. As dem-
onstrated by a steady stream of teaching awards, including the Governor’s Award for
Teaching Excellence, he is devoted to finding ways of communicating concepts to the
students. He was awarded the BS, MS, and PhD of the University of Texas at Arlington.
vii
Brief Contents
Preface xv
Part 1
Basics 2
1 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 3
2 Materials 41
3 Load and Stress Analysis 93
4 Deflection and Stiffness 173
Part 2
Failure Prevention 240
5 Failures Resulting from Static Loading 241
6 Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable Loading 285
Part 3
Design of Mechanical Elements 372
7 Shafts and Shaft Components 373
8 Screws, Fasteners, and the Design of Nonpermanent Joints 421
9 Welding, Bonding, and the Design of Permanent Joints 485
10 Mechanical Springs 525
11 Rolling-Contact Bearings 575
12 Lubrication and Journal Bearings 623
13 Gears—General 681
14 Spur and Helical Gears 739
15 Bevel and Worm Gears 791
16 Clutches, Brakes, Couplings, and Flywheels 829
17 Flexible Mechanical Elements 881
18 Power Transmission Case Study 935
viii
Brief Contents ix
Part 4
Special Topics 954
19 Finite-Element Analysis 955
20 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing 977
Appendixes
A Useful Tables 1019
B Answers to Selected Problems 1075
Index 1081
Contents
Preface xv 2–3 Plastic Deformation and Cold Work 50

2–4 Cyclic Stress-Strain Properties 57
2–5 Hardness 61
Part 1 2–6 Impact Properties 62
Basics 2 2–7 Temperature Effects 63
2–8 Numbering Systems 64
Chapter 1 2–9 Sand Casting 66
Introduction to Mechanical 2–10 Shell Molding 66
2–11 Investment Casting 67
Engineering Design 3
2–12 Powder-Metallurgy Process 67
Design 4
1–1
Mechanical Engineering Design 5
1–2 2–13 Hot-Working Processes 67
Phases and Interactions of the Design
1–3 2–14 Cold-Working Processes 68
Process 5 2–15 The Heat Treatment of Steel 69
1–4 Design Tools and Resources 8 2–16 Alloy Steels 72
1–5 The Design Engineer’s Professional 2–17 Corrosion-Resistant Steels 73
Responsibilities 10 2–18 Casting Materials 73
1–6 Standards and Codes 12 2–19 Nonferrous Metals 75
1–7 Economics 13
2–20 Plastics 78
1–8 Safety and Product Liability 15
2–21 Composite Materials 80
1–9 Stress and Strength 16
2–22 Materials Selection 81
1–10 Uncertainty 16
Problems 87
1–11 Design Factor and Factor of Safety 18
1–12 Reliability and Probability of Failure 20
1–13 Relating Design Factor to Reliability 24
Chapter 3
1–14 Dimensions and Tolerances 27 Load and Stress Analysis 93
1–15 Units 31
3–1 Equilibrium and Free-Body Diagrams 94
1–16 Calculations and Significant Figures 32
3–2 Shear Force and Bending Moments in
1–17 Design Topic Interdependencies 33
Beams 97
1–18 Power Transmission Case Study
3–3 Singularity Functions 98
Specifications 34
3–4 Stress 101
Problems 36
3–5 Cartesian Stress Components 101
3–6 Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress 102
Chapter 2
3–7 General Three-Dimensional Stress 108
Materials 41 3–8 Elastic Strain 109
2–1 Material Strength and Stiffness 42 3–9 Uniformly Distributed Stresses 110
2–2 The Statistical Significance of Material 3–10 Normal Stresses for Beams in
Properties 48 Bending 111
x
Contents xi
3–11 Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending 116 5–4 Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory for Ductile
3–12 Torsion 123 Materials 247
3–13 Stress Concentration 132 5–5 Distortion-Energy Theory for Ductile
3–14 Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders 135 Materials 249
3–15 Stresses in Rotating Rings 137 5–6 Coulomb-Mohr Theory for Ductile
Materials 255
3–16 Press and Shrink Fits 139
5–7 Failure of Ductile Materials Summary 258
3–17 Temperature Effects 140
5–8 Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory for Brittle
3–18 Curved Beams in Bending 141
Materials 262
3–19 Contact Stresses 145
5–9 Modifications of the Mohr Theory for Brittle
3–20 Summary 149 Materials 263
Problems 150 5–10 Failure of Brittle Materials Summary 265
5–11 Selection of Failure Criteria 266
Chapter 4 5–12 Introduction to Fracture Mechanics 266
Deflection and Stiffness 173 5–13 Important Design Equations 275
4–1 Spring Rates 174 Problems 276
4–2 Tension, Compression, and Torsion 175
4–3 Deflection Due to Bending 176 Chapter 6
4–4 Beam Deflection Methods 179
Fatigue Failure Resulting from
4–5 Beam Deflections by Superposition 180
Variable Loading 285
4–6 Beam Deflections by Singularity Functions 182
6–1 Introduction to Fatigue 286
4–7 Strain Energy 188
6–2 Chapter Overview 287
4–8 Castigliano’s Theorem 190
6–3 Crack Nucleation and Propagation 288
4–9 Deflection of Curved Members 195
6–4 Fatigue-Life Methods 294
4–10 Statically Indeterminate Problems 201
6–5 The Linear-Elastic Fracture Mechanics
4–11 Compression Members—General 207
Method 295
4–12 Long Columns with Central Loading 207
6–6 The Strain-Life Method 299
4–13 Intermediate-Length Columns with Central 6–7 The Stress-Life Method and the
Loading 210 S-N Diagram 302
4–14 Columns with Eccentric Loading 212 6–8 The Idealized S-N Diagram for Steels 304
4–15 Struts or Short Compression Members 215 6–9 Endurance Limit Modifying Factors 309
4–16 Elastic Stability 217 6–10 Stress Concentration and Notch Sensitivity 320
4–17 Shock and Impact 218 6–11 Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses 325
Problems 220 6–12 The Fluctuating-Stress Diagram 327
6–13 Fatigue Failure Criteria 333
Part 2 6–14 Constant-Life Curves 342
6–15 Fatigue Failure Criterion for Brittle
Failure Prevention 240 Materials 345
Chapter 5 6–16 Combinations of Loading Modes 347
6–17 Cumulative Fatigue Damage 351
Failures Resulting from Static Loading 241 6–18 Surface Fatigue Strength 356
5–1 Static Strength 244 6–19 Road Maps and Important Design Equations
5–2 Stress Concentration 245 for the Stress-Life Method 359
5–3 Failure Theories 247 Problems 363
xii Mechanical Engineering Design
Part 3 9–6 Static Loading 502

9–7 Fatigue Loading 505
Design of Mechanical Elements 372 9–8 Resistance Welding 507
Chapter 7 9–9 Adhesive Bonding 508

Problems 516
Shafts and Shaft Components 373
7–1 Introduction 374 Chapter 10
7–2 Shaft Materials 374
Mechanical Springs 525
7–3 Shaft Layout 375
10–1 Stresses in Helical Springs 526
7–4 Shaft Design for Stress 380
10–2 The Curvature Effect 527
7–5 Deflection Considerations 391
10–3 Deflection of Helical Springs 528
7–6 Critical Speeds for Shafts 395
10–4 Compression Springs 528
7–7 Miscellaneous Shaft Components 400
10–5 Stability 529
7–8 Limits and Fits 406
10–6 Spring Materials 531
Problems 411
10–7 Helical Compression Spring Design for Static
Service 535
Chapter 8
10–8 Critical Frequency of Helical Springs 542
Screws, Fasteners, and the Design 10–9 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression
Springs 543
of Nonpermanent Joints 421
8–1 Thread Standards and Definitions 422
10–10 Helical Compression Spring Design for
Fatigue Loading 547
8–2 The Mechanics of Power Screws 426
10–11 Extension Springs 550
8–3 Threaded Fasteners 434
10–12 Helical Coil Torsion Springs 557
8–4 Joints—Fastener Stiffness 436
10–13 Belleville Springs 564
8–5 Joints—Member Stiffness 437
10–14 Miscellaneous Springs 565
8–6 Bolt Strength 443
10–15 Summary 567
8–7 Tension Joints—The External Load 446
Problems 567
8–8 Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension 448
8–9 Statically Loaded Tension Joint with Chapter 11
Preload 452
8–10 Gasketed Joints 456 Rolling-Contact Bearings 575
8–11 Fatigue Loading of Tension Joints 456 11–1 Bearing Types 576
8–12 Bolted and Riveted Joints Loaded in Shear 463 11–2 Bearing Life 579
Problems 471 11–3 Bearing Load Life at Rated Reliability 580
11–4 Reliability versus Life—The Weibull
Chapter 9 Distribution 582
11–5 Relating Load, Life, and Reliability 583
Welding, Bonding, and the Design of 11–6 Combined Radial and Thrust Loading 585
Permanent Joints 485 11–7 Variable Loading 590
9–1 Welding Symbols 486 11–8 Selection of Ball and Cylindrical Roller
9–2 Butt and Fillet Welds 488 Bearings 593
9–3 Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion 492 11–9 Selection of Tapered Roller Bearings 596
9–4 Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending 497 11–10 Design Assessment for Selected
9–5 The Strength of Welded Joints 499 Rolling-Contact Bearings 604
Contents xiii
11–11 Lubrication 608 13–16 Force Analysis—Helical Gearing 716

11–12 Mounting and Enclosure 609 13–17 Force Analysis—Worm Gearing 719
Problems 613 Problems 724
Chapter 12 Chapter 14
Lubrication and Journal Bearings 623
Spur and Helical Gears 739
12–1 Types of Lubrication 624
14–1 The Lewis Bending Equation 740
12–2 Viscosity 625
14–2 Surface Durability 749
12–3 Petroff’s Equation 627
14–3 AGMA Stress Equations 751
12–4 Stable Lubrication 632
14–4 AGMA Strength Equations 752
12–5 Thick-Film Lubrication 633
14–5 Geometry Factors I and J
12–6 Hydrodynamic Theory 634
(ZI and YJ) 757
12–7 Design Variables 639
14–6 The Elastic Coefficient Cp (ZE) 761
12–8 The Relations of the Variables 640
14–7 Dynamic Factor Kv 763
12–9 Steady-State Conditions in Self-Contained
14–8 Overload Factor Ko 764
Bearings 649
14–9 Surface Condition Factor Cf (ZR) 764
12–10 Clearance 653
14–10 Size Factor Ks 765
12–11 Pressure-Fed Bearings 655
14–11 Load-Distribution Factor Km (KH) 765
12–12 Loads and Materials 661
14–12 Hardness-Ratio Factor CH (ZW) 767
12–13 Bearing Types 662
14–13 Stress-Cycle Factors YN and ZN 768
12–14 Dynamically Loaded Journal
14–14 Reliability Factor KR (YZ) 769
Bearings 663
14–15 Temperature Factor KT (Yθ) 770
12–15 Boundary-Lubricated Bearings 670
14–16 Rim-Thickness Factor KB 770
Problems 677
14–17 Safety Factors SF and SH 771
14–18 Analysis 771
Chapter 13
14–19 Design of a Gear Mesh 781
Gears—General 681 Problems 786
13–1 Types of Gears 682
13–2 Nomenclature 683
Chapter 15
13–3 Conjugate Action 684
13–4 Involute Properties 685 Bevel and Worm Gears 791
13–5 Fundamentals 686 15–1 Bevel Gearing—General 792
13–6 Contact Ratio 689 15–2 Bevel-Gear Stresses and Strengths 794
13–7 Interference 690 15–3 AGMA Equation Factors 797
13–8 The Forming of Gear Teeth 693 15–4 Straight-Bevel Gear Analysis 808
13–9 Straight Bevel Gears 695 15–5 Design of a Straight-Bevel Gear
13–10 Parallel Helical Gears 696 Mesh 811
13–11 Worm Gears 700 15–6 Worm Gearing—AGMA Equation 814
13–12 Tooth Systems 701 15–7 Worm-Gear Analysis 818
13–13 Gear Trains 703 15–8 Designing a Worm-Gear Mesh 822
13–14 Force Analysis—Spur Gearing 710 15–9 Buckingham Wear Load 825
13–15 Force Analysis—Bevel Gearing 713 Problems 826
xiv Mechanical Engineering Design
Chapter 16 18–10 Key and Retaining Ring Selection 950

18–11 Final Analysis 953
Clutches, Brakes, Couplings, and Problems 953
Flywheels 829
16–1 Static Analysis of Clutches and Brakes 831 Part 4
16–2 Internal Expanding Rim Clutches and
Brakes 836 Special Topics 954
16–3 External Contracting Rim Clutches and
Chapter 19
Brakes 844
16–4 Band-Type Clutches and Brakes 847 Finite-Element Analysis 955
16–5 Frictional-Contact Axial Clutches 849 19–1 The Finite-Element Method 957
16–6 Disk Brakes 852 19–2 Element Geometries 959
16–7 Cone Clutches and Brakes 856 19–3 The Finite-Element Solution Process 961
16–8 Energy Considerations 858 19–4 Mesh Generation 964
16–9 Temperature Rise 860 19–5 Load Application 966
16–10 Friction Materials 863 19–6 Boundary Conditions 967
16–11 Miscellaneous Clutches and Couplings 866 19–7 Modeling Techniques 967
16–12 Flywheels 868 19–8 Thermal Stresses 970
Problems 873 19–9 Critical Buckling Load 972
19–10 Vibration Analysis 973
Chapter 17 19–11 Summary 974
Problems 975
Flexible Mechanical Elements 881
17–1 Belts 882
17–2 Flat- and Round-Belt Drives 885
Chapter 20
17–3 V Belts 900 Geometric Dimensioning and
17–4 Timing Belts 908 Tolerancing 977
17–5 Roller Chain 909 20–1 Dimensioning and Tolerancing Systems 978
17–6 Wire Rope 917 20–2 Definition of Geometric Dimensioning and
17–7 Flexible Shafts 926 Tolerancing 979
Problems 927 20–3 Datums 983
20–4 Controlling Geometric Tolerances 989
Chapter 18 20–5 Geometric Characteristic Definitions 992
20–6 Material Condition Modifiers 1002
Power Transmission Case Study 935
20–7 Practical Implementation 1004
18–1 Design Sequence for Power
20–8 GD&T in CAD Models 1009
Transmission 937
20–9 Glossary of GD&T Terms 1010
18–2 Power and Torque Requirements 938
Problems 1012
18–3 Gear Specification 938
18–4 Shaft Layout 945
18–5 Force Analysis 947 Appendixes
18–6 Shaft Material Selection 947 A Useful Tables 1019
18–7 Shaft Design for Stress 948
B Answers to Selected P
roblems 1075
18–8 Shaft Design for Deflection 948
18–9 Bearing Selection 949 Index 1081
Preface
Objectives
This text is intended for students beginning the study of mechanical engineering design.
The focus is on blending fundamental development of concepts with practical specifi-
cation of components. Students of this text should find that it inherently directs them
into familiarity with both the basis for decisions and the standards of industrial com-
ponents. For this reason, as students transition to practicing engineers, they will find
that this text is indispensable as a reference text. The objectives of the text are to:
∙ Cover the basics of machine design, including the design process, engineering
mechanics and materials, failure prevention under static and variable loading, and
characteristics of the principal types of mechanical elements.
∙ Offer a practical approach to the subject through a wide range of real-world appli-
cations and examples.
∙ Encourage readers to link design and analysis.
∙ Encourage readers to link fundamental concepts with practical component
specification.
New to This Edition

Enhancements and modifications to the eleventh edition are described in the following
summaries:
∙ Chapter 6, Fatigue Failure Resulting from Variable Loading, has received a com-
plete update of its presentation. The goals include clearer explanations of underlying
mechanics, streamlined approach to the stress-life method, and updates consistent
with recent research. The introductory material provides a greater appreciation
of the processes involved in crack nucleation and propagation. This allows the
strain-life method and the linear-elastic fracture mechanics method to be given
proper context within the coverage, as well as to add to the understanding of the
factors driving the data used in the stress-life method. The overall methodology of
the stress-life approach remains the same, though with expanded explanations and
improvements in the presentation.
∙ Chapter 2, Materials, includes expanded coverage of plastic deformation, strain-
hardening, true stress and true strain, and cyclic stress-strain properties. This infor-
mation provides a stronger background for the expanded discussion in Chapter 6
of the mechanism of crack nucleation and propagation.
∙ Chapter 12, Lubrication and Journal Bearings, is improved and updated. The chapter
contains a new section on dynamically loaded journal bearings, including the mobil-
ity method of solution for the journal dynamic orbit. This includes new examples and
end-of-chapter problems. The design of big-end connecting rod bearings, used in
automotive applications, is also introduced. xv
xvi Mechanical Engineering Design
∙ Approximately 100 new end-of-chapter problems are implemented. These are

focused on providing more variety in the fundamental problems for first-time expo-
sure to the topics. In conjunction with the web-based parameterized problems avail-
able through McGraw-Hill Connect Engineering, the ability to assign new problems
each semester is ever stronger.
The following sections received minor but notable improvements in presentation:
Section 3–8 Elastic Strain Section 7–4 Shaft Design for Stress
Section 3–11 Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending Section 8–2 The Mechanics of Power Screws
Section 3–14 Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders Section 8–7 Tension Joints—The External Load
Section 3–15 Stresses in Rotating Rings Section 13–5 Fundamentals
Section 4–12 Long Columns with Central Loading Section 16–4 Band-Type Clutches and Brakes
Section 4–13 Intermediate-Length Columns with Section 16–8 Energy Considerations
Central Loading Section 17–2 Flat- and Round-Belt Drives
Section 4–14 Columns with Eccentric Loading Section 17–3 V Belts
In keeping with the well-recognized accuracy and consistency within this text, minor
improvements and corrections are made throughout with each new edition. Many of
these are in response to the diligent feedback from the community of users.
Instructor Supplements
Additional media offerings available at www.mhhe.com/shigley include:
∙ Solutions manual. The instructor’s manual contains solutions to most end-of-chapter
nondesign problems.
∙ PowerPoint® slides. Slides outlining the content of the text are provided in PowerPoint
format for instructors to use as a starting point for developing lecture presentation
materials. The slides include all figures, tables, and equations from the text.
∙ C.O.S.M.O.S. A complete online solutions manual organization system that allows
instructors to create custom homework, quizzes, and tests using end-of-chapter
problems from the text.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge those who have contributed to this text for
over 50 years and eleven editions. We are especially grateful to those who provided
input to this eleventh edition:
Steve Boedo, Rochester Institute of Technology: Review and update of Chapter 12,
Lubrication and Journal Bearings.
Lokesh Dharani, Missouri University of Science and Technology: Review and
advice regarding the coverage of fracture mechanics and fatigue.
Reviewers of This and Past Editions
Kenneth Huebner, Arizona State Om Agrawal, Southern Illinois University
Gloria Starns, Iowa State Arun Srinivasa, Texas A&M
Tim Lee, McGill University Jason Carey, University of Alberta
Robert Rizza, MSOE Patrick Smolinski, University of Pittsburgh
Richard Patton, Mississippi State University Dennis Hong, Virginia Tech
Stephen Boedo, Rochester Institute of Technology
List of Symbols
This is a list of common symbols used in machine design and in this book. Specialized
use in a subject-matter area often attracts fore and post subscripts and superscripts.
To make the table brief enough to be useful, the symbol kernels are listed. See
Table 14–1 for spur and helical gearing symbols, and Table 15–1 for bevel-gear
symbols.
A Area, coefficient
a Distance
B Coefficient, bearing length
Bhn Brinell hardness
b Distance, fatigue strength exponent, Weibull shape parameter, width
C Basic load rating, bolted-joint constant, center distance, coefficient of
variation, column end condition, correction factor, specific heat capac-
ity, spring index, radial clearance
c Distance, fatigue ductility exponent, radial clearance
COV Coefficient of variation
D Diameter, helix diameter
d Diameter, distance
E Modulus of elasticity, energy, error
e Distance, eccentricity, efficiency, Naperian logarithmic base
F Force, fundamental dimension force
f Coefficient of friction, frequency, function
fom Figure of merit
G Torsional modulus of elasticity
g Acceleration due to gravity, function
H Heat, power
HB Brinell hardness
HRC Rockwell C-scale hardness
h Distance, film thickness
hCR Combined overall coefficient of convection and radiation heat transfer
I Integral, linear impulse, mass moment of inertia, second moment of area
i Index
i Unit vector in x-direction
J Mechanical equivalent of heat, polar second moment of area, geometry
factor
j Unit vector in the y-direction
K Service factor, stress-concentration factor, stress-augmentation factor,
torque coefficient
k Marin endurance limit modifying factor, spring rate
k Unit vector in the z-direction
L Length, life, fundamental dimension length
ℒ Life in hours
xvii
xviii Mechanical Engineering Design
l Length
M Fundamental dimension mass, moment
M Moment vector, mobility vector
m Mass, slope, strain-strengthening exponent
N Normal force, number, rotational speed, number of cycles
n Load factor, rotational speed, factor of safety
nd Design factor
P Force, pressure, diametral pitch
PDF Probability density function
p Pitch, pressure, probability
Q First moment of area, imaginary force, volume
q Distributed load, notch sensitivity
R Radius, reaction force, reliability, Rockwell hardness, stress ratio,
reduction in area
R Vector reaction force
r Radius
r Distance vector
S Sommerfeld number, strength
s Distance, sample standard deviation, stress
T Temperature, tolerance, torque, fundamental dimension time
T Torque vector
t Distance, time, tolerance
U Strain energy
u Strain energy per unit volume
V Linear velocity, shear force
v Linear velocity
W Cold-work factor, load, weight
w Distance, gap, load intensity
X Coordinate, truncated number
x Coordinate, true value of a number, Weibull parameter
Y Coordinate
y Coordinate, deflection
Z Coordinate, section modulus, viscosity
z Coordinate, dimensionless transform variable for normal distributions
α Coefficient, coefficient of linear thermal expansion, end-condition for
springs, thread angle
β Bearing angle, coefficient
Δ Change, deflection
δ Deviation, elongation
ϵ Eccentricity ratio
ε Engineering strain
ε̃ True or logarithmic strain
ε̃ f True fracture strain
ε′f Fatigue ductility coefficient
Γ Gamma function, pitch angle
γ Pitch angle, shear strain, specific weight
λ Slenderness ratio for springs
μ Absolute viscosity, population mean
ν Poisson ratio
ω Angular velocity, circular frequency
List of Symbols xix
ϕ Angle, wave length

ψ Slope integral
ρ Radius of curvature, mass density
σ Normal stress
σa Alternating stress, stress amplitude
σar Completely reversed alternating stress
σm Mean stress
σ0 Nominal stress, strength coefficient or strain-strengthening coefficient
σ′f Fatigue strength coefficient
σ̃ True stress
σ̃f True fracture strength
σ′ Von Mises stress
σ̂ Standard deviation
τ Shear stress
θ Angle, Weibull characteristic parameter
¢ Cost per unit weight
$ Cost
Affordability & Outcomes = Academic Freedom!
You deserve choice, flexibility and control. You know what’s best for your students
and selecting the course materials that will help them succeed should be in your hands.
Thats why providing you with a wide range of options

that lower costs and drive better outcomes is our highest priority.
Students—study more efficiently, retain more

and achieve better outcomes. Instructors—focus
on what you love—teaching.
They’ll thank you for it.

Study resources in Connect help your students be better prepared
in less time. You can transform your class time from dull definitions
to dynamic discussion. Hear from your peers about the benefits of
Connect at www.mheducation.com/highered/connect
Study anytime, anywhere.

Download the free ReadAnywhere app and access your online eBook when
it’s convenient, even if you’re offline. And since the app automatically
syncs with your eBook in Connect, all of your notes are available every time
you open it. Find out more at www.mheducation.com/readanywhere
Learning for everyone.

McGraw-Hill works directly with Accessibility Services Departments and faculty
to meet the learning needs of all students. Please contact your Accessibility
Services office and ask them to email accessibility@mheducation.com, or visit
www.mheducation.com/about/accessibility.html for more information.
Learn more at: www.mheducation.com/realvalue
Rent It Go Digital Get Print

Affordable print and digital rental A full and flexible range of Students who purchase digital
options through our partnerships affordable digital solutions materials can get a loose-leaf print
with leading textbook distributors ranging from Connect, ALEKS, version at a significantly reduced
including Amazon, Barnes & inclusive access, mobile apps, rate to meet their individual
Noble, Chegg, Follett, and more. OER and more. preferences and budget.
Shigley’s
Mechanical
Engineering
Design
E D
O C
1
2
2 A
xy
G
part
Courtesy of Dee Dehokenanan
Basics
Chapter 1 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering
Design 3
Chapter 2 Materials 41
Chapter 3 Load and Stress Analysis 93
Chapter 4 Deflection and Stiffness 173
1 Introduction to Mechanical
Engineering Design
©Monty Rakusen/Getty Images
Chapter Outline
1–1 Design 4 1–10 Uncertainty 16
1–2 Mechanical Engineering Design 5 1–11 Design Factor and Factor of Safety 18
1–3
Phases and Interactions of the Design 1–12 Reliability and Probability of Failure 20
Process 5 1–13 Relating Design Factor to Reliability 24
1–4 Design Tools and Resources 8 1–14 Dimensions and Tolerances 27
1–5
The Design Engineer’s Professional 1–15 Units 31
Responsibilities 10
1–16 Calculations and Significant Figures 32
1–6 Standards and Codes 12
1–17 Design Topic Interdependencies 33
1–7 Economics 13
1–18
Power Transmission Case Study
1–8 Safety and Product Liability 15 Specifications 34
1–9 Stress and Strength 16 3
4 Mechanical Engineering Design
Mechanical design is a complex process, requiring many skills. Extensive relationships

need to be subdivided into a series of simple tasks. The complexity of the process
requires a sequence in which ideas are introduced and iterated.
We first address the nature of design in general, and then mechanical engineering
design in particular. Design is an iterative process with many interactive phases. Many
resources exist to support the designer, including many sources of information and an
abundance of computational design tools. Design engineers need not only develop
competence in their field but they must also cultivate a strong sense of responsibility
and professional work ethic.
There are roles to be played by codes and standards, ever-present economics,
safety, and considerations of product liability. The survival of a mechanical component
is often related through stress and strength. Matters of uncertainty are ever-present in
engineering design and are typically addressed by the design factor and factor of
safety, either in the form of a deterministic (absolute) or statistical sense. The latter,
statistical approach, deals with a design’s reliability and requires good statistical data.
In mechanical design, other considerations include dimensions and tolerances,
units, and calculations.
This book consists of four parts. Part 1, Basics, begins by explaining some dif-
ferences between design and analysis and introducing some fundamental notions and
approaches to design. It continues with three chapters reviewing material properties,
stress analysis, and stiffness and deflection analysis, which are the principles neces-
sary for the remainder of the book.
Part 2, Failure Prevention, consists of two chapters on the prevention of failure
of mechanical parts. Why machine parts fail and how they can be designed to prevent
failure are difficult questions, and so we take two chapters to answer them, one on
preventing failure due to static loads, and the other on preventing fatigue failure due
to time-varying, cyclic loads.
In Part 3, Design of Mechanical Elements, the concepts of Parts 1 and 2 are
applied to the analysis, selection, and design of specific mechanical elements such as
shafts, fasteners, weldments, springs, rolling contact bearings, film bearings, gears,
belts, chains, and wire ropes.
Part 4, Special Topics, provides introductions to two important methods used in
mechanical design, finite element analysis and geometric dimensioning and toleranc-
ing. This is optional study material, but some sections and examples in Parts 1 to 3
demonstrate the use of these tools.
There are two appendixes at the end of the book. Appendix A contains many
useful tables referenced throughout the book. Appendix B contains answers to selected
end-of-chapter problems.
1–1 Design
To design is either to formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a specified need or to
solve a specific problem. If the plan results in the creation of something having a
physical reality, then the product must be functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable,
manufacturable, and marketable.
Design is an innovative and highly iterative process. It is also a decision-making
process. Decisions sometimes have to be made with too little information, occasionally
with just the right amount of information, or with an excess of partially contradictory
information. Decisions are sometimes made tentatively, with the right reserved to
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design 5
adjust as more becomes known. The point is that the engineering designer has to be
personally comfortable with a decision-making, problem-solving role.
Design is a communication-intensive activity in which both words and pictures
are used, and written and oral forms are employed. Engineers have to communicate
effectively and work with people of many disciplines. These are important skills, and
an engineer’s success depends on them.
A designer’s personal resources of creativeness, communicative ability, and problem-
solving skill are intertwined with the knowledge of technology and first principles.
Engineering tools (such as mathematics, statistics, computers, graphics, and languages)
are combined to produce a plan that, when carried out, produces a product that is
functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable, and marketable, regard-
less of who builds it or who uses it.
1–2 Mechanical Engineering Design

Mechanical engineers are associated with the production and processing of energy
and with providing the means of production, the tools of transportation, and the
techniques of automation. The skill and knowledge base are extensive. Among the
disciplinary bases are mechanics of solids and fluids, mass and momentum transport,
manufacturing processes, and electrical and information theory. Mechanical engineering
design involves all the disciplines of mechanical engineering.
Real problems resist compartmentalization. A simple journal bearing involves
fluid flow, heat transfer, friction, energy transport, material selection, thermomechan-
ical treatments, statistical descriptions, and so on. A building is environmentally con-
trolled. The heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning considerations are sufficiently
specialized that some speak of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning design as if
it is separate and distinct from mechanical engineering design. Similarly, internal-
combustion engine design, turbomachinery design, and jet-engine design are some-
times considered discrete entities. Here, the leading string of words preceding the
word design is merely a product descriptor. Similarly, there are phrases such as
machine design, machine-element design, machine-component design, systems design,
and fluid-power design. All of these phrases are somewhat more focused examples of
mechanical engineering design. They all draw on the same bodies of knowledge, are
similarly organized, and require similar skills.
1–3 Phases and Interactions of the Design Process

What is the design process? How does it begin? Does the engineer simply sit down
at a desk with a blank sheet of paper and jot down some ideas? What happens next?
What factors influence or control the decisions that have to be made? Finally, how
does the design process end?
The complete design process, from start to finish, is often outlined as in Figure 1–1.
The process begins with an identification of a need and a decision to do something
about it. After many iterations, the process ends with the presentation of the plans
for satisfying the need. Depending on the nature of the design task, several design
phases may be repeated throughout the life of the product, from inception to termi-
nation. In the next several subsections, we shall examine these steps in the design
process in detail.
Identification of need generally starts the design process. Recognition of the need
and phrasing the need often constitute a highly creative act, because the need may be
Figure 1–1 Identification of need

The phases in design,
acknowledging the many
feedbacks and iterations. Definition of problem
Synthesis
Analysis and optimization
Evaluation
Iteration
Presentation
only a vague discontent, a feeling of uneasiness, or a sensing that something is not

right. The need is often not evident at all; recognition can be triggered by a particular
adverse circumstance or a set of random circumstances that arises almost simultane-
ously. For example, the need to do something about a food-packaging machine may
be indicated by the noise level, by a variation in package weight, and by slight but
perceptible variations in the quality of the packaging or wrap.
There is a distinct difference between the statement of the need and the definition
of the problem. The definition of problem is more specific and must include all the
specifications for the object that is to be designed. The specifications are the input
and output quantities, the characteristics and dimensions of the space the object must
occupy, and all the limitations on these quantities. We can regard the object to be
designed as something in a black box. In this case we must specify the inputs and
outputs of the box, together with their characteristics and limitations. The specifications
define the cost, the number to be manufactured, the expected life, the range, the oper-
ating temperature, and the reliability. Specified characteristics can include the speeds,
feeds, temperature limitations, maximum range, expected variations in the variables,
dimensional and weight limitations, and more.
There are many implied specifications that result either from the designer’s par-
ticular environment or from the nature of the problem itself. The manufacturing pro-
cesses that are available, together with the facilities of a certain plant, constitute
restrictions on a designer’s freedom, and hence are a part of the implied specifications.
It may be that a small plant, for instance, does not own cold-working machinery.
Knowing this, the designer might select other metal-processing methods that can be
performed in the plant. The labor skills available and the competitive situation also
constitute implied constraints. Anything that limits the designer’s freedom of choice is
a constraint. Many materials and sizes are listed in supplier’s catalogs, for instance,
but these are not all easily available and shortages frequently occur. Furthermore,
inventory economics requires that a manufacturer stock a minimum number of materi-
als and sizes. An example of a specification is given in Section 1–18. This example is
for a case study of a power transmission that is presented throughout this text.
The synthesis of a scheme connecting possible system elements is sometimes
called the invention of the concept or concept design. This is the first and most important
step in the synthesis task. Various schemes must be proposed, investigated, and quan-
tified in terms of established metrics.1 As the fleshing out of the scheme progresses,
analyses must be performed to assess whether the system performance is satisfactory
or better, and, if satisfactory, just how well it will perform. System schemes that do
not survive analysis are revised, improved, or discarded. Those with potential are
optimized to determine the best performance of which the scheme is capable.
Competing schemes are compared so that the path leading to the most competitive
product can be chosen. Figure 1–1 shows that synthesis and analysis and optimization
are intimately and iteratively related.
We have noted, and we emphasize, that design is an iterative process in which
we proceed through several steps, evaluate the results, and then return to an earlier
phase of the procedure. Thus, we may synthesize several components of a system,
analyze and optimize them, and return to synthesis to see what effect this has on the
remaining parts of the system. For example, the design of a system to transmit power
requires attention to the design and selection of individual components (e.g., gears,
bearings, shaft). However, as is often the case in design, these components are not
independent. In order to design the shaft for stress and deflection, it is necessary to
know the applied forces. If the forces are transmitted through gears, it is necessary
to know the gear specifications in order to determine the forces that will be transmit-
ted to the shaft. But stock gears come with certain bore sizes, requiring knowledge
of the necessary shaft diameter. Clearly, rough estimates will need to be made in order
to proceed through the process, refining and iterating until a final design is obtained
that is satisfactory for each individual component as well as for the overall design
specifications. Throughout the text we will elaborate on this process for the case study
of a power transmission design.
Both analysis and optimization require that we construct or devise abstract mod-
els of the system that will admit some form of mathematical analysis. We call these
models mathematical models. In creating them it is our hope that we can find one
that will simulate the real physical system very well. As indicated in Figure 1–1,
evaluation is a significant phase of the total design process. Evaluation is the final
proof of a successful design and usually involves the testing of a prototype in the
laboratory. Here we wish to discover if the design really satisfies the needs. Is it reli-
able? Will it compete successfully with similar products? Is it economical to manufac-
ture and to use? Is it easily maintained and adjusted? Can a profit be made from its
sale or use? How likely is it to result in product-liability lawsuits? And is insurance
easily and cheaply obtained? Is it likely that recalls will be needed to replace defective
parts or systems? The project designer or design team will need to address a myriad
of engineering and non-engineering questions.
Communicating the design to others is the final, vital presentation step in the
design process. Undoubtedly, many great designs, inventions, and creative works have
been lost to posterity simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to
properly explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The
engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervi-
sory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that their solution is a better
one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the
1
An excellent reference for this topic is presented by Stuart Pugh, Total Design—Integrated Methods for
Successful Product Engineering, Addison-Wesley, 1991. A description of the Pugh method is also provided
in Chapter 8, David G. Ullman, The Mechanical Design Process, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2003.
solution have been largely wasted. When designers sell a new idea, they also sell
themselves. If they are repeatedly successful in selling ideas, designs, and new solu-
tions to management, they begin to receive salary increases and promotions; in fact,
this is how anyone succeeds in his or her profession.
Design Considerations
Sometimes the strength required of an element in a system is an important factor in
the determination of the geometry and the dimensions of the element. In such a situ-
ation we say that strength is an important design consideration. When we use the
expression design consideration, we are referring to some characteristic that influences
the design of the element or, perhaps, the entire system. Usually quite a number of
such characteristics must be considered and prioritized in a given design situation.
Many of the important ones are as follows (not necessarily in order of importance):
1 Functionality 14 Noise
2 Strength/stress 15 Styling
3 Distortion/deflection/stiffness 16 Shape
4 Wear 17 Size
5 Corrosion 18 Control
6 Safety 19 Thermal properties
7 Reliability 20 Surface
8 Manufacturability 21 Lubrication
9 Utility 22 Marketability
10 Cost 23 Maintenance
11 Friction 24 Volume
12 Weight 25 Liability
13 Life 26 Remanufacturing/resource recovery
Some of these characteristics have to do directly with the dimensions, the material,
the processing, and the joining of the elements of the system. Several characteristics
may be interrelated, which affects the configuration of the total system.
1–4 Design Tools and Resources

Today, the engineer has a great variety of tools and resources available to assist in
the solution of design problems. Inexpensive microcomputers and robust computer
software packages provide tools of immense capability for the design, analysis, and
simulation of mechanical components. In addition to these tools, the engineer always
needs technical information, either in the form of basic science/engineering behavior
or the characteristics of specific off-the-shelf components. Here, the resources can
range from science/engineering textbooks to manufacturers’ brochures or catalogs.
Here too, the computer can play a major role in gathering information.2
Computational Tools
Computer-aided design (CAD) software allows the development of three-dimensional
(3-D) designs from which conventional two-dimensional orthographic views with
automatic dimensioning can be produced. Manufacturing tool paths can be generated
2
An excellent and comprehensive discussion of the process of “gathering information” can be found in
Chapter 4, George E. Dieter, Engineering Design, A Materials and Processing Approach, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2000.
from the computer 3-D models, and in many cases, parts can be created directly from
the 3-D database using rapid prototyping additive methods referred to as 3-D printing
or STL (stereolithography). Another advantage of a 3-D database is that it allows
rapid and accurate calculation of mass properties such as mass, location of the center
of gravity, and mass moments of inertia. Other geometric properties such as areas and
distances between points are likewise easily obtained. There are a great many CAD
software packages available such as CATIA, AutoCAD, NX, MicroStation, SolidWorks,
and Creo, to name only a few.3
The term computer-aided engineering (CAE) generally applies to all computer-
related engineering applications. With this definition, CAD can be considered as a
subset of CAE. Some computer software packages perform specific engineering anal-
ysis and/or simulation tasks that assist the designer, but they are not considered a tool
for the creation of the design that CAD is. Such software fits into two categories:
engineering-based and non-engineering-specific. Some examples of engineering-based
software for mechanical engineering applications—software that might also be inte-
grated within a CAD system—include finite-element analysis (FEA) programs for
analysis of stress and deflection (see Chapter 19), vibration, and heat transfer (e.g.,
ALGOR, ANSYS, MSC/NASTRAN, etc.); computational fluid dynamics (CFD) pro-
grams for fluid-flow analysis and simulation (e.g., CFD++, Star-CCM+, Fluent, etc.);
and programs for simulation of dynamic force and motion in mechanisms (e.g.,
ADAMS, LMS Virtual.Lab Motion, Working Model, etc.).
Examples of non-engineering-specific computer-aided applications include soft-
ware for word processing, spreadsheet software (e.g., Excel, Quattro-Pro, Google
Sheets, etc.), and mathematical solvers (e.g., Maple, MathCad, MATLAB, Mathematica,
TKsolver, etc.).
Your instructor is the best source of information about programs that may be
available to you and can recommend those that are useful for specific tasks. One cau-
tion, however: Computer software is no substitute for the human thought process. You
are the driver here; the computer is the vehicle to assist you on your journey to a
solution. Numbers generated by a computer can be far from the truth if you entered
incorrect input, if you misinterpreted the application or the output of the program, if
the program contained bugs, etc. It is your responsibility to assure the validity of the
results, so be careful to check the application and results carefully, perform benchmark
testing by submitting problems with known solutions, and monitor the software com-
pany and user-group newsletters.
Acquiring Technical Information

We currently live in what is referred to as the information age, where information is
generated at an astounding pace. It is difficult, but extremely important, to keep
abreast of past and current developments in one’s field of study and occupation. The
reference in footnote 2 provides an excellent description of the informational resources
available and is highly recommended reading for the serious design engineer. Some
sources of information are:
∙ Libraries (community, university, and private). Engineering dictionaries and ency-
clopedias, textbooks, monographs, handbooks, indexing and abstract services, jour-
nals, translations, technical reports, patents, and business sources/brochures/catalogs.
3
The commercial softwares mentioned in this section are but a few of the many that are available and
are by no means meant to be endorsements by the authors.
∙ Government sources. Departments of Defense, Commerce, Energy, and

Transportation; NASA; Government Printing Office; U.S. Patent and Trademark
Office; National Technical Information Service; and National Institute for Standards
and Technology.
∙ Professional societies. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Society of
Manufacturing Engineers, Society of Automotive Engineers, American Society for
Testing and Materials, and American Welding Society.
∙ Commercial vendors. Catalogs, technical literature, test data, samples, and cost
information.
∙ Internet. The computer network gateway to websites associated with most of the
categories previously listed.4
This list is not complete. The reader is urged to explore the various sources of
information on a regular basis and keep records of the knowledge gained.
1–5 The Design Engineer’s Professional Responsibilities

In general, the design engineer is required to satisfy the needs of customers (manage-
ment, clients, consumers, etc.) and is expected to do so in a competent, responsible,
ethical, and professional manner. Much of engineering course work and practical
experience focuses on competence, but when does one begin to develop engineering
responsibility and professionalism? To start on the road to success, you should start
to develop these characteristics early in your educational program. You need to cul-
tivate your professional work ethic and process skills before graduation, so that when
you begin your formal engineering career, you will be prepared to meet the challenges.
It is not obvious to some students, but communication skills play a large role
here, and it is the wise student who continuously works to improve these skills—even
if it is not a direct requirement of a course assignment! Success in engineering
(achievements, promotions, raises, etc.) may in large part be due to competence but
if you cannot communicate your ideas clearly and concisely, your technical profi-
ciency may be compromised.
You can start to develop your communication skills by keeping a neat and clear
journal/logbook of your activities, entering dated entries frequently. (Many compa-
nies require their engineers to keep a journal for patent and liability concerns.)
Separate journals should be used for each design project (or course subject). When
starting a project or problem, in the definition stage, make journal entries quite
frequently. Others, as well as yourself, may later question why you made certain
decisions. Good chronological records will make it easier to explain your decisions
at a later date.
Many engineering students see themselves after graduation as practicing engi-
neers designing, developing, and analyzing products and processes and consider the
need of good communication skills, either oral or writing, as secondary. This is far
from the truth. Most practicing engineers spend a good deal of time communicating
with others, writing proposals and technical reports, and giving presentations and
interacting with engineering and non-engineering support personnel. You have the time
now to sharpen your communication skills. When given an assignment to write or
4
Some helpful Web resources, to name a few, include www.globalspec.com, www.engnetglobal.com,
www.efunda.com, www.thomasnet.com, and www.uspto.gov.
make any presentation, technical or nontechnical, accept it enthusiastically, and work

on improving your communication skills. It will be time well spent to learn the skills
now rather than on the job.
When you are working on a design problem, it is important that you develop a
systematic approach. Careful attention to the following action steps will help you to
organize your solution processing technique.
∙ Understand the problem. Problem definition is probably the most significant step
in the engineering design process. Carefully read, understand, and refine the prob-
lem statement.
∙ Identify the knowns. From the refined problem statement, describe concisely what
information is known and relevant.
∙ Identify the unknowns and formulate the solution strategy. State what must be
determined, in what order, so as to arrive at a solution to the problem. Sketch the
component or system under investigation, identifying known and unknown param-
eters. Create a flowchart of the steps necessary to reach the final solution. The steps
may require the use of free-body diagrams; material properties from tables; equa-
tions from first principles, textbooks, or handbooks relating the known and unknown
parameters; experimentally or numerically based charts; specific computational
tools as discussed in Section 1–4; etc.
∙ State all assumptions and decisions. Real design problems generally do not have
unique, ideal, closed-form solutions. Selections, such as the choice of materials,
and heat treatments, require decisions. Analyses require assumptions related to the
modeling of the real components or system. All assumptions and decisions should
be identified and recorded.
∙ Analyze the problem. Using your solution strategy in conjunction with your deci-
sions and assumptions, execute the analysis of the problem. Reference the sources
of all equations, tables, charts, software results, etc. Check the credibility of your
results. Check the order of magnitude, dimensionality, trends, signs, etc.
∙ Evaluate your solution. Evaluate each step in the solution, noting how changes in
strategy, decisions, assumptions, and execution might change the results, in positive
or negative ways. Whenever possible, incorporate the positive changes in your final
solution.
∙ Present your solution. Here is where your communication skills are important. At
this point, you are selling yourself and your technical abilities. If you cannot skill-
fully explain what you have done, some or all of your work may be misunderstood
and unaccepted. Know your audience.
As stated earlier, all design processes are interactive and iterative. Thus, it may be
necessary to repeat some or all of the aforementioned steps more than once if less
than satisfactory results are obtained.
In order to be effective, all professionals must keep current in their fields of
endeavor. The design engineer can satisfy this in a number of ways by: being an active
member of a professional society such as the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME), the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the Society of
Manufacturing Engineers (SME); attending meetings, conferences, and seminars of
societies, manufacturers, universities, etc.; taking specific graduate courses or pro-
grams at universities; regularly reading technical and professional journals; etc. An
engineer’s education does not end at graduation.
The design engineer’s professional obligations include conducting activities in an

ethical manner. Reproduced here is the Engineers’ Creed from the National Society
of Professional Engineers (NSPE):5
As a Professional Engineer I dedicate my professional knowledge and skill to the
advancement and betterment of human welfare.
I pledge:
To give the utmost of performance;
To participate in none but honest enterprise;
To live and work according to the laws of man and the highest standards of
professional conduct;
To place service before profit, the honor and standing of the profession before
personal advantage, and the public welfare above all other considerations.
In humility and with need for Divine Guidance, I make this pledge.
1–6 Standards and Codes

A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended to
achieve uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality. One of the important purposes
of a standard is to limit the multitude of variations that can arise from the arbitrary
creation of a part, material, or process.
A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, and con-
struction of something. The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified degree of
safety, efficiency, and performance or quality. It is important to observe that safety
codes do not imply absolute safety. In fact, absolute safety is impossible to obtain.
Sometimes the unexpected event really does happen. Designing a building to with-
stand a 120 mi/h wind does not mean that the designers think a 140 mi/h wind is
impossible; it simply means that they think it is highly improbable.
All of the organizations and societies listed here have established specifications
for standards and safety or design codes. The name of the organization provides a
clue to the nature of the standard or code. Some of the standards and codes, as well
as addresses, can be obtained in most technical libraries or on the Internet. The orga-
nizations of interest to mechanical engineers are:
Aluminum Association (AA)
American Bearing Manufacturers Association (ABMA)
American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
American Welding Society (AWS)
5
Adopted by the National Society of Professional Engineers, June 1954. “The Engineer’s Creed.” Reprinted
by permission of the National Society of Professional Engineers. NSPE also publishes a much more extensive
Code of Ethics for Engineers with rules of practice and professional obligations. For the current revision,
July 2007 (at the time of this book’s printing), see the website www.nspe.org/Ethics/CodeofEthics/index.html.
ASM International
British Standards Institution (BSI)
Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE)
Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE)
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
International Federation of Robotics (IFR)
International Standards Organization (ISO)
National Association of Power Engineers (NAPE)
National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST)
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
1–7 Economics
The consideration of cost plays such an important role in the design decision process
that we could easily spend as much time in studying the cost factor as in the study
of the entire subject of design. Here we introduce only a few general concepts and
simple rules.
First, observe that nothing can be said in an absolute sense concerning costs.
Materials and labor usually show an increasing cost from year to year. But the costs
of processing the materials can be expected to exhibit a decreasing trend because
of the use of automated machine tools and robots. The cost of manufacturing a
single product will vary from city to city and from one plant to another because of
overhead, labor, taxes, and freight differentials and the inevitable slight manufactur-
ing variations.
Standard Sizes
The use of standard or stock sizes is a first principle of cost reduction. An engineer
who specifies an AISI 1020 bar of hot-rolled steel 53 mm square has added cost to
the product, provided that a bar 50 or 60 mm square, both of which are preferred
sizes, would do equally well. The 53-mm size can be obtained by special order or by
rolling or machining a 60-mm square, but these approaches add cost to the product.
To ensure that standard or preferred sizes are specified, designers must have access
to stock lists of the materials they employ.
A further word of caution regarding the selection of preferred sizes is necessary.
Although a great many sizes are usually listed in catalogs, they are not all readily
available. Some sizes are used so infrequently that they are not stocked. A rush order
for such sizes may add to the expense and delay. Thus you should also have access
to a list such as those in Table A–17 for preferred inch and millimeter sizes.
There are many purchased parts, such as motors, pumps, bearings, and fasteners,
that are specified by designers. In the case of these, too, you should make a special
effort to specify parts that are readily available. Parts that are made and sold in large
quantities usually cost somewhat less than the odd sizes. The cost of rolling bearings,
for example, depends more on the quantity of production by the bearing manufacturer
than on the size of the bearing.
Large Tolerances
Among the effects of design specifications on costs, tolerances are perhaps most
significant. Tolerances, manufacturing processes, and surface finish are interrelated
and influence the producibility of the end product in many ways. Close tolerances
Figure 1–2 400

380
Cost versus tolerance/machining
360
process. (Source: From Ullman,
340
David G., The Mechanical 320
Design Process, 3rd ed., 300
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2003.) 280 Material: steel
260
240
Costs, %
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
± 0.030 ± 0.015 ± 0.010 ± 0.005 ± 0.003 ± 0.001 ± 0.0005 ± 0.00025
Nominal tolerances (inches)

± 0.75 ± 0.50 ± 0.50 ± 0.125 ± 0.063 ± 0.025 ± 0.012 ± 0.006
Nominal tolerance (mm)

Semi- Finish
Rough turn finish turn Grind Hone
turn
Machining operations
may necessitate additional steps in processing and inspection or even render a part
completely impractical to produce economically. Tolerances cover dimensional varia-
tion and surface-roughness range and also the variation in mechanical properties
resulting from heat treatment and other processing operations.
Because parts having large tolerances can often be produced by machines with
higher production rates, costs will be significantly smaller. Also, fewer such parts will
be rejected in the inspection process, and they are usually easier to assemble. A plot
of cost versus tolerance/machining process is shown in Figure 1–2, and illustrates the
drastic increase in manufacturing cost as tolerance diminishes with finer machining
processing.
Breakeven Points
Sometimes it happens that, when two or more design approaches are compared for
cost, the choice between the two depends on a set of conditions such as the quantity
of production, the speed of the assembly lines, or some other condition. There then
occurs a point corresponding to equal cost, which is called the breakeven point.
As an example, consider a situation in which a certain part can be manufactured
at the rate of 25 parts per hour on an automatic screw machine or 10 parts per hour
on a hand screw machine. Let us suppose, too, that the setup time for the automatic
is 3 h and that the labor cost for either machine is $20 per hour, including overhead.
Figure 1–3 is a graph of cost versus production by the two methods. The breakeven
point for this example corresponds to 50 parts. If the desired production is greater
than 50 parts, the automatic machine should be used.
140
Figure 1–3
A breakeven point.
120 Breakeven point
100 Automatic screw

machine
80
Cost, $
60
Hand screw machine
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Production
Cost Estimates
There are many ways of obtaining relative cost figures so that two or more designs
can be roughly compared. A certain amount of judgment may be required in some
instances. For example, we can compare the relative value of two automobiles by
comparing the dollar cost per pound of weight. Another way to compare the cost of
one design with another is simply to count the number of parts. The design having
the smaller number of parts is likely to cost less. Many other cost estimators can be
used, depending upon the application, such as area, volume, horsepower, torque,
capacity, speed, and various performance ratios.6
1–8 Safety and Product Liability

The strict liability concept of product liability generally prevails in the United States.
This concept states that the manufacturer of an article is liable for any damage or
harm that results because of a defect. And it doesn’t matter whether the manufacturer
knew about the defect, or even could have known about it. For example, suppose an
article was manufactured, say, 10 years ago. And suppose at that time the article could
not have been considered defective on the basis of all technological knowledge then
available. Ten years later, according to the concept of strict liability, the manufacturer
is still liable. Thus, under this concept, the plaintiff needs only to prove that the
article was defective and that the defect caused some damage or harm. Negligence of
the manufacturer need not be proved.
The best approaches to the prevention of product liability are good engineering
in analysis and design, quality control, and comprehensive testing procedures.
Advertising managers often make glowing promises in the warranties and sales lit-
erature for a product. These statements should be reviewed carefully by the engineer-
ing staff to eliminate excessive promises and to insert adequate warnings and
instructions for use.
6
For an overview of estimating manufacturing costs, see Chapter 11, Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger,
Product Design and Development, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2004.
1–9 Stress and Strength

The survival of many products depends on how the designer adjusts the maximum
stresses in a component to be less than the component’s strength at critical locations.
The designer must allow the maximum stress to be less than the strength by a suf-
ficient margin so that despite the uncertainties, failure is rare.
In focusing on the stress-strength comparison at a critical (controlling) location,
we often look for “strength in the geometry and condition of use.” Strengths are the
magnitudes of stresses at which something of interest occurs, such as the proportional
limit, 0.2 percent-offset yielding, or fracture (see Section 2–1). In many cases, such
events represent the stress level at which loss of function occurs.
Strength is a property of a material or of a mechanical element. The strength of
an element depends on the choice, the treatment, and the processing of the material.
Consider, for example, a shipment of springs. We can associate a strength with a
specific spring. When this spring is incorporated into a machine, external forces are
applied that result in load-induced stresses in the spring, the magnitudes of which
depend on its geometry and are independent of the material and its processing. If the
spring is removed from the machine undamaged, the stress due to the external forces
will return to zero. But the strength remains as one of the properties of the spring.
Remember, then, that strength is an inherent property of a part, a property built into
the part because of the use of a particular material and process.
Various metalworking and heat-treating processes, such as forging, rolling, and
cold forming, cause variations in the strength from point to point throughout a part.
The spring cited previously is quite likely to have a strength on the outside of the
coils different from its strength on the inside because the spring has been formed by
a cold winding process, and the two sides may not have been deformed by the same
amount. Remember, too, therefore, that a strength value given for a part may apply
to only a particular point or set of points on the part.
In this book we shall use the capital letter S to denote strength, with appropriate
subscripts to denote the type of strength. Thus, Sy is a yield strength, Su an ultimate
strength, Ssy a shear yield strength, and Se an endurance strength.
In accordance with accepted engineering practice, we shall employ the Greek
letters σ (sigma) and τ (tau) to designate normal and shear stresses, respectively. Again,
various subscripts will indicate some special characteristic. For example, σ1 is a prin-
cipal normal stress, σy a normal stress component in the y direction, and σr a normal
stress component in the radial direction.
Stress is a state property at a specific point within a body, which is a function
of load, geometry, temperature, and manufacturing processing. In an elementary
course in mechanics of materials, stress related to load and geometry is emphasized
with some discussion of thermal stresses. However, stresses due to heat treatments,
molding, assembly, etc. are also important and are sometimes neglected. A review of
stress analysis for basic load states and geometry is given in Chapter 3.
1–10 Uncertainty
Uncertainties in machinery design abound. Examples of uncertainties concerning
stress and strength include
∙ Composition of material and the effect of variation on properties.
∙ Variations in properties from place to place within a bar of stock.
∙ Effect of processing locally, or nearby, on properties.
∙ Effect of nearby assemblies such as weldments and shrink fits on stress conditions.
∙ Effect of thermomechanical treatment on properties.
∙ Intensity and distribution of loading.
∙ Validity of mathematical models used to represent reality.
∙ Intensity of stress concentrations.
∙ Influence of time on strength and geometry.
∙ Effect of corrosion.
∙ Effect of wear.
∙ Uncertainty as to the length of any list of uncertainties.
Engineers must accommodate uncertainty. Uncertainty always accompanies change.
Material properties, load variability, fabrication fidelity, and validity of mathematical
models are among concerns to designers.
There are mathematical methods to address uncertainties. The primary techniques
are the deterministic and stochastic methods. The deterministic method establishes a
design factor based on the absolute uncertainties of a loss-of-function parameter and
a maximum allowable parameter. Here the parameter can be load, stress, deflection,
etc. Thus, the design factor nd is defined as
loss-of-function parameter
nd = (1–1)
maximum allowable parameter
If the parameter is load (as would be the case for column buckling), then the maximum
allowable load can be found from
loss-of-function load
Maximum allowable load = (1–2)
nd
EXAMPLE 1–1
Consider that the maximum load on a structure is known with an uncertainty of ±20 percent, and the load
causing failure is known within ±15 percent. If the load causing failure is nominally 2000 lbf, determine the
design factor and the maximum allowable load that will offset the absolute uncertainties.
Solution
To account for its uncertainty, the loss-of-function load must increase to 1∕0.85, whereas the maximum
allowable load must decrease to 1∕1.2. Thus to offset the absolute uncertainties the design factor, from
Equation (1–1), should be
1∕0.85
Answer nd = = 1.4
1∕1.2
From Equation (1–2), the maximum allowable load is found to be
2000
Answer Maximum allowable load = = 1400 lbf
1.4
Stochastic methods are based on the statistical nature of the design parameters
and focus on the probability of survival of the design’s function (that is, on reliability).
This is discussed further in Sections 1–12 and 1–13.
1–11 Design Factor and Factor of Safety

A general approach to the allowable load versus loss-of-function load problem is the
deterministic design factor method, and sometimes called the classical method of design.
The fundamental equation is Equation (1–1) where nd is called the design factor. All
loss-of-function modes must be analyzed, and the mode leading to the smallest design
factor governs. After the design is completed, the actual design factor may change as a
result of changes such as rounding up to a standard size for a cross section or using off-
the-shelf components with higher ratings instead of employing what is calculated by using
the design factor. The factor is then referred to as the factor of safety, n. The factor of
safety has the same definition as the design factor, but it generally differs numerically.
Because stress may not vary linearly with load (see Section 3–19), using load
as the loss-of-function parameter may not be acceptable. It is more common then to
express the design factor in terms of a stress and a relevant strength. Thus Equation (1–1)
can be rewritten as
loss-of-function strength S
nd = = (1–3)
allowable stress σ(or τ)
The stress and strength terms in Equation (1–3) must be of the same type and units.
Also, the stress and strength must apply to the same critical location in the part.
EXAMPLE 1–2
A rod with a cross-sectional area of A and loaded in tension with an axial force of P = 2000 lbf undergoes a
stress of σ = P∕A. Using a material strength of 24 kpsi and a design factor of 3.0, determine the minimum
diameter of a solid circular rod. Using Table A–17, select a preferred fractional diameter and determine the
rod’s factor of safety.
Solution
Since A = πd 2∕4, σ = P∕A, and from Equation (1–3), σ = S∕nd, then
P P S
σ= = 2 =
A πd ∕4 nd
Solving for d yields
d=(
πS ) ( π(24 000) ) = 0.564 in
4Pnd 1∕2 4(2000)3 1∕2
Answer =
5
From Table A–17, the next higher preferred size is 8 in = 0.625 in. Thus, when nd is replaced with n in the
equation developed above, the factor of safety n is
πSd 2 π(24 000)0.6252
Answer n= = = 3.68
4P 4(2000)
Thus, rounding the diameter has increased the actual design factor.
It is tempting to offer some recommendations concerning the assignment of the

design factor for a given application.7 The problem in doing so is with the evaluation
7
If the reader desires some examples of assigning design factor values see David G. Ullman, The
Mechanical Design Process, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 2010, Appendix C.
of the many uncertainties associated with the loss-of-function modes. The reality is,
the designer must attempt to account for the variance of all the factors that will affect
the results. Then, the designer must rely on experience, company policies, and the
many codes that may pertain to the application (e.g., the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code) to arrive at an appropriate design factor. An example might help clarify
the intricacy of assigning a design factor.
EXAMPLE 1–3
A vertical round rod is to be used to support a hanging weight. A person will place the weight on the end
without dropping it. The diameter of the rod can be manufactured within ±1 percent of its nominal dimension.
The support ends can be centered within ±1.5 percent of the nominal diameter dimension. The weight is known
within ±2 percent of the nominal weight. The strength of the material is known within ±3.5 percent of the
nominal strength value. If the designer is using nominal values and the nominal stress equation, σnom = P∕A
(as in the previous example), determine what design factor should be used so that the stress does not exceed
the strength.
Solution
There are two hidden factors to consider here. The first, due to the possibility of eccentric loading, the maxi-
mum stress is not σ = P∕A (review Chapter 3). Second, the person may not be placing the weight onto the
rod support end gradually, and the load application would then be considered dynamic.
Consider the eccentricity first. With eccentricity, a bending moment will exist giving an additional stress
of σ = 32M∕(πd 3) (see Section 3–10). The bending moment is given by M = Pe, where e is the eccentricity.
Thus, the maximum stress in the rod is given by
P 32Pe P 32Pe
σ= + = 2 + (1)
A πd 3 πd ∕4 πd 3
Since the eccentricity tolerance is expressed as a function of the diameter, we will write the eccentricity as a
percentage of d. Let e = ked, where ke is a constant. Thus, Equation (1) is rewritten as
4P 32Pked 4P
σ= 2
+ 3
= 2 (1 + 8ke ) (2)
πd πd πd
Applying the tolerances to achieve the maximum the stress can reach gives
[1 + 8(0.015) ] = 1.166 (
πd 2 )
4P(1 + 0.02) 4P
σmax = 2
(3)
π[d(1 − 0.01)]
= 1.166σnom
Suddenly applied loading is covered in Section 4–17. If a weight is dropped from a height, h, from the support
end, the maximum load in the rod is given by Equation (4–59) which is
F = W + W (1 + )
hk 1∕2
W
where F is the force in the rod, W is the weight, and k is the rod’s spring constant. Since the person is not
dropping the weight, h = 0, and with W = P, then F = 2P. This assumes the person is not gradually placing
the weight on, and there is no damping in the rod. Thus, Equation (3) is modified by substituting 2P for P
and the maximum stress is
σmax = 2(1.166) σnom = 2.332 σnom
The minimum strength is

Smin = (1 − 0.035) Snom = 0.965 Snom
Equating the maximum stress to the minimum strength gives
2.332 σnom = 0.965 Snom
From Equation (1–3), the design factor using nominal values should be
Snom 2.332
Answer nd = = = 2.42
σnom 0.965
Obviously, if the designer takes into account all of the uncertainties in this example and accounts for all of
the tolerances in the stress and strength in the calculations, a design factor of one would suffice. However, in
practice, the designer would probably use the nominal geometric and strength values with the simple σ = P∕A
calculation. The designer would probably not go through the calculations given in the example and would
assign a design factor. This is where the experience factor comes in. The designer should make a list of the
loss-of-function modes and estimate a factor, ni, for each. For this example, the list would be
Loss-of-Function Estimated Accuracy ni

Geometry dimensions Good tolerances 1.05
Stress calculation
Dynamic load Not gradual loading 2.0*
Bending Slight possibility 1.1
Strength data Well known 1.05
*Minimum
Each term directly affects the results. Therefore, for an estimate, we evaluate the product of each term
nd = ∏ ni = 1.05(2.0) (1.1)(1.05) = 2.43
1–12 Reliability and Probability of Failure

In these days of greatly increasing numbers of liability lawsuits and the need to con-
form to regulations issued by governmental agencies such as EPA and OSHA, it is
very important for the designer and the manufacturer to know the reliability of their
product. The reliability method of design is one in which we obtain the distribution
of stresses and the distribution of strengths and then relate these two in order to
achieve an acceptable success rate. The statistical measure of the probability that a
mechanical element will not fail in use is called the reliability of that element and as
we will see, is related to the probability of failure, pf.
Probability of Failure
The probability of failure, pf, is obtained from the probability density function (PDF),
which represents the distribution of events within a given range of values. A number
of standard discrete and continuous probability distributions are commonly applicable
to engineering problems. The two most important continuous probability distributions
f (x) f(x) Figure 1–4

The shape of the normal
distribution curve: (a) small σ̂;
(b) large σ̂.
x x
μ μ
(a) (b)
Figure 1–5
Transformed normal distribution
f(z) function of Table A–10.
Φ(zα)
α
z
0 zα
for our use in this text are the Gaussian (normal) distribution and the Weibull distri-
bution. We will describe the normal distribution in this section and in Section 2–2.
The Weibull distribution is widely used in rolling-contact bearing design and will be
described in Chapter 11.
The continuous Gaussian (normal) distribution is an important one whose prob-
ability density function (PDF) is expressed in terms of its mean, μx, and its standard
deviation8 σ̂x as
exp[ − (
σ̂x ) ]
1 1 x − μx 2
f(x) = (1–4)
σ̂x √2π 2
Plots of Equation (1–4) are shown in Figure 1–4 for small and large standard devia-
tions. The bell-shaped curve is taller and narrower for small values of σ̂ and shorter
and broader for large values of σ̂. Note that the area under each curve is unity. That
is, the probability of all events occurring is one (100 percent).
To obtain values of pf , integration of Equation (1–4) is necessary. This can come
easily from a table if the variable x is placed in dimensionless form. This is done
using the transform
x − μx
z= (1–5)
σ̂x
The integral of the transformed normal distribution is tabulated in Table A–10, where
α is defined, and is shown in Figure 1–5. The value of the normal density function
is used so often, and manipulated in so many equations, that it has its own particular
symbol, Φ(z). The transform variant z has a mean value of zero and a standard devi-
ation of unity. In Table A–10, the probability of an observation less than z is Φ(z) for
negative values of z and 1 − Φ(z) for positive values of z.
8
The symbol σ is normally used for the standard deviation. However, in this text σ is used for stress.
Consequently, we will use σ̂ for the standard deviation.
EXAMPLE 1–4
In a shipment of 250 connecting rods, the mean tensile strength is found to be S = 45 kpsi and has a standard
deviation of σ̂S = 5 kpsi.
(a) Assuming a normal distribution, how many rods can be expected to have a strength less than S = 39.5 kpsi?
(b) How many are expected to have a strength between 39.5 and 59.5 kpsi?
Solution
(a) Substituting in Equation (1–5) gives the transform z variable as
x − μx S − S 39.5 − 45
z39.5 = = = = −1.10
σ̂x σ̂S 5
The probability that the strength is less than 39.5 kpsi can be designated as F(z) = Φ(z39.5) = Φ(−1.10). Using
Table A–10, and referring to Figure 1–6, we find Φ(z39.5) = 0.1357. So the number of rods having a strength
less than 39.5 kpsi is,
Answer NΦ(z39.5 ) = 250(0.1357) = 33.9 ≈ 34 rods

because Φ(z39.5) represents the proportion of the population N having a strength less than 39.5 kpsi.
Figure 1–6
f (z)
z
– –1.1 0 +2.9
z39.5 z59.5
(b) Corresponding to S = 59.5 kpsi, we have

59.5 − 45
z59.5 = = 2.90
5
Referring again to Figure 1–6, we see that the probability that the strength is less than 59.5 kpsi is F(z) =
Φ(z59.5) = Φ(2.90). Because the z variable is positive, we need to find the value complementary to unity.
Thus, from Table A–10
Φ(2.90) = 1 − Φ(−2.90) = 1 − 0.001 87 = 0.998 13
The probability that the strength lies between 39.5 and 59.5 kpsi is the area between the ordinates at z39.5 and
z59.5 in Figure 1–6. This probability is found to be
p = Φ(z59.5 ) − Φ(z39.5 ) = Φ(2.90) − Φ(−1.10)
= 0.998 13 − 0.1357 = 0.862 43
Therefore the number of rods expected to have strengths between 39.5 and 59.5 kpsi is
Answer Np = 250(0.862) = 215.5 ≈ 216 rods

Events typically arise as discrete distributions, which can be approximated by con-

tinuous distributions. Consider N samples of events. Let xi be the value of an event
(i = 1, 2, . . . k) and fi is the class frequency or number of times the event xi occurs
within the class frequency range. The discrete mean, x, and standard deviation, defined
as sx, are given by
1 k
x= ∑ fi xi (1–6)
N i=1
k
∑ fi x 2i − N x 2
i=1
sx = (1–7)
N−1
EXAMPLE 1–5
Five tons of 2-in round rods of 1030 hot-rolled steel have been received for workpiece stock. Nine standard-
geometry tensile test specimens have been machined from random locations in various rods. In the test report,
the ultimate tensile strength was given in kpsi. The data in the ranges 62–65, 65–68, 68–71, and 71–74 kpsi
is given in histographic form as follows:
Sut (kpsi) 63.5 66.5 69.5 72.5
f 2 2 3 2
where the values of Sut are the midpoints of each range. Find the mean and standard deviation of the data.
Solution
Table 1–1 provides a tabulation of the calculations for the solution.
Table 1–1
Class Class
Extension
Midpoint Frequency
x, kpsi f fx f x2
63.5 2 127 8 064.50
66.5 2 133 8 844.50
69.5 3 208.5 14 480.75
72.5 2 145 10 513.50
Σ 9 613.5 41 912.25
From Equation (1–6),
1 k 1
Answer x= ∑ fi xi = (613.5) = 68.16667 = 68.2 kpsi
N i=1 9
From Equation (1–7),
k
∑ fi x2i − N x2
41 912.25 − 9(68.166672 )
=√
i=1
Answer sx =
N−1 9−1
= 3.39 kpsi
Reliability
The reliability R can be expressed by
R = 1 − pf (1–8)
where pf is the probability of failure, given by the number of instances of failures

per total number of possible instances. The value of R falls in the range 0 ≤ R ≤ 1.
A reliability of R = 0.90 means there is a 90 percent chance that the part will
perform its proper function without failure. The failure of 6 parts out of every 1000
manufactured, pf = 6∕1000, might be considered an acceptable failure rate for a
certain class of products. This represents a reliability of R = 1 − 6∕1000 = 0.994
or 99.4 percent.
In the reliability method of design, the designer’s task is to make a judicious
selection of materials, processes, and geometry (size) so as to achieve a specific reli-
ability goal. Thus, if the objective reliability is to be 99.4 percent, as shown, what
combination of materials, processing, and dimensions is needed to meet this goal?
If a mechanical system fails when any one component fails, the system is said to
be a series system. If the reliability of component i is Ri in a series system of n com-
ponents, then the reliability of the system is given by
n
R = ∏ Ri (1–9)
i=1
For example, consider a shaft with two bearings having reliabilities of 95 percent and
98 percent. From Equation (1–9), the overall reliability of the shaft system is then
R = R1R2 = 0.95(0.98) = 0.93
or 93 percent.
Analyses that lead to an assessment of reliability address uncertainties, or their
estimates, in parameters that describe the situation. Stochastic variables such as stress,
strength, load, or size are described in terms of their means, standard deviations, and
distributions. If bearing balls are produced by a manufacturing process in which a
diameter distribution is created, we can say upon choosing a ball that there is uncer-
tainty as to size. If we wish to consider weight or moment of inertia in rolling, this
size uncertainty can be considered to be propagated to our knowledge of weight or
inertia. There are ways of estimating the statistical parameters describing weight and
inertia from those describing size and density. These methods are variously called
propagation of error, propagation of uncertainty, or propagation of dispersion. These
methods are integral parts of analysis or synthesis tasks when probability of failure
is involved.
It is important to note that good statistical data and estimates are essential to
perform an acceptable reliability analysis. This requires a good deal of testing and
validation of the data. In many cases, this is not practical and a deterministic approach
to the design must be undertaken.
1–13 Relating Design Factor to Reliability

Reliability is the statistical probability that machine systems and components will
perform their intended function satisfactorily without failure. Stress and strength are
statistical in nature and very much tied to the reliability of the stressed component.
Consider the probability density functions for stress and strength, σ and S, shown in
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
frankly stated that he had never heard a speech which had influenced
his vote, and that there was only one defect in Dundas’s leadership,
namely, that he was not quite tall enough to enable his followers
382
readily to see into which lobby he was going at division-time.
Even so, the magnetic influence of Dundas upon the obedient
Caledonian squad was a political asset of no small worth. Not seldom
could the laird of Melville decide the fate of Cabinets by throwing his
forty-five votes into this or that scale. He himself was fully aware of his
importance; for in a letter which he wrote to Grenville early in 1789, he
declined another official post because in his present position (or
positions) he was “a cement of political strength to the present
Administration,” the dissolution of which might be ruinous. The words
are instinct, not only with the Scottish canniness, but with Scottish
loyalty. In truth, the staunchness of Dundas’s friendship to Pitt suffices
to refute those critics, both of his own and later times, who speak of
him as of a political Vicar of Bray. In his early days his trimming
propensities were often disagreeably prominent; and the speech in
which he hailed the rising sun of Pitt, and slighted the waning orb of
383
North, was quite characteristic of the earlier half of his career. But,
for him as for some others, the splendour of Pitt’s genius, and the glow
of his pure patriotism, inaugurated a brighter future; and he might well
say of his tergiversation at that time what Talleyrand said of his still
more numerous changes of front: “I have never deserted a party
before it deserted itself.” While recognizing in this new ally great
powers of work, and still greater powers of “influence,” Pitt did not at
once give him his whole confidence; and we shall probably not be far
wrong in inferring that only after the disillusionment of the spring of
1785, did “Henry VIIIth of Scotland” become his counsellor on matters
of the highest moment. Thenceforth his influence over Pitt steadily
increased, while that of Wilberforce somewhat waned; and we find the
latter declaring at a later time that Pitt’s connection with Dundas was
his “great misfortune,” a remark which applied mainly to the slavery
384
question. It is, however, still more applicable to Dundas’s conduct of
the war, when, as we shall see, his absorption in other work, and his
utter inexperience of military affairs, should have made him backward
in giving advice. Far from that, he was for some time the guiding spirit;
and from his seat at the Home Office or the India Board, or from his
suburban villa, he dashed off orders of momentous import, which were
to gladden the heart of Carnot.
Such, then, was the man at whose house, on the west side of
Wimbledon Common, Pitt was a frequent visitor. There the conviviality
was unrestrained by those scruples which more and more prevailed at
Wilberforce’s abode hard by; and after the latter gave up that villa, in
the autumn of 1786, the associations of Pitt with Wimbledon are
somewhat vinous. Both Pitt and Dundas were hard drinkers. The
former frequently tossed off several tumblers of port wine before a
great speech in the House of Commons; and it would seem, if rumour
spoke truly, that at Dundas’s the potations were long and deep. It must
not, however, be supposed that Pitt performed no serious work there.
The long and important despatches which he wrote at Wimbledon
show the contrary; and their contents prove them to have been written
before the Bacchic pleasures, which men of that age deemed the
appropriate close of a busy day. Only once did the pleasures of
dessert at Dundas’s cause Pitt and his host to compromise themselves
in public. But on one occasion they came to the House of Commons
obviously the worse for liquor. The occasion was equally remarkable. It
was on the acceptance of the French Declaration of War, in February
1793. Fox generously forebore from taking advantage of his rival’s
385
incapacity, but the situation was hit off in the following lines:
I cannot see the Speaker, Hal, can you?

What! Cannot see the Speaker, I see two.
A man so frank and intriguing, so subtle and pugnacious as

Dundas, is fair game for the satirist; and it is not surprising that the
Whig rhymsters who compiled the “Rolliad” scourged the factotum of
Caledonia:
Whose exalted soul

No bonds of vulgar prejudice control.
Of shame unconscious in his bold career
He spurns that honour which the weak revere;
For, true to public Virtue’s patriot plan,
He loves the Minister and not the Man.
Alike the advocate of North and Wit,
The friend of Shelburne and the guide of Pitt,
His ready tongue with sophistries at will
Can say, unsay, and be consistent still.
This is, of course, the effusion of unscrupulous party hacks; but it

shows the skill with which the enemies of Dundas seized on the weak
points in his career. As a matter of fact, few men have worked harder
than the future Viscount Melville, and on few men has fortune at the
close pressed more unkindly.
* * * * *
William Wyndham Grenville (1759–1834) is a less interesting man
than Dundas. First cousin to Pitt, and born in the same year, he
seemed destined to advance hand in hand with him, just as his father
had signally helped Chatham in certain parts of that meteoric career.
Nature, however, had clearly designed the Grenvilles, both father and
son, not to be comets, scarcely planets, but rather satellites. The
traditional pride of the Grenvilles (in which Pitt was by no means
lacking) appeared in William Grenville, blended with a freezing
manner, the effect of which was enhanced by his heavy features and
stiff carriage. To counterbalance these defects, he was dowered with
an upright and virtuous disposition, great industry, a choice store of
classical learning, good sense, though not illuminated by imagination,
and oratorical gifts, which, if neither majestic nor pleasing, partook of
his native solidity. As Paymaster of the Forces (conjointly with Lord
Mulgrave) he did useful work, the higher branches of which involved
questions of foreign policy.
Emery Walker Ph. sc.
William Wyndham, Lord Grenville
from a painting by Hoppner
Pitt’s appreciation of his sound sense appeared in his choice of

Grenville for very delicate diplomatic missions to The Hague and Paris
in the crisis of 1787. The evenness of his judgement and temper
procured him the Speakership of the House of Commons in 1789, after
the death of Cornwall. From this honourable post he was soon
transferred to more congenial duties, as Secretary of State, and
entered the Upper House as Lord Grenville. In 1791 he became
Secretary for Foreign Affairs, his conduct of which will engage our
attention later on. Here we may note that in all his undertakings he
gained a reputation for soundness; and if the neutral tints of his
character procured for him neither the enthusiastic love of friends nor
the hatred of foes, he won the respect of all. The envious railers who
penned the “Rolliad” could fasten on nothing worse than his solidity—
A youth who boasts no common share of head.

What plenteous stores of knowledge may contain
The spacious tenement of Grenville’s brain!
Nature, in all her dispensations wise,
Who formed his head-piece of so vast a size,
Hath not, ’tis true, neglected to bestow
Its due proportion to the part below.
Unfortunately, though Grenville could manage business, he could

not manage men; and at this point he failed to make good a defect in
the political panoply of Pitt. On neither of the cousins had nature
bestowed the social tact which might have smoothed the rubs of
diplomatic discussion, say, in those with the French envoy, Chauvelin,
in 1792. That fervid royalist, Hyde de Neuville, complained bitterly of
the freezing powers of Downing Street. The enthusiastic young
Canning found it impossible to work with Grenville, who was also on
strained terms with Dundas. The “inner Cabinet,” composed of Pitt,
Grenville, Dundas, must have been the scene of many triangular
duels; and it needed all the mental and moral superiority of Pitt (as to
which every one bears witness) to preserve even the appearance of
harmony between seconds who were alike opinionated, obstinate, and
386
covetous of patronage. On the whole, the personality of Grenville
must rank among the dullest of that age. I have found no striking
phrase which glitters amidst the leaden mass of his speeches and
correspondence. His life has never been written. He would be a very
conscientious zealot who would undertake it.
* * * * *
Turning to the central figure of the group, we have once more to
mourn the lack of information about those smaller details which light up
traits of character. Few of Pitt’s letters refer to his private affairs in the
years 1784–86; and the knowledge which we have of them is largely
inferential. Even the secondary sources fared badly; for it seems that
Pitt’s housemaid made a holocaust of the many letters which
387
Wilberforce wrote to him during his foreign tour in 1785. In the Pitt
Papers there is only one letter of Wilberforce of this period; and as it
throws light on their friendship and the anxiety felt by Pitt’s friends at
388
the time of the Irish Propositions, I print it here almost in extenso.
Lausanne, 2nd Aug., 1785.

My dear Pitt,
... If I were to suffer myself to think on politics, I should be
very unhappy at the accounts I hear from all quarters: nothing has
come from any great authority; but all the reports, such as they
are, are of one tendency. I repose myself with confidence on you,
being sure that you have spirit enough not to be deterred by
difficulties if you can carry your point thro’; and trusting that you
will have that greater degree of spirit which is requisite to make a
person give up at once when the bad consequences which would
follow his going on are at a distance. Yet I cannot help being
extremely anxious: your own character, as well as the welfare of
the country are at stake; but we may congratulate ourselves that
they are here inseparably connected. In the opinion of
unprejudiced men I do not think you will suffer from adjourning the
Irish propositions ad calendas Graecas, if the state of Ireland
makes it dangerous to proceed and you can make it evident you
had good reason to bring them on, which I think you can. At the
worst, the consequences on this side are only that you suffer (the
Country may suffer too, but I am taking for granted this is the
lesser evil); but I tremble and look forward to what may happen if
the Irish Parliament should pass the propositions, and the Irish
nation refuse to accept them; nor would it be one struggle only; but
as often as any Bill should come over from our House of
Commons to be passed in theirs, which was obnoxious, there
would be a fresh opportunity for reviving it, especially as you have
an Opposition to deal with as unprincipled and mischievous as
ever embroiled the affairs of any country. God bless you, my dear
Pitt and carry you thro’ all your difficulties! You may reckon
yourself most fortunate in that chearfulness of mind which enables
you every now and then to throw off your load for a few hours and
rest yourself. I fancy it must have been this which, when I am with
you, prevents my considering you as an object of compassion, tho’
Prime Minister of England; for now, when I am at a distance, out of
hearing of your foyning, and your (illegible) other proofs of a light
heart, I cannot help representing you to myself as oppressed with
cares and troubles, and what I feel for you is more, I believe, than
even Pepper feels in the moments of his greatest anxiety; and
what can I say more?...
Pepper Arden, to whom Wilberforce here refers, scarcely lived up

to his name. His character and his countenance alike lacked
distinction. The latter suffered from the want of a nose, or at least, of
an effectively imposing feature. What must this have meant in a
generation which remembered the effect produced by Chatham’s
“terrifying beak,” and was dominated by the long and concave curve on
which Pitt suspended the House of Commons! Further, Pepper lacked
389
dignity. His manner was noisy and inelegant. He pushed himself
forward as a Cambridge friend of Pitt; and the House resented the
painful efforts of this flippant young man to run in harness by the side
of the genius. Members roared with laughter when Arden marched in,
at Christmastide of 1783, to announce that Pitt, as Prime Minister of
the Crown, would offer himself for re-election. The effrontery of the
statement was heightened by the voice and bearing of the speaker.
Nevertheless, Pitt, as we have seen, made him Attorney-General. No
appointment called forth more criticism. He entered the peerage as
Lord Alvanley.
It is the characteristic of genius to attract and inspire the young;
and Pitt’s influence on them was second only to that of Chatham. As
we shall see later on, Canning caught the first glow of political
enthusiasm from the kindling gaze of the young Prime Minister.
Patriotism so fervid, probity so spotless, eloquence so moving fired
cooller natures than Canning’s; and among the most noteworthy of
those who now came forward was Henry Addington. His father,
Anthony Addington, had started life as a medical man in Reading, and
afterwards in Bedford Row, London, where Henry was born in 1754. In
days when that profession held a lower place than at present, this fact
was to be thrown in the teeth of the son on becoming Prime Minister.
Chatham, however, always treated his family physician (for such
Addington became) with chivalrous courtesy. Largely by the care of the
390
doctor William Pitt was coaxed into maturity after his “wan” youth. It
was natural, then, that the sons should become acquainted, especially
as young Addington, after passing through Winchester School and
Brasenose College, Oxford, entered at Lincoln’s Inn while Pitt was still
keeping his terms there.
Considering the community of their studies and tastes, it is singular
that few, if any, of their letters of this period survive. Such as have
come down to us are the veriest scraps. Here, then, as elsewhere,
some evil destiny (was it Bishop Tomline?) must have intervened to
blot out the glimpses of the social side of the statesman’s life. It is
clear, however, that Pitt must have begun to turn Addington’s thoughts
away from Chancery Lane to Westminster; for the latter in 1783 writes
eagerly against “the offensive Coalition of Fox and North.” At
Christmas, when Pitt leaped to office as Prime Minister, he sought to
bring Addington into the political arena, and held out the prospect of
some subordinate post. Addington accordingly stood for Devizes, and
was chosen by a unanimous vote at the hustings in April 1784.
Nevertheless, his cool and circumspect nature rose slowly to the
height of the situation at Westminster. Externals were all in his favour.
His figure was tall and well proportioned; his features, faultlessly
regular, were lit up by a benevolent smile; and his deferential manners
gave token of success either as family physician or family attorney. In
fine, a man who needed only the spur of ambition, or the stroke of
calamity, to achieve a respectable success. It is said that Pitt early
bade him fix his gaze on the Speaker’s chair, to which, in fact, he
helped him in 1789, after Grenville’s retirement. But, for the present,
nothing stirred Addington’s nature from its exasperating calm. As
worldly inducements failed, Pitt finally made trial of poetry. During a
ride together to Pitt’s seat at Holwood, the statesman sought in vain to
appeal to his ambition; but Addington—five years his senior, be it
remembered—pleaded the disqualifying effects of early habits and
disposition. Thereupon Pitt burst out with the following passage from
Waller’s poem on Henrietta Maria:
The lark that shuns on lofty boughs to build

Her humble nest, lies silent in the field;
But should the promise of a brighter day,
Aurora smiling, bid her rise and play,
Quickly she’ll show ’twas not for want of voice,
Or power to climb, she made so low a choice;
Singing she mounts; her airy notes are stretch’d
Towards heaven, as if from heaven alone her notes she fetch’d.
Then the statesman set spurs to his horse and left Addington far
391
behind. It is curious that when Addington’s ambition was fully
aroused, it proved to be an obstacle to Pitt and a danger to the country
in the crisis of 1803–4.
Adverting now to certain details of Pitt’s private life, we notice that
he varied the time of his first residence on Putney Heath (August
1784–November 1785) by several visits to Brighthelmstone, perhaps in
order to shake off the fatigue and disappointment attendant on his Irish
and Reform policy. At that seaside resort he spent some weeks in the
early autumn of 1785, enjoying the society of his old Cambridge
friends, “Bob” Smith (afterwards Lord Carrington), Pratt (afterwards
Lord Camden), and Steele. We can imagine them riding along the
quaint little front, or on the downs, their interchange of thought and
sallies of wit probably helping in no small degree the invigorating
influences of sea air and exercise. If we may trust the sprightly but
spiteful lines in one of the “Political Eclogues,” it was at Brighton that
Pitt at these times especially enjoyed the society of “Tom” Steele,
whom he had made Secretary of the Treasury conjointly with George
Rose. Unlike his colleague, whose visage always bore signs of the
care and toil of his office, Steele was remarkable for the rotundity and
392
joviality of his face and an inexhaustible fund of animal spirits.
Perhaps it was this which attracted Pitt to him in times of recreation.
The lines above referred to occur in an effusion styled—“Rose, or the
Complaint,”—where the hard working colleague is shown as
bemoaning Pitt’s preference for Steele:
But vain his hope to shine in Billy’s eyes,

Vain all his votes, his speeches, and his lies.
Steele’s happier claims the boy’s regard engage,
Alike their studies, nor unlike their age:
With Steele, companion of his vacant hours,
Oft would he seek Brighthelmstone’s sea-girt towers;
For Steele relinquish Beauty’s trifling talk,
With Steele each morning ride, each evening walk;
Or in full tea-cups drowning cares of state
On gentler topics urge the mock debate.
However much Pitt enjoyed Steele’s company on occasions like

these, he did not allow his feelings to influence him when a question of
promotion arose. Steele’s talents being only moderate, his rise was
slow, but he finally became one of the Paymasters of the Forces. In
that station his conduct was not wholly satisfactory; and Pitt’s
friendship towards him cooled, though it was renewed not long before
the Prime Minister’s death.
For George Rose, on the other hand, despite his lack of joviality,
Pitt cherished an ever deepening regard proportioned to the
thoroughness and tactfulness of his services at the Treasury. In view of
the vast number of applications for places and pensions, of which,
moreover, Burke’s Economy Bill had lessened the supply, the need of
firm control at the Treasury is obvious; and Pitt and the country owed
393
much to the man who for sixteen years held the purse-strings tight.
On his part Rose felt unwavering enthusiasm for his chief from the time
of their first interview in Paris in 1783 until the dark days that followed
Austerlitz. Only on two subjects did he refuse to follow Pitt, namely, on
Parliamentary Reform, from which he augured “the most direful
consequences,” and the Slavery Question. That he ventured twice to
differ decidedly from Pitt (in spite of earnest private appeals) proves
his independence of mind as well as the narrowness of his outlook. He
even offered to resign his post at the Treasury owing to their difference
on Reform, but Pitt negatived this proposal. We need not accept his
complacent statement that Pitt later on came over decidedly to his
394
opinion on that topic.
The tastes of the two friends were very similar, especially in their
love of the country; and it was in the same month (September 1785)
that each bought a small estate. We find Pitt writing at that time to
Wilberforce respecting his purchase of “Holwood Hill,” near Bromley,
Kent, and stating that Rose had just bought an estate in the New
Forest, which he vowed was “just breakfasting distance from town.”
“We are all turning country gentlemen very fast,” added the statesman.
A harassing session like that of 1785 is certain to set up a centrifugal
tendency; and we may be sure that the nearness of Holwood to Hayes
was a further attraction. Not that Pitt was as yet fond of agriculture. He
had neither the time nor the money to spare for the high farming which
was then yearly adding to the wealth of the nation. But he inherited
Chatham’s love of arranging an estate, and he was now to find the
delight of laying out grounds, planting trees and shrubs and watching
their growth. Holwood had many charms—“a most beautiful spot,
wanting nothing but a house fit to live in”—so he described it to
395
Wilberforce. He moved into his new abode on 5th November 1785,
and during the rest of the vacation spent most of his time there,
residing at Downing Street only on Wednesdays, Thursdays, and
Fridays. Many affairs of State were decided at parties at Holwood, or,
later on, at Dundas’s villa at Wimbledon.
Pitt admitted to Wilberforce that the purchase of Holwood was a
piece of folly; and this was soon apparent to all Pitt’s friends who had
old-fashioned notions of making both ends meet. That desirable result
had rarely, if ever, been attained by the son of the magnificent
Chatham. Sparing for the nation’s exchequer, Pitt was prodigal of his
own. The aristocratic hauteur, of which all but his friends complained,
led him to disregard the peccadilloes of servants and the overcharges
of tradesmen. A bachelor Prime Minister, whose nose is high in air, is
good sport for parasites; and even before the purchase of Holwood,
Pitt was in difficulties. During one of the visits to Brighthelmstone,
“Bob” Smith undertook to overhaul his affairs, and found old and
forgotten bills amounting to £7,914. The discovery came as a shock;
for Pitt, with his usual hopefulness, had told his Mentor that, as three-
quarters of his official salary were due, he would have enough for his
current liabilities. A further scrutiny showed that tradesmen, in default
of any present return, took care to ensure an abundant harvest in the
future. The butcher usually sent, or charged for, three or four
hundredweight of meat on a Saturday, probably because Pitt was often
away for the week-end. The meat bill for January 1785, when Pitt
generally dined out, was £96, which, reckoning the price at sixpence a
pound, implied a delivery of 34 hundredweight. Other bills for
provisions (wrote Smith to Wilberforce) “exceed anything I could have
imagined.” Apparently they rose in proportion to Pitt’s absence from
home. His accounts were kept by a man named Wood, whose book-
keeping seems to have been correct; but Smith begged Wilberforce to
urge on Pitt the need of an immediate reform of his household
396
affairs. Whether it took place, we cannot tell; for this is one of the
private subjects over which Bishop Tomline chose to draw the veil of
propriety.
An economical householder would have found relief from the
addition of £3,000 a year to his income. That was the net sum which
accrued to him after August 1792, from the Lord Wardenship of the
397
Cinque Ports. That Pitt felt more easy in his mind is clear from his
letter to Lady Chatham, dated Downing Street, 11th November 1793.
She had been in temporary embarrassment. He therefore sent £300,
and gently chid her for concealing her need so long. He continued as
follows: “My accession of income has hitherto found so much
employment in the discharge of former arrears as to leave no very
large fund which I can with propriety dispose of. This, however, will
mend every day, and at all events I trust you will never scruple to tell
me when you have the slightest occasion for any aid that I can
398
supply.”
Unfortunately, Pitt soon fell into difficulties, and partly from his own
generosity as Colonel of the Walmer Volunteers. As we shall also see,
he gave £2,000 to the Patriotic Fund started in January 1798. But
carelessness continued to be his chief curse. In truth his lordly nature
and his early training in the household of Chatham unfitted him for the
practice of that bourgeois virtue, frugality. That he sought to practise it
for the Commonwealth is a signal proof of his patriotism. We shall see
that his embarrassments probably hindered him from a marriage,
which might have crowned with joy his somewhat solitary life.
In the career of Pitt we find few incidents of the lighter kind, which
diversify the lives of most statesmen of that age. Two such, however,
connect him with the jovial society of Dundas. It was their custom to
outline over their cups the course of the forthcoming debates; and on
one occasion, when a motion was to be brought forward by Mr.
(afterwards Earl) Grey, Dundas amused the company by making a
burlesque oration on the Whig side. Pitt was so charmed by the
performance that he declared that Dundas must make the official reply.
The joke sounded well over wine; but great was the Scotsman’s
astonishment to find himself saddled with the task in the House.
Members were equally taken aback; and the lobbies soon rustled with
eager conjectures as to the reason why Pitt had surrendered his dearly
cherished prerogative. It then transpired that the Prime Minister had
acted partly on a whim, and partly on the conviction that a speaker
who had so cleverly pleaded a case must be able to answer it with
399
equal effect.
The other incident is likewise Bacchic, and is also uncertain as to
date. Pitt, Dundas, and Thurlow had been dining with Jenkinson at
Croydon; and during their rollicking career back towards Wimbledon,
they found a toll-bar gate between Streatham and Tooting carelessly
left open. Wine, darkness, and the frolicsome spirit of youth prompted
them to ride through and cheat the keeper. He ran out, called to them
in vain, and, taking them for highwaymen, fired his blunderbuss at their
400
retreating forms. The discharge was of course as harmless as that
of firearms usually was except at point-blank range; but the writers of
the “Rolliad” got wind of the affair, and satirised Pitt’s lawlessness in
the following lines:
Ah, think what danger on debauch attends!

Let Pitt o’er wine preach temperance to his friends,
How, as he wandered darkling o’er the plain,
His reason drowned in Jenkinson’s champagne,
A rustic’s hand, but righteous fate withstood,
Had shed a premier’s for a robber’s blood.
Gaiety and grief often tread close on one another’s heels; and Pitt
had his full share of the latter. The sudden death of his sister Harriet,
on 25th September 1786, was a severe blow. She had married his
Cambridge friend, Eliot, and expired shortly after childbirth. She was
his favourite sister, having entered closely and fondly into his early life.
He was prostrated with grief, and for some time could not attend even
to the public business which was his second nature. Eliot, now
destined to be more than ever a friend and brother, came to his house
and for some time lived with him. It will be of interest to print here a
new letter of George III to a Mr. Frazer who had informed him of the
sad event.
Windsor,
401
Sept. 25, 1786. 9.15 p.m.
I am excessively hurt, as indeed all my family are, at the death of
the amiable Lady Harriot Elliot (sic); but I do not the less approve
Mr. Frazer’s attention in acquainting me of this very melancholy
event. I owne I dread the effect it may have on Mr. Pitt’s health: I
think it best not at this early period to trouble him with my very
sincere condolence; but I know I can trust to the prudence of Mr.
Frazer, and therefore desire he will take the most proper method
of letting Mr. Pitt know what I feel for him, and that I think it kindest
at present to be silent.
G. R.
The King further evinced his tactful sympathy by suggesting that

Pitt should for a time visit his mother at Burton Pynsent. In other
respects his private life was uneventfully happy. The conclusion of the
commercial treaty with France, the buoyancy of the national revenue,
and the satisfactory issue of the Dutch troubles must have eased his
anxieties in the years 1786–87; and after the serious crisis last named,
his position was truly enviable, until the acute situation arising from the
mental malady of George III overclouded his prospects at the close of
the year 1788.
Certainly Pitt was little troubled by his constituents. Almost the only
proof of his parliamentary connection with the University of Cambridge
(apart from warnings from friends at election times how so and so is to
“be got at”) is in a letter which I have discovered in the Hardwicke
Papers. It refers to a Cambridge Debt Bill about to be introduced by
Charles Yorke in April 1787, to which the University had requested Pitt
to move certain amendments in its interest. It will be seen that Pitt
proposed to treat the request rather lightly:
Dear Yorke,
I am rather inclined to wish the Cambridge [Debt] Bill
should pass without any alteration, unless you think there are
material reasons for it.—The impanelling the jury does not seem to
be a point of much consequence, but seems most naturally to be
the province of the mayor.—With regard to the appeal, I think we
agreed to strike it out entirely.—As the Commission are a mixed
body from the town, the county, and the University, there seems to
be an impropriety in appealing either to the town sessions or the
County Sessions, either of which may be considered as only one
out of three parties interested. The decision of the Commission
appears therefore the most satisfactory, and if I recollect right, it is
final as the bill now stands.
Yours most sincerely,
402
W. Pitt.
In the whole of Pitt’s correspondence I have found only one

episode which lights up the recesses of his mind. As a rule, his letters
are disappointingly business-like and formal. He wrote as a Prime
Minister to supporters, rarely as a friend to a friend. And those who
search the hundreds of packets of the Pitt Papers in order to find the
real man will be tempted to liken him to that elusive creature which,
when pursued, shoots away among the rocks under a protective cloud
of ink. At one point, however, we catch a glimpse of his inmost beliefs.
Wilberforce, having come under deep religious convictions in the
autumn of 1785, resolved to retire for a time from all kinds of activity in
order to take his bearings anew. Then he wrote to Pitt a full description
of his changed views of life, stating also his conviction that he must
give up some forms of work and amusement, and that he could never
be so much of a party man as he had hitherto been. Pitt’s reply, of 2nd
December 1785, has recently seen the light. After stating that any
essential opposition between them would cause him grief but must
leave his affection quite untouched, he continued as follows:
Forgive me if I cannot help expressing my fear that you are

nevertheless deluding yourself into principles which have but too
much tendency to counteract your own object and to render your
virtues and your talents useless both to yourself and to mankind. I
am not, however, without hopes that my anxiety paints this too
strongly. For you confess that the character of religion is not a
gloomy one, and that it is not that of an enthusiast. But why then
this preparation of solitude, which can hardly avoid tincturing the
mind either with melancholy or superstition? If a Christian may act
in the several relations of life, must he seclude himself from them
all to become so? Surely the principles as well as the practice of
Christianity are simple, and lead not to meditation only but to
action. I will not, however, enlarge upon these subjects now. What
I ask of you, as a mark both of your friendship and of the candour
which belongs to your mind, is to open yourself fully and without
reserve to one, who, believe me, does not know how to separate
403
his happiness from your own.
On the morrow, a Saturday, he called on Wilberforce at

Wimbledon, and the friends for two hours unburdened their hearts to
one another. We know little of that moving converse. The two men had
ideals so different that unison was out of the question. The statesman,
so we learn, had never reflected much on religion, that is, in the keenly
introspective sense in which Wilberforce now used the word. To Pitt, as
to most Englishmen, religion meant the acceptance of certain doctrines
laid down by the State Church, and we may describe it as largely
political and conventional, buttressing the existing order, but by no
means transforming life or character. One glance alone we gain into
the sanctuary of his thoughts; he told Wilberforce that Bishop Butler’s
“Analogy” raised in his mind more doubts than it answered—a proof
(perhaps the only proof that survives) of his cherishing under that
correct exterior a critical and questioning spirit.
To Wilberforce, thenceforth, all doubts were visitations of the devil.
Indeed, the microscopic watch which he kept on his thoughts and
moods seemed likely to stunt his activities. From this he was perhaps
saved by his friendship with Pitt. True, they could no longer tread the
same path. Pitt obeyed that call to action on behalf of his country
which from his boyhood had deadened all other sounds. Wilberforce
for a long time held aloof from politics as debateable ground beset with
snares to the soul. And yet, though the two men diverged, the
promptings of affection kept them ever within hail. No gulf ever opened
out such as Coleridge finely pictured as yawning between two parted
friends:
They stood aloof, the scars remaining,

Like cliffs which had been rent asunder;
A dreary sea now flows between.
Indeed, Wilberforce found with some surprise that on most

404
questions they agreed as before —a proof that there was no
desertion of principle on Pitt’s part after the session of 1785. We may
go further, and assert that in their changed relations the two friends
exerted upon each other a mutually beneficent influence. The new
convictions of Wilberforce tended to refine the activities of his friend;
and Pitt’s practical good sense helped to launch the philanthropist on
that career of usefulness in which he could both glorify God and uplift
myriads of negroes.
A sharp difference of opinion respecting the war with France
overclouded their lives in the year 1793. Wilberforce fully recognized
the sincerity of the Cabinet’s efforts to avoid a rupture, and admitted
that Ministers had not pursued a “war system.” But shortly before the
outbreak of hostilities, when he was about to speak in favour of
conciliation, Pitt took the strange step of sending Bankes to him,
earnestly begging him not to speak, as it might do irreparable mischief,
and promising him an opportunity for the statement of his views. That
opportunity did not come; and Wilberforce evidently resented this
405
attempt to make political capital out of their friendship. The breach
between them did not widen until late in the year 1794, when
Wilberforce deemed it his duty to move an amendment in favour of
peace. Bankes and Duncombe supported it; but it was easily defeated.
In the following year the relations between Pitt and Wilberforce on this
question became so strained as to cause both of them deep distress.
Indeed Pitt, who generally enjoyed profound slumbers, for a time
suffered from insomnia. The only other occasions when sleep fled from
him were the sudden resignation of Earl Temple late in 1783, the
mutiny at the Nore, and the arrival of the news of Trafalgar.
The old feelings began to reassert themselves, when Pitt spoke
strongly in favour of the Abolition of the Slave Trade (26th February
1795); but the friends did not meet for nearly a month, and then with
some little embarrassment on both sides. All shadows, however,
vanished in a few months’ time, when Wilberforce came to see that his
friend longed for peace so soon as it was compatible with security.
Thereafter their old friendship revived, though tinged with the sadness
attending disappointed hopes.
Pitt did not so readily forget the independence now and again
displayed by Bankes, for instance, in opposing Parliamentary Reform,
the Westminster Scrutiny, and the continuance of the war. Though they
were friendly at Cambridge, and afterwards at Goostree’s Club and in
the House, Pitt never warmed to Bankes, whose nature indeed was
too precise, cold, and prudent ever to call forth affection. Respected by
all for his sound but stolid speeches, he for forty years sat at
Westminster as member for Corfe Castle. No one seems ever to have
thought of making Bankes either a Minister or a peer. At a later time
the circle of Pitt’s friends included Canning and Wellesley, who will
receive notice in later chapters.
On the whole, Pitt seems to have been somewhat exacting in his
friendships. One of his early comrades complained that all suggestions
to the Prime Minister must, under pain of his resentment, go forth to
the world as emanations of his wisdom. This is to sacrifice friendliness
and candour to egotism and parliamentary punctilio. True, no
statesman can afford to neglect prudential considerations; and we may
freely grant that the cautious calculations of Pitt rarely obsessed his
whole being, as that of Napoleon was dominated by his egotism. We
do not find Pitt acting, still less speaking, in the sense which prompted
the remark of Napoleon about an over scrupulous servant: “He is not
devoted to me; he does not want to get on.”
It must be confessed that there is something wanting about Pitt. He
lacked geniality and glow alike in his treatment of men, and in his
attitude towards the aspirations of the age then dawning. Probably this
defect sprang from a physical basis. It must be remembered that
Chatham was nearly all his life a martyr to gout. He bequeathed this
weakness to his second son, a fact which may account for the
coldness of Pitt’s nature. Just as creatures with a torpid circulation love
to bask in the sun, so his chilliness may have prompted the cravings
for the Bacchic society of Dundas and Steele. In this respect he suffers
by comparison with Fox, the full-blooded man, the impetuous foe, the
open-handed, forgiving friend, whose character somewhat resembles
that of Antony, deified by Cleopatra:
For his bounty,

There was no winter in ’t; an autumn ’twas
That grew the more by reaping; his delights
Were dolphin-like; they showed his back above
406
The element they lived in.

(Ebook PDF) Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design (11th Ed.) 11th Edition Richard Budynas - Ebook PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

(Ebook PDF) Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design (11th Ed.) 11th Edition Richard Budynas - Ebook PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

(Ebook PDF) Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design (11th Ed.) 11th Edition Richard Budynas - Ebook PDF All Chapter

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Shigley's Mechanical Engineering

Design (11th Ed.) 11th Edition Richard

Shigley's mechanical engineering design (11th Ed.) 11th

Shigley's Mechanical Engineering Design in SI Units

(eBook PDF) Shigley's Mechanical Engineering design in

Roark's Formulas for Stress and Strain (9th Ed.) 9th

(eBook PDF) Machine Elements in Mechanical Design 6th

Mechanical Design: Theory and Applications 3rd Edition

Basic Mechanical Engineering 2nd Edition Pravin Kumar -

(eBook PDF) Theory and Design for Mechanical

To my colleague and friend, Dr. Terry Lehnhoff, who encouraged me

Joseph Edward Shigley (1909–1994) is undoubtedly one of the most well-known

Richard G. Budynas is Professor Emeritus of the Kate Gleason College of

J. Keith Nisbett is an Associate Professor and Associate Chair of Mechanical

Preface xv 2–3 Plastic Deformation and Cold Work 50

Part 3 9–6 Static Loading 502

11–11 Lubrication 608 13–16 Force Analysis—Helical Gearing 716

Chapter 16 18–10 Key and Retaining Ring Selection 950

New to This Edition

∙ Approximately 100 new end-of-chapter problems are implemented. These are

ϕ Angle, wave length

Thats why providing you with a wide range of options

Students—study more efficiently, retain more

They’ll thank you for it.

Study anytime, anywhere.

Learning for everyone.

Learn more at: www.mheducation.com/realvalue

Rent It Go Digital Get Print

Courtesy of Dee Dehokenanan

©Monty Rakusen/Getty Images

Mechanical design is a complex process, requiring many skills. Extensive relationships

1–2 Mechanical Engineering Design

1–3 Phases and Interactions of the Design Process

Figure 1–1 Identification of need

Analysis and optimization

only a vague discontent, a feeling of uneasiness, or a sensing that something is not

1–4 Design Tools and Resources

Acquiring Technical Information

∙ Government sources. Departments of Defense, Commerce, Energy, and

1–5 The Design Engineer’s Professional Responsibilities

make any presentation, technical or nontechnical, accept it enthusiastically, and work

The design engineer’s professional obligations include conducting activities in an

1–6 Standards and Codes

Figure 1–2 400

± 0.030 ± 0.015 ± 0.010 ± 0.005 ± 0.003 ± 0.001 ± 0.0005 ± 0.00025

Nominal tolerances (inches)

Nominal tolerance (mm)

100 Automatic screw

1–8 Safety and Product Liability

1–9 Stress and Strength

1–11 Design Factor and Factor of Safety

It is tempting to offer some recommendations concerning the assignment of the

The minimum strength is

Loss-of-Function Estimated Accuracy ni

1–12 Reliability and Probability of Failure

f (x) f(x) Figure 1–4

Answer NΦ(z39.5 ) = 250(0.1357) = 33.9 ≈ 34 rods

(b) Corresponding to S = 59.5 kpsi, we have