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 SPECIAL FEATURES
A Picture Is Worth a Thousand
Words
The Venus of Laussel 11
The Victory Stele of Naram-Sin 65
Narmer Unites Egypt (ca. 3000 BCE) 88
The Mycenaean “Warrior Vase” 121
The Behistun Inscription 166
Greek Hoplites on the March 195
The Athenian Tribute Lists 229
Ptolemy II and Arsinoë II 273
The Dama de Elche 330
Lapis Niger 346
Caesarion and Cleopatra 410
The Gemma Augustea 426
Female Gladiators 454
The Arch of Constantine 501
A Late Roman Governor Hears
a Case 520
The Court of Justinian and Theodora 571
Historical Controversy
The Origin of Noah’s Flood 14
The Chronology of the Bronze Age 54
The Date of the Biblical Exodus 135
“Black Athena” 190
The Nature of Athenian Democracy 217
The Personality of Alexander 258
Early Rome 350
The Nature of Roman Imperialism 382
The Dark Side of Romanization 448
The Rise of “Late Antiquity” 492
Constantine’s Christianity 505
The Barbarian Settlement: Catastrophe versus
Transformation 544
vii
Mysteries of History
The Scorpion Kings 83
The Ten Lost Tribes of Israel 152
The Origin of the Etruscans 327
Cleopatra: The Legend and the Reality 406
The Destruction of the Library of
Alexandria 579
In Their Own Words
The Mystery of the Vinča Signs 28
The Code of Hammurabi 70
The Autobiography of Weni 98
Ramses III Defeats the Sea Peoples 126
Two Accounts of the Siege of Jerusalem 148
The Education of a Tyrant 198
The Education of Spartan Women 208
The Division of Alexander’s Empire 266
The Empire of Kush (731 BCE) 312
The Recommendation of the Senate on the
Bacchus Worshippers 376
Sulla’s March on Rome 392
Aelius Aristides, “Praise of Rome” 446
Diocletian’s “Edict on Maximum
Prices” 496
Claudius Postumus Dardanus and the Retreat
to the Countryside 523
The Conversion of Clovis 559
The History Laboratory
Otzi the “Ice Man” 30
The Role of Climate and Ecology in
History 42
Deciphering the Rosetta Stone 86
Volcanos and the Fall of Civilizations 118
viii    special features

Setting the Value of the Coins 168 The Forma urbis Romae 456
Using Dialect Patterns to Reconstruct the Piazza Armerina 498
Dark Ages 177 The Sack of Rome by the Visigoths 540
The Construction of a Greek Trireme 223 Hagia Sophia 568
The Antikythera Device 291
Ancient Civilizations from Above 322 Subversive Personalities
Reconstructing Early Rome 345 Eve 22
Climate and History: The Cimbrian Enheduanna 63
Flood 389 Akhenaton 106
Reconstructing the Deeds of the Deified Jezebel 138
Augustus 424 Judith 156
The Debasement of the Silver Coinage 480 Sappho of Lesbos 200
The Creation of the Christian Biblical Socrates 241
Canon 530 The Maccabees 281
Ethnicity versus History versus Culture 552 Buddha 306
The Bacchanalians 374
Digging Antiquity Spartacus 394
Çatal Hüyük 20 Jesus of Nazareth 470
The Lost City of Agadē 62 Zenobia 486
Akhenaton’s Dismantled Temples 108 Hypatia of Alexandria 514
Troy 123 Theodora 566
Persepolis 170
Delphi 186 Cultural Encounters
The Parthenon 230 Rome Confronts Charismatic Barbarian
Pergamum 278 Leader 441
Carthage 324 Rome and the Far East 460
The Servian Wall 358 The Huns 534
Alesia 402 Desert Nomads, The Arabs, and Saracens 575
 LIST OF MAPS
Inside Front Cover Map: The Ancient
­Mediterranean: Physical Geography
Map 1.1: Early Human Populations and the
Spread of Homo Sapiens 7
Map 1.2: Neolithic Sites of the Ancient
Near East 15
Map 2.1: Sites of Early Mesopotamia 38
Map 2.2: Distribution of Afro-Asiatic Lan-
guages, Including the Semitic Languages of
the Ancient Near East 46
Map 2.3: The Akkadian Empire 64
Map 2.4: The Old Babylonian Empire at the
Time of Hammurabi 67
Map 2.5: The Expansion of the
Indo-Europeans 74
Map 2.6: The Kingdom of the Kassites in the
Thirteenth Century BCE 75
Map 3.1: Sites of Pre- and Early Dynastic
Egypt 79
Map 3.2: The Egyptian Empire at Its
Height 103
Map 4.1: Minoan and Mycenaean Sites 114
Map 4.2: The Path Followed by the Sea
Peoples 124
Map 4.3: The Peoples of the Eastern Mediter-
ranean Coast of the Early Iron Age 128
Map 5.1: The Assyrian Empire in 671
BCE 143
Map 5.2: The Four Successors of the Assyrian
Empire 158
Map 5.3: The Satrapies of the Persian Empire
in 500 BCE 163
ix
Map 6.1: Distribution of Greek Dialects in
the Fifth Century BCE 177
Map 6.2: Greek and Phoenician Colonies as
of 550 BCE 191
Map 7.1: Greece during the Classical
Age 206
Map 7.2: The Persian Wars
(498–479 BCE) 221
Map 7.3: The Battle of Salamis, 480 BCE 225
Map 7.4: Athens, Sparta, and Their Allies
during the Peloponnesian War 232
Map 8.1: Greece and the Aegean Sea during
the Theban Hegemony 250
Map 8.2: Ancient Macedonia 253
Map 8.3: The Campaigns of Alexander the
Great 263
Map 8.4: The Divisions of Alexander’s
Empire as of 280 BCE 271
Map 9.1: A Reconstruction of the
World Described by Herodotus
about 440 BCE 297
Map 9.2: The Eastern Fringe of the Mediter-
ranean World Circa 150 BCE, Showing the
Territories of the Parthians, Bactrians,
Indo-Greeks, Scythians, Tocharians, and
Sarmatians 302
Map 9.3: The Empire of Kush at Its Maxi-
mum Extent, ca. 700 BCE 311
Map 9.4: The Civilizations and Peoples of the
Sahara Desert, North Africa, and
Spain 318
Map 10.1: Early Italy, ca. 500 BCE 340
x    list of maps
Map 10.2: The Roman Republic, Carthage,
and the Hellenistic Kingdoms as of 264
BCE 362
Map 11.1: The Roman Republic and Its
Neighbors in 120 BCE 380
Map 11.2: The Campaigns of Julius Caesar,
58–45 BCE 399
Map 11.3: The Parthian Kingdom at the Time
of Crassus 404
Map 12.1: The Roman Empire at the Death
of Augustus (14 CE) 419
Map 12.2: The Roman Empire at Its Greatest
Extent at the Death of Trajan, 117 CE 443
Map 13.1: The Roman Empire in 270,
­Showing Barbarian Incursions and the
Breakaway Gallic Empire and Empire of
Palmyra 483
Map 13.2: The Reorganized Empire of
­Diocletian, Divided into Prefectures and
Dioceses 494
Map 14.1: The Divided Empire as
of 395 539
Map 15.1: Barbarian Settlements as
of 526 548
Map 15.2: The Byzantine Empire
at Its Greatest Extent in 555 under
Justinian 569
Map 15.3: Islamic Conquests to 644 577
Map 15.4: The Three Worlds of the Middle
Ages as They Developed by the Mid-­
Seventh Century 584
Inside Back Cover Map: The Ancient Mediter-
ranean: Regions, Places, Cities
 PREFACE

F or a long time it was my goal to write a textbook that incorporated not only
my own ideas and philosophy about what the most significant developments
and historical processes in ancient history were and what they can teach us but
also the results of my interactions with students during some forty-five years (and
counting) of teaching ancient history at all periods and levels at the University of
Wisconsin, the University of South Carolina, and the Chicago and Urbana–
Champaign campuses of the University of Illinois. Over the years I have taught,
by my rough estimate, more than ten thousand students, and their responses to
how I developed the material have significantly informed my presentation of the
material in Ancient Mediterranean Civilizations (AMC), now in its third edition.
Writing a textbook that covers human history with some specificity from
roughly 8000 BCE until 650 CE is no easy task. The very act of historical writing
is an act of interpretation. There is a multitude of ways in which an even greater
multitude of events can be organized and presented. In each case an author has
to pick one way and at the same time try to be consistent. It goes without saying
that there are many other possible interpretations of the material. On top of that,
writing a textbook is an exercise in gross oversimplification. On the first day of
class, I often get students’ attention by warning them that much of what I tell
them will be lies. One simply cannot squeeze eight thousand years of history
with any great exactitude into five hundred pages or a fifteen-week class. My own
general preferences for this volume are (1) simplicity over complexity; (2) broad
coverage over narrow coverage; and (3) uniformity of theme over a scattershot
approach.
This textbook also is much more than how I personally view ancient history,
although that necessarily is a large part of it. It also reflects what moves our stu-
dents and what works for them. Students like to see how history works—that is,
what kinds of factors bring to pass the events we study—not only global consid-
erations such as social and economic factors, religious movements, and, yes, even

xi
xii    p r e fa c e

wars and battles, but also, in particular, the considerations that connect individ-
ual people to what happened in history. Students also like to see continuity, that
is, how one period in history leads into and is influenced by what went before it.
They like connectivity, to learn how similar sets of circumstances in different
places at different times produced similar results. And they are fascinated by sto-
ries that help to contextualize and bring to life both individual events and the
grand historical processes that lie behind them.
Ancient Mediterranean Civilizations attempts to meet these needs in several
ways. It emphasizes (1) evolution and continuity, depicting history as a cumula-
tive process; (2) connections, looking at recurrent themes to show how similar
phenomena occur in different places at different times; (3) causality, depicting
how historical events happen for a reason; and (4) cultural diffusion and cultural
diversity: no period of history was more culturally diverse than the ancient world,
and by studying it, we can gain insights into the nature of cultural diversity in the
modern day. And it should be stressed that I distinguish between “culture,” the
attributes of any human society, and “civilization,” a specialized subset of culture
that meets certain fundamental criteria, such as the use of agriculture, writing,
metal technology, urbanization, social differentiation, and specialization of
labor. Civilization is not treated defensively, nor is it assumed that cultures that
do not qualify as civilizations are somehow “worse” than civilizations.
This text also integrates material culture directly into an understanding of
how history is reconstructed and goes beyond, “Here’s a pot. Isn’t it pretty?” It
shows how the study of ancient history can serve as a laboratory for the study of
modern sensitive issues, such as tolerance and intolerance and attitudes toward
race, ethnicity, gender issues and roles, slavery, religion, and imperialism. Ancient
Mediterranean Civilizations thus does not shy away from the discussion of poten-
tially sensitive issues, such as, for example, ancient popular perceptions of Chris-
tianity and the pagan backgrounds of Christianity.
Several features of Ancient Mediterranean Civilizations set it apart from similar
texts. For one thing, it covers in depth the full range of the human past, from the
Stone Age until the very end of antiquity in the seventh century CE. The entire
first chapter is devoted to the concept of “civilization before civilization,” a
period during which very complex cultures developed that did not happen to
meet all of the artificial criteria used by modern historians to define “civiliza-
tion.” Nevertheless, for some five thousand years—a period equal in length to the
period during which “civilizations” existed—sophisticated societies that mani-
fested to a greater or lesser degree nearly all the attributes of civilization existed
in Europe and the Near East. All of this demonstrates that the rise of civilization
around 3000 BCE was not a sudden phenomenon determined by a set of unique
circumstances or by the sudden onset of environmental changes, but the natural
consequence of thousands of years of human development.
Ancient Mediterranean Civilizations also strives to go beyond the standard
“Greeks and Romans” approach and to give full billing to the other civilizations
 Preface   xiii

and cultures that existed in the ancient world. This is done first of all by includ-
ing four chapters on the ancient Near East. Subsequently, aspects of non-Greek
and non-Roman cultures are incorporated into individual chapters even more
than they had been in the first two editions. In the second edition, a completely
new chapter, Chapter 9, “Civilization beyond the Near East, Greece, and Rome,”
was added, focusing directly on cultures that rarely are discussed in standard
textbooks, ranging from Scythians in the north, to Bactrians, Indians, and Toch-
arians in the east, to Kushites, the native peoples of North Africa and the Saharan
world, and Carthage in the south, and to the Etruscans, Tartessus, and the Celts
and their ancestors in the west.
The final chapter, on the other hand, continues after the point where most
traditional texts leave off, bringing antiquity to its logical conclusion at the end
of Late Antiquity in the seventh century CE. Doing so not only brings the narra-
tive full circle with a return to the Near East, where civilization originally had
developed, but also depicts the disintegration of the unified culture that gradu-
ally had developed during the preceding millennia. The disintegration resulting
from the barbarian occupation of the western Roman Empire, on the one hand,
and the rise of Islam and the early Muslim conquests in the Near East, North
Africa, and Spain, on the other, collectively created the “three worlds of the
Middle Ages” that eventually would manifest distinguishing elements that con-
tinue to characterize the modern world.
The volume also breaks with convention in other regards. The Minoan and
Mycenaean civilizations of Crete and Greece, for example, are discussed in the
context of other Bronze Age civilizations rather than being held in reserve and
lumped in with later Greek civilization. This, I believe, highlights the role of the
early Greeks in their largely Near Eastern context rather than creating a Greek
ghetto that implicitly suggests that the Greeks were somehow different from, and
superior to, the peoples of the Near East. And elsewhere, there is a focus more on
connections than on discontinuities, and what usually are treated as lines of de-
marcation are seen here as linked, bridge periods. Thus, the fourth chapter
bridges the gap between the Bronze and Iron Ages and helps to correct the
common presumption that Mesopotamia and Egypt were the only centers of
Bronze Age civilization by giving full billing to cultures that arose outside the
major river valleys. It discusses bit players of the Bronze Age who anticipated
future religious developments (the Hebrews), mainstream lifestyles, uses of tech-
nology, and forms of economic activity, commerce in particular.
In a like manner, Chapter 11 covers the fall of the Roman Republic and the
creation of the Roman Empire in the same chapter. Even though the political
creation of Augustus’s Principate marks the logical conclusion to the political
developments of the late Roman Republic, other texts create a break here and talk
about the creation of the Principate in a separate chapter on the Roman Empire.
But this text puts Octavian’s political solution to the political problems of the
Republic in the same chapter as the fall of the Republic and not only highlights
xiv    p r e fa c e

the degree of continuity of Octavian’s political actions with what had gone before
but also eliminates the awkward need for recapitulation in the next chapter. Stu-
dents thus can see this crucial transition as it happened, comprehensively, and
not artificially broken up into two chunks. In this model, the subsequent Roman
Empire chapters then can concentrate on the future of Roman society, culture,
and politics rather than having to backtrack to the Republican past.
Similarly, Chapter 13 not only discusses the Imperial Crisis but also smoothly
segues into the reign of Diocletian, showing clearly how and why one followed
on the other. And by covering this crucial period all in the same chapter, the
volume implicitly deals with the transition between classical antiquity and Late
Antiquity and with the fuzzy question of just when Late Antiquity started: all of
the suggested starting points are included in one chapter, and students will be
able to see many of the elements that distinguish the two periods from each
other.

LEARNING AIDS
Other features of Ancient Mediterranean Civilizations are intended to bring the
ancient history textbook into the modern world. For one thing, the teaching of
introductory history has increasingly become a lowest-common-denominator
situation. More and more courses, even upper-level ones, have fewer bona fide
prerequisites as departments fight to keep their enrollment levels up. Western
Civilization textbooks have responded to this development by providing text-
books with pedagogical aids that go far beyond the de rigueur source quotations
and maps and are intended to help guide students who have not been exposed
to premodern history. Ancient history textbooks, however, have been behind the
curve in this regard, perhaps on the assumption that an ancient history survey
course attracts more motivated students who don’t need to be babied or patron-
ized with high-schoolish pedagogical features. Whereas the first part of this rea-
soning is, on balance, correct, I don’t agree with the second, for the kind of
students who will be taking a survey of ancient history will have the same kinds
of academic backgrounds as students taking Western Civilization and will have
many of the same kinds of pedagogical experiences, needs, and expectations. Yes,
they will, on balance, be more engaged and more motivated, for if they were not
such, they would be taking Western Civilization. But this does not mean that
they will be any better prepared academically and any less receptive to pedagogy
that Western Civilization students might just ignore.
In addition, just like Western Civilization students, ancient history students
have grown up in a multimedia world and will find a traditional “block-text”
book just as boring and uninviting as anyone else does. Ancient history students
like to have their attention drawn to the equivalent of different hypertext links,
to different manifestations of the information they’re studying. This textbook,
therefore, includes pedagogical features that will not only guide students to a
 Preface   xv

better understanding of the material but also satisfy their innate desire to experi-
ence the kind of exposure to material that they are used to receiving electroni-
cally. Collectively, the features are designed to show how students can interpret
historical evidence, both written and material, to form a reasoned analysis of
what happened in history and what it meant.
Thus, even though this text still is organized around a central narrative de-
signed to show how history works, the volume also has a number of features
intended to catch the attention of students who spend much of their time surf-
ing web pages. For example, each chapter includes boxed features that can stand
on their own and thus be useful either for classroom discussions or out-of-class
assignments, including: (1) “A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words,” in which a
material artifact, such as a building, fresco, pot, statue, and so on, is discussed
in detail, in the context of the chapter themes, to show how nonliterary mate-
rial can shed light on ancient cultures; (2) “In Their Own Words,” an extended
quotation from a literary or epigraphical text that illustrates the chapter’s main
themes and demonstrates how different kinds of written documents can teach
history; (3) “The History Laboratory,” which shows how scientific methods,
theoretical models, and quantification can be used to understand ancient his-
tory, on the one hand, and debunk pseudoscience and modern popularizers,
on the other; (4) “Digging Antiquity,” an archaeologically based feature in
every chapter that discusses specific sites, many of which still can be visited; (5)
either “Mysteries of History,” dealing with an unknown aspect of the past, or
“Historical Controversy,” dealing with divergent modern models or interpreta-
tions of an ancient phenomenon; (6) “Subversive Personalities,” a new feature
that highlights the actions of a person or persons, particularly women, such as
Eve, Enheduanna, Akhenaton, Jezebel, Judith, Sappho, Hypatia, and Theodora,
who challenged existing institutions, beliefs, or social conventions; and (7)
“Roman Cultural Encounters,” a new feature focusing on the engagements of
the Romans with other peoples. New topics incorporated into the features of
this edition include “The Victory Stela of Piye,” “Female Gladiators,” and “The
Rise of Late Antiquity.”
In addition, smaller boxed features provide added learning opportunities
when appropriate, including “Learning from History,” which demonstrates what
history teaches us about themes and issues of broad significance that also have
an impact in the modern day, such as those relating to race, ethnicity, gender,
slavery, religion, and so on, as well as “The Legacy of Antiquity,” which considers
how what happened in history continues to affect the modern day; “Historical
Causality,” which focuses on the factors that make history happen; “Thought
Question,” which challenges students to put to use what they have learned;
“Cross-Cultural Connections,” which looks at similarities between different cul-
tures in different places at different periods; and “Alternative History,” discussion
points revolving around questions of how historical processes or events might
have turned out differently.
xvi    p r e fa c e

Furthermore, a pedagogical section, “Looking Back,” is included at the end

of every chapter to summarize the material covered in the chapter. It is fol-
lowed by “Looking Ahead,” which briefly introduces the topic of the next
chapter. Coupled with each chapter’s introductory paragraph, students will
be well informed about how the broad themes of discussion are covered
and developed.
Interspersed throughout the pages of the book are marginal “stickies” that
draw attention to modern analogies to or survivals of ancient phenomena and
show students how the present can still be related to the past. And throughout
the text, important terms, events, and concepts are highlighted in bold to draw
students’ attention to them and help students study for exams; these items also
appear in the Glossary, which provides brief descriptions and a guide to pro-
nunciation. The volume also is heavily illustrated. Whereas two commonly as-
signed ancient history textbooks have forty and sixty-five maps and illustrations,
this volume has well over two hundred. The robust visual quality of this text will
help make ancient history more up close and personal for modern students. I
feel that it is important for students to be able to associate the visual with the
verbal not only because these are cultures that, outside of Hollywood portrayals,
students are essentially unfamiliar with but also because in this multimedia age
students’ first encounters with new material are often through highly illustrated
web pages.
The new edition also includes, along with the aforementioned material, a
great deal of other added content, updated information, clarifications, correc-
tions, connective tissue, and infill, much of it suggested by the many referees of
the previous editions. The tables, timelines, bibliographies, maps, and glossary
have been updated, and there is new or fuller discussion of Göbekli Tepe, the
Epic of Gilgamesh, Sumerian dream interpretation, the Scorpion kings and Egyp-
tian trade, Artemisia and the Battle of Salamis, The Muses, Buddhism, early
Roman source material, early Roman social relations, the Second Punic War, the
temples in the Largo di Torre Argentina, Pompey, the Golden Age of Latin litera-
ture, the reigns of Tiberius, Claudius, Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, Nerva, Trajan,
Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus, the Roman economy
and trade, Judaism, the Imperial Crisis, Diocletian and Constantine, and barbar-
ians, with the addition of a section on the Alamanni.
For me, doing these three editions of Ancient Mediterranean Civilizations has
been intensely rewarding. There is no better way to gain a full understanding of
a period than to write a textbook that attempts to explain the period to someone
else. But textbook writing also is not for the faint of heart. To undertake such a
task automatically makes one a target for every scholar, student, and general
reader who thinks that the book does not give sufficient attention to their disci-
plinary specialty, their personal political agenda, or their favorite historical ex-
amples and anecdotes. Fair enough. I would offer only one desideratum: please
read the book before you comment on it.
 Preface   xvii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The results of my personal study of ancient history have appeared in many dif-
ferent venues, including fifteen monographs and edited volumes, more than
one hundred scholarly articles, and even the introductory chapters of a Western
civilization textbook, published by the old Houghton Mifflin press in 2008.
Ancient Mediterranean Civilizations had its genesis as a result of a meeting with
Robert Miller, executive editor and classics editor of Oxford University Press, in
November 2007, who responded much more favorably and enthusiastically
than I ever could have expected when I suggested to him that a new ancient his-
tory textbook might be in order. And the rest, as they say, is history. The project
moved quickly along as I updated and expanded decades of lecture notes into a
coherent and comprehensive whole. In 2009, Robert passed the classics editor
torch to Charles Cavaliere, who with tremendous enthusiasm shepherded the
second edition to completion and who has carried the torch again for this third
edition. Revising the manuscript was greatly facilitated by the dedicated assis-
tance of several Oxford staff persons, most notably, Brad Rau, production editor,
and Katie Tunkavige, assistant editor. In addition, I also would like to thank the
many colleagues who provided invaluable feedback on the third edition. I have
responded as best I could to their many good suggestions. These include Eric H.
Cline, George Washington University; Timothy Donald Doran, California State
University—Los Angeles; Philip Handyside, Stetson University; Stephanie
Quinn, Rockford University; Eric W. Robinson, Indiana University; Ruma N.
Salhi and, Jeffrey Stevens, University of Missouri, Columbia; and several anony-
mous reviewers. Their careful readings and trenchant comments opened my
eyes to a much wider range of interpretations and source material, and thus
made this a much better volume.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

• “Subversive Personalities,” a new illustrated feature added to all the chapters
that highlights the actions of a person or persons, particularly women, such
as Eve, Enheduanna, Akhenaton, Jezebel, Judith, Sappho, Hypatia, and Theo-
dora, who challenged traditional institutions, beliefs, or social conventions.
• Another new feature, “Roman Cultural Encounters,” focuses on the engage-
ments of the Romans with other peoples.
• New discussion of Göbekli Tepe, Old Europe, Sumerian dream interpreta-
tion, Buddhism, Artemisia, the temples in the Largo di Torre Argentina, recent
scientific developments, and the Alamanni.
• Expanded coverage of the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Scorpion kings and Egyp-
tian trade, and the Battle of Salamis, The Muses, early Roman source material,
early Roman social relations, the Second Punic War, Pompey, the Golden Age
of Latin literature, the reigns of Tiberius, Claudius, Vespasian, Titus,
xviii    p r e fa c e

Domitian, Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, and Com-

modus, the Roman economy and trade, Judaism, the Imperial Crisis, Diocle-
tian and Constantine, and barbarians.
• A companion website (www.oup.com/he/mathisen-mediterranean3e) offers
new digital learning and teaching resources designed to increase engagement
with the text. Students who purchase a new copy of the text can access quiz-
zes, flashcards, videos, and an enhanced e-book at no extra charge (or they
can purchase stand-alone access at a 50 percent% discount). Videos, Power-
Point slides, and a test-item file are available to instructors. Contact your local
OUP publisher’s representative for details.
 NOTE ON SPELLING
AND PRONUNCIATION

B ecause ancient names and words were written in languages other than Eng-
lish, they can be converted into English using many different methods. The
spellings used here are the most widely used spellings, but readers should be
aware that other publications sometimes will use spellings that are different from
the ones used here.
In addition, a few general guidelines can make it easier to approximate the
pronunciation of many ancient words.

(1) In ancient words, adjacent vowels that in English would form diphthongs
often are pronounced separately. For example:
Cuneiform = coo nay’ ih form not coo nay’ form
Gudea = Goo day’ ah not Goo’ dee
Aryans = Air’ ee ans not Ar’ yans
Ea = Eh’ ah not Ee
(2) Likewise, in diaeresis, the second of two adjoining vowels is printed with an
umlaut and is pronounced separately, for example:
Pasiphaë = Pa si’ phah ee
Taÿgetus = Tah ih’ jih tus
Tanaïs = Tah na ees’
(3) Foreign words and names do not have silent e’s at the end, for example:
Cyrene = Si ree’ nee not Si rene’
Thales = Thay’ lees not Thayles
(4) Some letters of modern languages are printed with diacritical marks, for
example:
ç = “ch” as in “church,” e.g., Çatal
č = “ch” as in “chocolate,” e.g., Vinča

xix
xx    note on spelling and pronunciation

š= “sh” as in “shock,” e.g., Šuplja

ü= “oo” as in “food,” e.g., Hüyük
(5) Pronunciation of vowels in Greek words (printed in italics in the text):
a = “ah” as in “shah”
ē = “a” as in “cake”
ō = “o” as in “vote”
y = “oo” as in “room”
(6) Pronunciation of Latin words:
(1) Every vowel or diphthong represents a separate syllable, e.g.,
proles = pro’ lace not proles
(2a) In words that have not been anglicized, there are no silent vowels, and
words are divided into syllables following a vowel and/or preceding a
consonant, e.g.,
familia = fa mee’ lee ah not fa mil’ ee ah
Trasimene = Tra si mee’ nee not Tras ih mene’
(2b) But some Latin words have been made into English words and thus
are pronounced in English;, for example, “Caesar” is pronounced “See’
zer” in English not “Ky’ sar” (as it would be in Latin).
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

R alph W. Mathisen has appointments in history, classics, and medieval stud-

ies at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. His research interests
include ecclesiastical history, barbarian studies, late Latin literature, prosopogra-
phy, and the society, culture, and religion of late antiquity. He has authored, co-
authored, or edited fifteen books, including Ancient Roman Civilization. History
and Sources. 753 BCE to 640 CE (Oxford University Press, 2018); Sources in Ancient
Mediterranean Civilizations: Documents, Maps, and Images (Oxford University
Press, 2016); Making Europe: People, Politics, and Culture (coauthor) (Houghton
Mifflin, 2008); People, Personal Expression, and Social Relations in Late Antiquity, 2
vols. (University of Michigan, 2003); Society and Culture in Late Antique Gaul:
Revisiting the Sources (Ashgate, 2001) (with D. R. Shanzer); Law, Society, and Au-
thority in Late Antiquity (Oxford University Press, 2001); and Ruricius of Limoges
and Friends: A Collection of Letters from Visigothic Aquitania (Liverpool University
Press, 1999). He currently is working on books on the end of the western Roman
Empire; on the late Roman comedy “The Querolus”; and on the life and letters of
Desiderius of Cahors. He has published more than seventy-five scholarly articles.
He is director of the Biographical Database for Late Antiquity Project and a fellow
of the American Numismatic Society. He has degrees in astronomy and physics
(B.S., University of Wisconsin, 1969), mechanical engineering (M.S., Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, 1972), classical languages (M.A., University of Wisconsin,
1973), and ancient history (Ph.D., University of Wisconsin, 1979). He enjoys
running, traveling, ballroom dancing, and collecting ancient artifacts and six-
teenth-century book books.

xxi
 ANCIENT
MEDITERR ANEAN
CIVILIZATIONS
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 Fig. 59. The veins of the posterior region of the Florida alligator. The postcaval
system and its associated veins are shown in the main figure; the hepatic portal
system is shown in the smaller figure to the left.—For lettering, see pages 224-25.

The Venous System

The Posterior Vena Cava and its Branches. The postcava, Fig.
59, pc, as noted above, is a wide, thin-walled vessel seen extending
across the short space between the anterior face of the right lobe of
the liver and the sinus venosus. As was also noted above, the
hepatic veins, vh,—at any rate that from the left lobe of the liver,—
enter the postcava so close to the heart that they may be considered
to have one or more distinct openings into the sinus venosus.
Followed caudad, the postcava may be traced through the large right
lobe of the liver, from which it receives several branches. Emerging
from the posterior border of the liver, it is seen to extend caudad, in
the median line, as a rather inconspicuous vessel that receives blood
from the reproductive organs and the kidneys that lie close on either
side of it.
The hepatic portal vein, h, has the usual distribution for that
vessel. Entering the liver in the neighborhood of the bile duct, it
receives first (i.e., nearest the liver) a small branch from the
pancreas, pv; near the pancreatic are one or two branches from the
stomach, g, and a branch from the spleen, sp. A short distance
caudad to these vessels are two or three mesenteric veins, m,
leading from the mesentery and small intestine. Caudad to the
mesenterics, the portal system may be seen as a vein of diminished
caliber, i, leading from the posterior part of the small intestine and
from the large intestine.
The connection mentioned by Bronn between the rectal branch of
the portal vein and the caudal vein could not be demonstrated. After
entering the liver, the portal, of course, breaks up into capillaries, and
the blood thus distributed is re-collected by the capillaries of the
hepatic veins above mentioned.
The internal epigastric veins, ep, are, perhaps, the most
conspicuous vessels of the postcaval system. When the ventral
abdominal wall of the animal is removed, they may be seen
extending forward from the pelvic region, on each side of the body,
to enter the posterior edge of the liver. The epigastric of the right side
enters the large or right lobe of the liver, where it breaks up into
capillaries; the left epigastric sends its main branch into the left lobe
of the liver, but also sends a branch over to enter the right lobe.
Following the epigastrics caudad, they are seen to receive vessels
from nearly all parts of the posterior region of the body. The left
epigastric, which extends across the ventral side of the stomach,
receives from that organ four or five branches, g¹; while the farther
removed right epigastric receives only one or two branches from the
stomach. Posterior to these gastric veins the epigastrics receive one
or more veins, b, from the body wall and skin. Posterior, again, to the
last-named veins, each epigastric receives, in the pelvic region, a
large vein, the iliac, il, which receives, in turn, a vein from the pelvis,
pl, and continues down the thigh and lower leg to the foot as the
femoral, f, the chief vein of the posterior appendage. After receiving
small branches from the muscles of the thigh, the femoral receives
near the knee a small branch from the posterior surface of the lower
leg, fb, and a larger one, t, that leads from the anterior surface of the
lower leg and foot.
The veins of the pes were so small, in the comparatively small
animals it was necessary to use, that their distribution could not be
determined with certainty, though they seemed to parallel very
closely their corresponding arteries to be described below.
A short distance caudad to the iliac veins, each epigastric receives
one or two fairly large branches from the pelvic region, called by
Bronn the ischiadic veins, is. Caudad to the ischiadics and dorsal to
the cloaca, each epigastric is united with a short but wide renal portal
or renal advehente vein, rp, leading to the posterior border of its
respective kidney and receiving, on the way, a short branch from the
pelvic region, shown just cephalad to the reference lines rt and rp.
Very close to its junction with the renal portals each epigastric
gives off a small branch which unites with its fellow of the opposite
side to form a median vein, rt, the rectal leading from the posterior
part of the large intestine. A very short distance caudal to these last
veins, in the region just dorsal to the anal opening, the epigastrics
are formed by the division of the caudal vein, cv, which, of course,
brings blood from the tail and is, on account of the large size of that
organ, of considerable caliber.
The Anterior Venæ Cavæ and their Branches. The entrance of
the precaval veins into the heart was mentioned above; their
branches, in order from the heart cephalad, will now be described.
Since the two precavæ are alike, it will be necessary to describe the
branches of only one side of the body. After leaving the heart, the
precava may be traced forward, for a short distance, at the side of
the trachea and œsophagus, as a wide, thin-walled trunk, Fig. 60,
vca. The first tributaries that it receives are the internal mammary
and vertebral veins, which join it at the base of the neck at almost
the same place.
The internal mammary, Fig. 60, im, is a rather small vein, bringing
blood from the ventral wall of the thorax. It may be followed along the
inner surface of the ribs, near the sternum, in company with its
corresponding artery.
The vertebral vein, Fig. 60, v, is also of small diameter and
extends to the dorsal body wall near the spinal column, from which
region it returns blood to the anterior vena cava; it is drawn too large
in the figure.
 Fig. 60. The veins of the anterior region of the Florida alligator. The veins of the
left foreleg are shown at A.—For lettering, see pages 224-25.

Just cephalad to the vertebral and internal mammary, the internal

jugular, j, enters the precava. The internal jugular may be followed
directly forward, close to the side of the trachea and œsophagus,
from which it receives numerous branches. Near its point of entrance
to, or rather exit from, the skull, it anastomoses, by two or three short
branches, with the external jugular, ej, to be described later. Its
distribution in the cranial cavity could not be determined in the
available material. At the point of entry of the internal jugular the
precava passes laterad for a short distance and then divides into two
more or less equal branches, the above-mentioned external jugular,
ej, and the subclavian, s, of which the latter will first be described.
The subclavian, s, of course, returns blood from the regions of the
shoulder and arm. On reaching the body wall, where it might be
called the axillary, ax, it receives, on its posterior side, a large
thoracic vein, t, which returns blood from the thorax, shoulder, and
skin. The thoracic receives a branch from the posterior surface of the
arm, which might be called the postbrachial, pb; this postbrachial
may be traced, as a rather small vessel, to the hand; at the elbow it
is connected, by one or more small branches, with the brachial.
Just distal to the thoracic the axillary vein receives two fairly large
vessels, the subscapulars, sc, that return blood from the shoulder
and upper arm. After receiving the subscapulars, the axillary may be
followed into the upper arm as the brachial, br. As has been said, the
brachial and postbrachial anastomose near the elbow, and in this
region the former receives a small vessel that extends parallel to it
from the manus.
In the forearm the brachial may be called the radial, Fig. 60, A, ra;
on the back of the manus the radial receives branches from the
various digits and from a rather complex plexus of vessels in the
carpal region.
The external jugular, Fig. 60, ej, after separating from the
subclavian, may be traced cephalad, close beneath the skin, to the
base of the skull, where it is connected with the internal jugular by
short branches, as has already been noted. It receives several small
branches from the skin and muscles of the neck and shoulder
regions. At the region of its anastomosis with the internal jugular it
receives a large branch, the muscular, ms, from the massive muscle
at the angle of the jaw and from the skin of that region.
A short distance cephalad to the muscular the external jugular
receives, on its mesial side, two or three branches from the trachea,
larynx, and œsophagus, tr. Anterior to these vessels the external
jugular is formed by the union of two chief veins, the lingual, l, from
the ventro-lateral surface of the tongue, and the inferior dental, id,
from the mesial surface of the lower jaw. The connection of the
superior dental (extending along the bases of the maxillary teeth)
with the jugular could not be determined with certainty, hence that
vessel is not shown in the figure. The same is true of the small veins
in the region of the cranium.

The Arterial System

The Abdominal Aorta and its Branches. The right and left aortic
arches, Fig. 61, Aod, Aos, arising from the heart in the manner
already described, form a rather long loop and approach each other
in the middorsal line. Here they are united by a short, wide
connective in such a way that the left arch seems continued into the
cœliac artery and the right into the dorsal aorta proper. Each arch,
anterior to the connective, gives off two fairly large branches, oe, to
the posterior region of the œsophagus.
The cœliac artery, Fig. 61, c, is the largest branch of the
abdominal aortic system. After giving off a couple of small branches,
oe, to the posterior region of the œsophagus, it gives off a large
spleno-intestinal artery, si, to the spleen and small intestine.
The cœliac then breaks up into three arteries of about the same
size: the gastro-hepatico-intestinal, ghi, carrying blood to the
stomach, liver, and small intestine; the pancreo-intestinal, pi, leading
to the pancreas and small intestine; and the gastric, ga, to the
greater part of the stomach.
 From the dorsal aorta proper, da, which, as has been said, seems
to be the direct continuation of the right aortic arch, several arteries
are given off; these will be described as they occur in an antero-
posterior direction.
At about the point of union of the two aortic arches arises the most
anterior of seven or eight pairs of lumbar arteries, lu 1-7; this first
lumbar artery is continued cephalad for some distance as a
longitudinal trunk that gives off several lateral branches to the walls
of the thoracic region. The other six or seven lumbars are distributed
to the dorsal body wall, and arise, at more or less regular intervals,
as far caudad as the sacrum, or even back of that point.
Fig. 61. The arteries of the posterior region of the Florida alligator.—For lettering,
see pages 224-25.

The first large branch of the aorta is the unpaired mesenteric

artery, m¹, which is given off in about the region of the fourth pair of
lumbars; it carries blood through the mesentery to the greater part of
the small intestine and also sends a small branch to the large
intestine.
Posterior to the mesenteric, the aorta gives off four or five pairs of
short arteries, the urogenitals, u 1-4, that lead to the nearby
reproductive organs and kidneys.
About the middle region of the kidneys, a short distance anterior to
the sacrum, is given off a pair of rather large arteries, called by
Bronn the ischiadicæ, is¹; each ischiadica, after giving off a couple of
small branches to the back, passes laterad and divides into three
main branches: (1¹) to the ventral body wall, (3¹) to the anterior
border and deeper region of the thigh, and (2¹) to the pelvis.
In the region of the sacrum is given off a pair of iliac arteries, il¹.
Each iliac is of about the same diameter as the ischiadica and gives
off, soon after leaving the aorta, an artery, ab, that apparently leads
chiefly to the abdominal muscles. Distal to the origin of the
abdominal, the iliac gives off a small pelvic artery, pa, which leads,
as the name would indicate, to the pelvis. The iliac then passes into
the thigh, where it gives off several large branches and may be
called the sciatic, sc. At the knee the sciatic gives off two rather small
branches: one, the fibular artery, f¹, extends down along the posterior
side of the lower leg; the other is parallel to the first and may be
called the tibial artery, tb, since it extends along the anterior or tibial
side of the shank. These two arteries give off numerous branches to
the muscles of the lower leg. After giving off the fibular and tibial
arteries, the sciatic passes, as a large vessel, through the lower leg,
to which it gives but few branches, and may here be called the crural
artery, cr. At the tarsus it divides rather suddenly and, perhaps,
variably, into four chief branches, leading to the toes.
 Fig. 62. The arteries of the anterior region of the Florida alligator. The arteries of
the left foreleg shown at A.—For lettering, see pages 224-25.

A short distance caudad to the origin of the iliacs the dorsal aorta
gives off a pair of small pelvic arteries, pa¹, going to the muscles of
that region. Caudal to these pelvic arteries is given off the unpaired
first hæmorrhoidal artery, he¹, which divides into a rectal, rt¹, and a
cloacal, cl, branch.
Caudal to the first hæmorrhoidal arises the second hæmorrhoidal,
he²; also unpaired, leading to the cloaca.
Posterior to the second hæmorrhoidal, the aorta continues into the
tail as the large caudal artery, ca.
The Anterior Arteries. The origin of the great arterial trunks—the
pulmonary, aortic arches, primary carotid, and right subclavian has
already been given and the distribution of the pulmonary arteries and
aortic arches has been described, so that it now remains to describe
the distribution of the right subclavian, Fig. 62, sc.d., and the primary
carotid, capr.
The right subclavian, sc.d., since it has an independent origin from
the heart, instead of arising as a branch of the primary carotid, will
be described first. After leaving the heart it passes cephalad and
laterad and gives off the following branches in order, beginning at the
heart: an œsophageal artery, oe, a small, caudally directed vessel
carrying blood to the posterior region of the œsophagus. Close to the
œsophageal arises another small, caudally directed vessel, the
pleural artery, plu, extending to the pleura and possibly to the
pericardium. From the same region as the preceding two arteries,
but extending cephalad along the trachea and œsophagus, arises
the much larger branch of the right subclavian, the right collateralis
colli, cc, whose course and distribution will be described later.
Close to the distal side of the collateralis colli arises the very small
thyroid artery, th, leading to the oval thyroid gland that lies against
the ventral surface of the trachea a short distance anterior to the
heart.
A short distance distal to the thyroid artery the subclavian gives off
a fairly large artery, the internal mammary, im¹ (shown too large in
the figure), that passes to the inner surface of the ribs near the
sternum and lies parallel to the vein of the same name, described
above.
A short distance distal to the internal mammary arises an artery of
about the same diameter, the vertebral, v¹; it passes dorsad and
caudad to the region of the thoracic vertebræ.
After giving off the five vessels just described, the subclavian
artery passes into the shoulder where it divides into three main
branches: (a) the subscapular, sc¹, going to the skin and muscles of
the shoulder; (b) the thoracic, t¹, carrying blood to the posterior
muscles of the shoulder and to the posterior region of the upper arm;
(c) the brachial, br¹, which is really the continuation of the subclavian
and is the chief artery of the anterior appendage.
After sending several branches to the upper arm the brachial
divides, in the region of the elbow, into two main vessels, the radial,
ra¹, and ulnar, ul¹, arteries, Fig. 62, A. The radial artery, in the carpal
region, divides in a complicated way into five main vessels that
extend into the digits. The ulnar artery gives off several branches to
the forearm, but apparently does not connect directly with the
branches to the digits.
The primary carotid, capr. After leaving the heart, this very large
vessel passes cephalad and laterad for some distance on the left
side of the body and then gives off, from its anterior side, the large
left subclavian artery, sc.s., to be described later. After giving off the
subclavian artery, it makes a short loop, still farther to the left, and
then turns sharply mediad to pass to the head in the median plane
directly dorsal to the œsophagus. Its distribution in the cervical and
cephalic region will be described later. The mate to the œsophageal
branch, oe (near heart), of the right subclavian which was mentioned
above is apparently sometimes given off from the primary carotid
near its base (as shown in Fig. 62) and sometimes as a branch of
the left pleural artery.
The left subclavian artery, sc.s., although it has a different origin,
has the same branches as described in connection with the right
subclavian. The exact order in which the first of these (the thyroid, th;
the internal mammary, im¹; the collateralis colli, cc; the pleural, plu;
and the vertebral, v¹) are given off is, as might be expected, subject
to some variation.
The collateralis colli, cc (following Bronn’s nomenclature), whose
origin was noted above, will now be discussed; since the two are
alike only one need be described. After leaving the subclavian, it
passes cephalad, at the side of the trachea and œsophagus, in
company with the internal jugular vein, so that in this part of its
course it would seem to be the internal carotid artery. It gives
numerous small twigs to the trachea and œsophagus, oe. In the
region of the posterior part of the huge jaw muscle it is connected
directly, x, with the adjacent branch, cm (called by Bronn the
common carotid) of the primary carotid, and indirectly, x¹, with a
complicated group of branches from the common carotid. Cephalad
to the connective x¹, which extends dorsad and is hence
foreshortened in the figure, the collateralis colli gives off a small
vessel, y (too large in Fig. 62), to the shoulder and skin; it then sends
a fairly large branch, jm, into the large jaw muscle, close to which it
now lies. Next a small branch, lg, is sent to the larynx. Continuing
cephalad and laterad (in Fig. 62 it is drawn farther to the side than it
actually lies) for a short distance farther, it divides into three
branches: (1) a short twig, mg, that goes to the musk gland on the
side of the mandible and to the skin of that region; (2) a large
branch, the mandibular, md, that enters the large foramen on the
mesial side of the mandible and extends in the cavity of that bone
throughout its entire length; (3) the lingual artery, l¹, which in turn
divides, some distance cephalad, into two branches, one extending
along the lateral region, the other nearer the mid-ventral surface of
the tongue. It is seen, then, that the collateralis colli arteries supply
directly the lower side of the head—tongue, mandible, etc.—though
they may also send blood through the above-mentioned connectives
to the brain and dorsal regions of the skull.
The primary carotid, capr, as was noted above, makes a curve to
the left after leaving the heart and then passes back to the median
plane, where it may be seen lying against the ventral side of the
neck muscles and dorsal to the œsophagus; in this place it gives off
a series of unpaired cervical arteries, Fig. 62, ce, each of which
almost immediately divides into an anterior and a posterior branch,
that carry blood to the cervical vertebræ. At the base of the skull, in
the region where it is united by the first connective, x, with the
collateralis colli, as described above, the primary carotid divides into
two similar branches, called by Bronn the common carotids, cm. The
distribution of these two vessels is symmetrical, so that only one
need be described. While the collateralis colli, as has been said,
carry blood chiefly to the tongue and lower jaw, the common carotids
supply the cranium and upper jaw.
Soon after its formation by the division of the primary carotid, the
common carotid is joined, as noted above, with the collateralis colli
of that side by the connective, x; since the common carotid and its
branches all lie dorsal to the collateralis colli and its branches, the
connectives x and x¹ extend in a more or less dorso-ventral direction.
The two common carotids, almost completely surrounded by bone, in
passing cephalad sweep first laterad, then mediad, so that they
together form almost a complete ellipse, as seen in Fig. 62; there is,
however, no apparent connection between them at the anterior
region where they lie so close together.
A short distance cephalad to the connective x the common carotid
is connected laterally, z, with a rather complicated plexus of vessels
lying at the base of the skull; it is through this plexus that the
common carotid is connected with the collateralis colli by the second
connective, x¹.
The short branch z quickly divides into three parts: (1) a small
anteriorly directed vessel which may be called the internal carotid, ic,
since it enters the skull through the most ventral of the three
foramina in the exoccipital, and probably supplies the brain, though
its further course could not be followed; (2) a somewhat larger
posteriorly directed artery, oc, going to the muscles at the occipital
region of the skull; (3) a short laterally directed stem, z¹. The last-
named branch, z¹, in turn, leads in three directions: (a) to the
collateralis colli artery through the connective x¹; (b) a short
anteriorly directed vessel, e, that passes into the skull, possibly to
the ear, through the large foramen that lies between the exoccipital
and quadrate bones; it gives off a small twig, q, to the muscles in the
region of the jaw articulation (quadrate); (c) the main stem of the
branch z continues laterad and cephalad as one of the chief arteries,
z², to the anterior region of the skull, giving off a fairly wide branch,
jm¹, to the large jaw muscle, and then two branches, o¹ and o², to the
lateral surface of the eyeball and socket; it then anastomoses, just
cephalad and laterad to the eye, with the forward continuation, cm¹,
of the corresponding main stem, cm, of the common carotid, already
mentioned. The vessel cm¹, after almost meeting its fellow in the
middle line, passes cephalad and laterad across the ventral surface
of the eye to the union, above mentioned, with the lateral branch, z²;
at the posterior-mesial border of the eye it gives off a branch that
divides into two twigs, one, o³, for the posterior eye muscles, and
one, e¹ to the region of the ear and the top of the skull.
At the point of union of the branches cm¹ and z² a sort of simple
plexus may be formed from which two vessels, n, pass to the
posterior nasal region, and two vessels pass forward along the side
of the upper jaw. Of the latter two vessels one, which may be called
the inferior dental of the maxilla, dm, is very small and extends along
the maxilla to its very tip, at the base of the teeth and ventral to the
palatine bone; the other, which is larger and may be called the
superior dental of the maxilla, dm¹, extends cephalad along the
mesial side of the maxilla, dorsal to the palatine bone; it sends
numerous twigs into the maxillary bone among the roots of the teeth.
After passing nearly to the end of the snout, the superior dental, dm¹
suddenly forms a loop towards the median line and passes as a
straight branch, n¹, directly caudad, near and parallel to the median
plane. The branch n¹ extends along the floor of the nasal cavity and,
after giving off twigs to this chamber, ends in a network of vessels,
o⁴, on the anterior surface of the eyeball and socket.
A pair of very small arteries, n², may be seen in the nasal chamber
between and parallel to the branches, n¹; they lie close to each side
of the nasal septum and supply the anterior nasal region. They
apparently arise, as shown by the broken lines, from the loop of the
superior dental artery, dm¹, though this could not be definitely
determined.

Lettering for Figures 59-62

Aos., Aod., left and right aortic arches.
ab, abdominal artery.
ax, axillary vein.
b, veins from body wall.
br, brachial vein.
br¹, brachial artery.
c, cœliac artery.
ca, caudal artery.
capr, primary carotid.
cc, collateralis colli artery.
ce, cervical artery.
cl, cloacal artery.
cm, cm¹, common carotid artery.
cr, crural artery.
cv, caudal vein.
da, dorsal aorta.
dm, inferior dental artery of maxilla.
dm¹, superior dental artery of maxilla.
e, e¹, artery into skull, perhaps to ear.
ej, external jugular vein.
ep, internal epigastric vein.
f, femoral vein.
f¹, fibular artery.
fb, fibular vein.
g, gastric vein of portal.
g¹, gastric vein of epigastric.
ga, gastric artery.
ghi, gastro-hepatico-intestinal artery.
h, hepatic portal vein.
he¹, he², hæmorrhoidal arteries.
i, intestinal vein.
ic, internal carotid artery.
id, inferior dental vein.
il, iliac vein.
il¹, iliac artery.
im, internal mammary vein.
im¹, internal mammary artery.
is, ischiadic vein.
is¹, ischiadic artery.
j, internal jugular vein.
jm, jm¹, artery to jaw muscle.
l, lingual vein.
l¹, lingual artery.
lg, laryngeal artery.
lu, 1-7, lumber arteries (numbers on left side of figure).
m, mesenteric vein.
m¹, mesenteric artery.
md, mandibular artery.
mg, artery to musk gland.
ms, muscular vein.
n, artery to posterior nasal region.
n¹, artery to anterior and mid-nasal region.
n², artery to anterior nasal region.
o¹-o⁴, arteries to eye.
oc, artery to muscles at base of skull.
oe, œsophageal arteries.
pa, pelvic artery.
pa¹, second pelvic artery.
pb, post brachial vein.
pc, post cava.
pd, right pulmonary artery.
pi, pancreo-intestinal artery.
pl, pl¹, pelvic vein.
plu, pleural artery.
ps, left pulmonary artery.
q, artery to muscle at angle of jaw.
ra, radial vein.
ra¹, radial artery.
re, reproductive vein or artery.
rp, renal portal vein.
rt, rectal vein.
rt¹, rectal artery.
rv, renal vein.
s, subclavian vein.
sc, sciatic artery (Fig. 61).
sc, subscapular vein (Fig. 60).
sc¹, subscapular artery.
sc.d., sc.s., right and left subclavian arteries.
si, spleno-intestinal artery.
sp, splenic vein.
s.v., sinus venosus.
t, thoracic vein.
t¹, thoracic artery.
tb, tibial artery.
th, thyroid artery.
tr, tracheal vein.
u, 1-4, urogenital arteries (numbers on right side of figure).
ul¹, ulnar artery.
v, vertebral vein.
v¹, vertebral artery.
vca, anterior vena cava.
vh, hepatic vein.
vpd, vps, right and left pulmonary veins.
x, x¹, connectives between collateralis colli and carotid.
y, artery to shoulder and skin.
z, z¹, z², branches of common carotid.
1¹, 2¹, 3¹, branches of ischiadic artery.
 CHAPTER IX
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ALLIGATOR
(A. mississippiensis)

Introduction
ith the exception of S. F. Clarke’s well-known paper, to which
W frequent reference will be made, practically no work has
been done upon the development of the American alligator.
This is probably due to the great difficulties experienced in obtaining
the necessary embryological material. Clarke, some twenty years
ago, made three trips to the swamps of Florida in quest of the
desired material. The writer has also spent parts of three summers in
the Southern swamps—once in the Everglades, once among the
smaller swamps and lakes of central Florida, and once in the
Okefinokee Swamp. For the first of these expeditions he is indebted
to the Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund; but for the more
successful trip, when most of the material for this work was
collected, he is indebted to the Smithsonian Institution, from which a
liberal grant of money to defray the expenses of the expedition was
received.
The writer also desires to express his appreciation of the
numerous courtesies that he has received from Dr. Samuel F.
Clarke, especially for the loan of several excellent series of sections,
from which a number of the earlier stages were drawn.
In preparing the material several kinds of fixation were employed,
but the ordinary corrosive sublimate-acetic mixture gave about the
most satisfactory results. Ten per cent. formalin, Parker’s mixture of
formalin and alcohol, etc., were also used. In all cases the embryos
were stained in toto with borax carmine, and in most cases the
sections were also stained on the slide with Lyon’s blue. This double
stain gave excellent results. Transverse, sagittal, and horizontal