(Original PDF) Global Climate Change:

Turning Knowledge Into Action

Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/product/original-pdf-global-climate-change-turning-knowledg
e-into-action/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

(eBook PDF) Personal Finance Turning Money into Wealth

7th

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-personal-finance-
turning-money-into-wealth-7th/

Personal Finance: Turning Money into Wealth, 6th

Edition (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/personal-finance-turning-money-
into-wealth-6th-edition-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) Turning Art Into Science: Applying

Chemistry to Funeral Service

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-turning-art-into-
science-applying-chemistry-to-funeral-service/

Water Conservation in the Era of Global Climate Change

1st Edition - eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/water-conservation-in-the-era-
of-global-climate-change-ebook-pdf/
(eBook PDF) Visualizing Climate Change: A Guide to
Visual Communication of Climate Change and Developing
Local Solutions

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-visualizing-climate-
change-a-guide-to-visual-communication-of-climate-change-and-
developing-local-solutions/

Climate Change in the Anthropocene 1st edition - eBook

PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/climate-change-in-the-
anthropocene-ebook-pdf/

Holocene Climate Change and Environment 1st edition -

eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/holocene-climate-change-and-
environment-ebook-pdf/

Big Data Mining for Climate Change 1st edition - eBook

PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/big-data-mining-for-climate-
change-ebook-pdf/

Urban Climate Change and Heat Islands 1st Edition-

eBook PDF

https://ebooksecure.com/download/urban-climate-change-and-heat-
islands-ebook-pdf/
Dedication

This book is dedicated to my children,

Peter, Andrew, Jonathan, Timothy, and Sarah.
Brief Contents

The Evidence: Is this Normal? 1

1 “So What’s Up with the Weather?” 2

2 The Evidence: Observing Climate Change 24

Part 2 F
 ollow the Energy: Atmosphere, Oceans,
and Climate 52
3 Energy and Earth’s Climate 54

4 Understanding Weather and Climate 84

Part 3 Deep Time: A Long History of Natural Climate

Change 126
5 Revealing Ancient Climate 128

6 Climate History 160

Part 4 Impacts of Climate Change: From Polar Bears

to Politics 208
7 The Global Impact of Climate Change 210

8 People and Politics 254

Part 5 Global Solutions: Managing the Crisis 286

9 The Energy Crisis 288

10 Turning Knowledge into Action 322

Appendices
A Climate Change and the Scientific Method A-1

B A Quick Science Primer A-4

C Online Resources A-9

D The Köppen Climate Classification System A-33

E Weather Extremes A-37

F Common Conversions A-44

Contents

Preface XVI
The Teaching and Learning Package XX
About the Author XXII
About Our Sustainability Initiatives XXIII

Part 1 The Evidence: is This Normal? 1

Chapter
1 “So, What’s Up with the
Weather?” 2
Weather and Climate 4
Is the Climate Changing? 4
How Stable Is the Climate? 4
Historical Climate Change 5
Pause for Thought 1.1 5
Recent Climate Change 6
Summary 22 Why Should We
A Century of Warming 8 Care? 22 Looking Ahead . . . 22 Critical
Pause for Thought 1.2 10 Thinking Questions 23 Key Terms 23
Has Warming Stopped? 10 Chapter
Pause for Thought 1.3 11 2 The Evidence: Observing
Lessons from the Deep Past 11 Climate Change 24
Pause for Thought 1.4 11
Global Temperature 26
Major Factors that Affect Climate
Estimating Global Temperature 27
Change 11
Why Use Temperature Anomalies? 27
Radiative Forcing 12
Pause for Thought 2.1 28
Radiative Feedback 13
The Temperature Data 28
Timescales of Climate Change 14
Land Surface Temperature 28
Pause for Thought 1.5 17
Ocean Air and Sea Surface
Greenhouse Gases 17
Temperature 28
Climate Models 18
Air Balloons 29
How Accurate Are Economic
Satellites 29
Projections? 19
Satellites and Sea Surface
Should Climate Models Be Used to Guide
Temperature 29
Policy? 21
Global Historic Climatology Network 29
Pause for Thought 1.6 21
Missing Data 30
The Next Decade? 21
Changes in Sea Level 30
viii Global Climate Change

Is Changing Sea Level Normal? 30 Permafrost 40

How Fast Is the Sea Rising?
Why Is Sea Level Rising? 33
Pause for Thought 2.2 33
The Melting Cryosphere 33
Polar Sea Ice 34
The Greenland Ice Sheet
The Antarctic Ice Sheets 37
Pause for Thought 2.3 40
32 Mountain Glaciers 41
Changing Patterns of Climate 43
Changes in Diurnal Temperature 43
Changes in Precipitation 43
Droughts and Fires 46
36 Hurricane Frequency and Intensity 47
Summary 50 Why Should We
Care? 50 Looking Ahead . . . 50 Critical
Thinking Questions 51 Key Terms 51

Part 2  ollow the Energy: Atmosphere,

F
Oceans, and Climate 52
Chapter
3 Energy and Earth’s
Climate 54

The Source of All Energy:

The Sun 56
Sunspots 57
The Solar Cycle 57
Changes in TSI Measured by Satellite 58
Could the Sun Be Responsible for Recent
Climate Change? 58
Pause for Thought 3.1 59
Orbital Cycles 59
Obliquity 59
Heating the Atmosphere 67
Eccentricity 59
The Energy Budget 69
Precession 60
Cold Comfort 69
Could Orbital Cycles Be Responsible for
The Distribution of Greenhouse Gases 70
Recent Climate Change? 61
Pause for Thought 3.2 61 Measuring the Flow of Energy 71

The Atmosphere 62 The Natural Greenhouse Gas Effect 71

Pause for Thought 3.5 74
Structure and Composition of the
Atmosphere 62 The Enhanced Greenhouse
Gas Effect 74
The Troposphere 62
Pause for Thought 3.3 64 The Lower Troposphere 74

What Is a Greenhouse Gas? 64 Warming the Middle and Upper

Troposphere 74
Could Greenhouse Gases Be Responsible
for Recent Climate Change? 67 Back to the Surface 74
Pause for Thought 3.4 67 Up to the Stratosphere 75

Pause for Thought 3.6 76
Radiative Forcing 76
The Sun 76
Greenhouse Gas Forcing 76
Other Sources of Radiative Forcing
in the Atmosphere 77
Pause for Thought 3.7 79
Pause for Thought 3.8 80
The Role of Albedo and Clouds 80
The Final Verdict on Radiative
Forcing 80
The Question of Climate
Sensitivity 81
Pause for Thought 3.9 81
Summary 82 Why Should We Care? 82
Looking Ahead . . . 82 Critical Thinking
Questions 83 Key Terms 83
Chapter
4 Understanding Weather and
Climate 84
Global Heat Transfer 86
The Source of Energy 86
The Global Distribution of Energy 86
Understanding Atmospheric
Circulation: 87
Convection in the Tropics: Hadley
Cells 87
Mid-latitude Deserts 90
Mid-latitude Westerlies: Ferrel Cells 90
Pause for Thought 4.1 90
The Polar Fronts 90
Pause for Thought 4.2 91
Cyclonic Frontal Systems: Heating the
Poles 91
The Oceans 94
The Circulation of Water in the
Oceans 95
Pause for Thought 4.3 96
Contents ix
The Structure of the Oceans 96
The Surface 96
Thermohaline Circulation 99
The Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) 100
Wind-Driven Circulation 100
The Marine Atmosphere Boundary Layer
(MABL) 101
Ekman Transport 102
Pause for Thought 4.4 103
Winds and Oceans 103
Tropical Divergence 103
Subtropical Convergence and Gyres 103
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current 106
Sea Ice 107
Seasonal Ice 108
The Oceans as a Heat Sink 108
Pause for Thought 4.5 108
Atmosphere–Ocean
Interaction 108
Complex Interconnected Systems 108
Tropical Cyclones 109
Monsoons 110
The Asian Monsoon 111
The West African Monsoon 112
Monsoons and Milankovitch Cycles 112
The Impact of Monsoons 112
Interannual and Longer-Term
Natural Variations 112
The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) 112
Pause for Thought 4.6 113
El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 113
The Madden–Julian Oscillation 118
The Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) 120
The Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation
(AMO) 121
Pause for Thought 4.7 121
Summary 123 Why Should We
Care? 124 Looking Ahead . . . 124 Critical
Thinking Questions 124 Key Terms 125
x Global Climate Change

Part 3  eep Time: A Long History

D
of Natural Climate Change 126

Chapter
5 Revealing Ancient
Climate 128

Decoding the Past 130

Pause for Thought 5.1 130
A Story in Stone 130
The Climatologist’s Toolbox 131
Interpreting Lithology 131
Pause for Thought 5.2 132
Pause for Thought 5.3 135
Chapter
Pause for Thought 5.4 136 6 Climate History 160
Pause for Thought 5.5 139 Climate, Life, and Geological
Using Chemistry to Interpret Ancient Time 162
Climate 139 Pause for Thought 6.1 162
Pause for Thought 5.6 145 What Controlled Ancient
Trace Elements as Environmental Climate? 162
Markers 146 Fire and Ice: The Story of “Snowball”
Organic Chemicals as a Proxy for Ocean Earth 162
Temperature 146 The Power of Ice 162
Fossils as Environmental Indicators 147 The Power of Greenhouse Gases 164
Pause for Thought 5.7 148
From Ice to Oven 164
The Recent Past 149
Ice and Coal: The Great Permo-
Dendrochronology: Using Tree Rings to Carboniferous Glaciation 165
Date Climate Change 149
Why a Carboniferous Glaciation? 165
Dendroclimatology: Tree Rings as a Proxy Pause for Thought 6.2 167
for Climate Change 150
The Great Extinction: The Permo-
Pause for Thought 5.8 150
Triassic Climate Crisis 167
Scleroclimatology: Corals as a Proxy for
The Permo-Triassic World 167
Climate Change 151
Could the Permo-Triassic Extinction
Stalactites and Stalagmites as Proxies of
Happen Today? 168
Climate Change 151
Pause for Thought 6.3 169
The Record of Climate Change in Ice
The Cretaceous Hothouse
Cores 152
World 170
Pause for Thought 5.9 154
Cretaceous Volcanism 170
The Record of Climate Change from
Sediment Cores 155 Cretaceous Atmospheric
Temperatures 171
Pause for Thought 5.10 157
Carbon Dioxide in the Cretaceous Atmo-
Summary 158 Why Should We
Care? 158 Looking Ahead . . . 158 Critical sphere 171
Thinking Questions 159 Key Terms 159 The Cretaceous Oceans 172

Cooling the Cretaceous 173
Does the Cretaceous Provide a Vision of
the Future? 173
The K–T Extinction 173
Pause for Thought 6.4 174
The Last Days of “Summer” 174
Too Hot for Comfort: The Paleocene
Epoch 175
The Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Anomaly
(PETA): A Vision of the Future? 175
Pause for Thought 6.5 179
The Great Global Cooling 179
What Turned Down the Thermostat? 179
The First Chills: The Eocene Epoch 180
Pause for Thought 6.6 180
The First Ice Sheets: The Oligocene
Epoch 180
Pause for Thought 6.7 182
The Neogene Period 183
Passing the Precipice: The Miocene
Epoch 183
Back to the Future: The Pliocene
Epoch 184
Pause for Thought 6.8 186
The Quaternary Period 186
A Story of Ice: The Pleistocene Epoch 186
Pause for Thought 6.9 189
Part 4 Impacts of Climate Change: from Polar Bears
to Politics 208
Chapter
7 The Global Impact of
Climate Change 210
A Global Problem 212
Projections of Climate Change 212
Coping with, Adapting to, and Mitigating
Climate Change 212
Examples of the Impact of Climate Change
on Society 213
Contents xi
Living in a Land of Ice and Snow 189
Climate Stability: Is It Always Cold During
an Ice Age? 192
Pause for Thought 6.10 195
The Ice Core Story: An 800,000-Year Record
of Our Recent Climate History 195
Pause for Thought 6.11 196
Rapid Climate Change 197
Pause for Thought 6.12 200
The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM): The End
of an Ice Age 200
The Holocene 202
New Tools Enhance the Holocene Climate
Record 203
Global Recovery from the Younger Dryas
Event 203
The 8,200-Year Cooling Event 203
The Holocene Climate Maximum 204
More Holocene Cooling 204
The Medieval Climate Anomaly 204
Pause for Thought 6.13 204
The Little Ice Age 205
The Maunder Minimum 205
Looking Forward to Future Climate
Change 205
Summary 206 Why Should We
Care? 206 Looking Ahead . . . 206 Critical
Thinking Questions 207 Key Terms 207
xii Global Climate Change
Examples of the Impact of Climate Change
on the Environment 214
Dealing with Risk and Uncertainty
Adaptation to Climate Change in
the Natural World 216
Terrestrial Biomes and Ecosystems
Environmental Vulnerability 218
Human Impact on the Biosphere
How Will Ecosystems Adapt to Modern
Climate Change? 218
Case Studies of the Global Impact
of Climate Change 219
How to Approach the Case Studies 220
Case Study 1: Freshwater
Resources 220
Water Supply 221
Water Stress 221
Water Stress in the United States
Water Stress in Europe 223
The Middle East: Water Stress and Political
Conflict 224
Pause for Thought 7.1 225
Sub-Saharan Africa: Drought and
Migration 225
Case Study 2: The Amazon
Forests 225
A Treasure of Biodiversity 225
A Wealth of Human Knowledge
Carbon Storage in the Amazon 226
Pause for Thought 7.2 227
Case Study 3: Reef Systems 227
The Great Barrier Reef 227
Coral Bleaching 227
Lessons from El Niño 228
An Eye in the Sky 228
Case Study 4: Ocean Acidification 230
Understanding Ocean Chemistry
Making and Dissolving Shells 230
Rapidly Changing Ocean Chemistry
Endangering Shallow Marine
Ecosystems 231
Struggling Reef Systems 231
The Social and Human Impacts of Ocean
Acidification 232
214 Waiting for Political Action 232
Case Study 5: The Roof of the
World 232
216 The Himalayas as a Reservoir of Water 233
Warming the Himalayas 233
218 Pause for Thought 7.3 237
Case Study 6: Rising Global Sea
Level 237
The Last Great Flood 237
Expanding the Ocean 238
Melting the Last Great Ice Sheets 238
Understanding Ice Sheet Dynamics 238
The Impact of Rising Sea Level 238
Case Study 7: Small Pacific Island
Communities 244
221 Pause for Thought 7.4 245
Pause for Thought 7.5 245
Case Study 8: Sickness and
Diseases 245
The Deterioration of Human Health 246
The Threat from Malaria 246
Case Study 9: The Melting of Arctic
Tundra 247
Disappearing Tundra and
Permafrost 247
226 Pause for Thought 7.6 250
Are There Any Positive Impacts of
Climate Change? 250
Summary 252 Why Should We
Care? 252 Looking Ahead . . . 252 Critical
Thinking Questions 252 Key Terms 253
Chapter
8 People and Politics 254
Climate Policy 256
230
The Role of Stakeholders 256
Pause for Thought 8.1 257
231 Informing Legislation: Sources of Climate
Data in the United States 258
Weighing the Costs and Benefits in the
Climate Debate 258
 Contents xiii

The Economic Analysis of Climate The Social Conservative Perspective 276

Change 258 A More Liberal Perspective: Social
Finding an Economic Solution in the Devel- Liberals 276
oping World 261 Climate Skeptics 277
Pause for Thought 8.2 262 Denialism at Work 277
The International Response to Turning Knowledge into
Climate Change 263 Action 277
The Kyoto Protocol 263 The Role of the Traditional Media 278
The UN and Climate Change 263 The Impact of Online and Social
First Steps: The IPCC’s First Assessment Media 278
Report and the UNFCCC 264 Talking About Risk 278
The Policy Mechanisms of the Kyoto Cultural Risk Theory 279
Protocol 268
The First Steps Towards More Effective
Pause for Thought 8.3 275
Communication 280
The Social Impact of Climate Pause for Thought 8.4 280
Change in the United States 275
Developing an Effective Communication
The Six Americas Report: Weighing Public Strategy 280
Opinion 275
Pause for Thought 8.5 281
The Environmental Movement in the
Summary 282 Why Should We Care? 282
United States 275 Looking Ahead . . . 283 Critical Thinking
The Climate Change Countermovement in Questions 283 Key Terms 285
the United States 275

Part 5 Global Solutions: Managing the Crisis 286

Chapter
9 The Energy Crisis 288

The Energy Problem 290

The Challenge of Energy
Poverty 290
World Energy Demand 290
Pause for Thought 9.1 292
Conventional Sources of Power:
Coal 292
Origins of Coal 292
The Use of Coal in China 294
The Use of Coal in the United States 294 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) 295
Clean Coal Technology (CCT) 294 Pause for Thought 9.2 297
The Political Power of Big Coal 294 The “Coal Power in a Warming World”
How Efficient Is Coal Power? 295 Report 297
The Integrated Gasification Combined The Future of Coal 298
Cycle (IGCC) System 295 Pause for Thought 9.3 298
xiv Global Climate Change

Conventional Sources of Power: Wind Energy 309

Natural Gas 298 Solar Power 310
Origins of Natural Gas 298 Wave Power 311
Is Gas More Efficient than Coal? 299 Tidal Power 311
World Demand for Natural Gas 299 Solid Biomass 311
Natural Gas Consumption 299 Biofuels 312
The Future of Natural Gas 300 Hydrogen 313
Energy Security and Natural Gas in the Pause for Thought 9.7 315
European Union 300 The Politics of Change­  315
Natural Gas Reserves 300 Renewable Energy Standards in the United
Pause for Thought 9.4 300 States 315
Conventional Sources of Power: Renewable Energy Standards in China 315
Oil 301 A New Energy Infrastructure 316
Oil Reserves 301 Are We Subsidizing Greenhouse
Oil Sands, Heavy Oil, and Extra-Heavy Gas Emissions? 316
Oil 301
Summary 318 Why Should We Care? 319
Oil and Energy Security 302 Looking Ahead . . . 319 Critical Thinking
Oil and the Transportation Crisis 302 Questions 319 Key Terms 321

Fuel Efficiency and Mileage

Standards 303
Future Fuel Efficiency and Mileage
Standards 303
The Cost of Fuel Inefficiency 304
The Future of Oil 304
Pause for Thought 9.5 304
Conventional Sources of Power:
Nuclear Power 304
The Nuclear Power Fear Factor
New Interest in Nuclear Power
Did France Get Nuclear Power Right?
The United States and Nuclear Power
The Rest of the World and Nuclear
Power 306
Is Nuclear Power Really Necessary?
The Future Is Glowing? 306
Pause for Thought 9.6 307
Renewable Energy 307
Global Use of Renewable Energy
Hydroelectric Power 307
Small Hydroelectric Schemes 308
Geothermal Power 308
“New” Renewable Energy 309
Chapter
10 Turning Knowledge into
Action 322
The Deep Roots of Climate
Change 324
Population Growth and Poverty as Drivers
of Climate Change 324
Who Will Take the Lead? 324
304 Do Nations Have a Right to Pursue
305 Economic Growth? 325
305 Pause for Thought 10.1 327
305 Energy Demand and Greenhouse
Gas Emissions 327
Global Energy Consumption 328
306 Emissions from the United States 328
Emissions from China 329
Emissions from Bangladesh 329
Facing an Uncertain Future 329
307 Why Should We Worry About
Emissions? 330
Can Emissions Decrease Without Interna-
tional Action? 330
The Way Forward: Finding a
Solution 331
 Contents xv

Enhancing the Sequestration of CO2 from Fuel Switching and CCS 338
Fossil Fuels 331 Renewables 338
Increasing the Generation of Power Biostorage 338
from Sources That Produce Fewer
Pause for Thought 10.2 339
Emissions 332
The United States: Regional and
Enhancing CO2 Sequestration During
State Initiatives 339
Industrial Production 332
Geoengineering: A Last
Increasing the Efficiency of Public and
Resort? 339
Commercial Transport by Road 333
Geoengineering Technologies 339
Decreasing the Use of Public and
Solar Radiation Management (SRM) 340
Commercial Transport by Road 333
Carbon Dioxide Reduction (CDR) 341
Decreasing the Overall Demand for Power
Through Conservation and Geopolitical Implications of
Efficiency 333 Geoengineering 343
Reducing Greenhouse Gases from Waste Epilogue 344
Treatment 334 Accepting Responsibility 344
Stopping Unnecessary Deforestation and The Power of One 345
Loss of Carbon from Soils 334 Time for Action 345
Changing Agricultural Practices to Reduce Pause for Thought 10.3 345
Greenhouse Gas Emissions 336
Summary 346 Why Should We
Driving in the Carbon Wedges: The Care? 346 Looking Ahead . . . 346 Critical
Carbon Mitigation Initiative 337 Thinking Questions 347 Key Terms 347
Efficiency and Conservation 338

Appendix A Climate Change and the Scientific Method A-1

Appendix B A Quick Science Primer A-4

Appendix C Online Resources A-9

Appendix D The Köppen Climate Classification System A-33

Appendix E Weather Extremes A-37

Appendix F Common Conversions A-44

Glossary G-1

Credits C-1

Index I-1
Preface
The danger is that global warming may become self-
sustaining, if it has not done so already. The melting of
the Arctic and Antarctic ice caps reduces the fraction of
solar energy reflected back into space, and so increases
the temperature further. Climate change may kill off the
Amazon and other rain forests, and so eliminate one of
the main ways in which carbon dioxide is removed from
the atmosphere. The rise in sea temperature may trigger
the release of large quantities of carbon dioxide, trapped
as hydrates on the ocean floor. Both these phenomena
would increase the greenhouse effect, and so global
warming, further. We have to reverse global warming
urgently, if we still can.
STEPHEN HAWKING, ABC News interview,
Aug. 16, 2006
Every major scientific body in the world now accepts
that human-caused global warming is almost certain
to cause significant climate change before the end
of the 21st century. In 2007, The United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
concluded, “Warming of the climate system is
unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of
increases in global average air and ocean tempera-
tures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising
global average sea level.”
Recent years have only deepened this concern. In
2012 many climate records were shattered, including
a new minimum extent for summer ice in the Arctic
and the expansive melting of surface ice on Greenland.
In the United States, record temperatures started
to dominate the eastern two-thirds of the nation by
March, and 2012 became the all-time warmest year on
record. These high temperatures created drought and
wildfires that affected large parts of the nation and
the largest hurricane on record hit the northeast coast
of the United States late in the season, wreaking havoc
in New York and New Jersey. As the year ended,
record precipitation in parts of the Pacific Northwest
delivered more rain in a few days than normally falls
over the entire year. The physical evidence of global
climate change is overwhelming, but a vociferous
minority still refuses to believe that it has anything
to do with human activity. For the average person
who wants to understand global climate change and
global warming, the debate is very confusing. Many
of the facts and figures are complex and hard to
understand, and different groups seem to interpret
the same data in such different ways. Who should we
believe?
xvi
The climate change debate has shown us that most
scientists lack the skills necessary to communicate a
complex and nuanced message to policymakers and
the general public, especially when a determined
minority is committed to undermining their message.
Scientists, industrialists, politicians, and the general
public are all valid stakeholders in this important
debate, but when extreme views are given unwar-
ranted attention, public confusion and dangerous
inaction result.
The world does not have decades to settle out-
standing questions about climate change before taking
decisive action. Our action (or inaction) today will have
very real social, economic, political, and environmental
consequences in the future—and our children and
grandchildren will hold us accountable.
As an Earth scientist, I understand that Earth’s
climate and ecosystems are subject to natural changes.
The geological evidence is clear that sometime over the
next 20,000 years, in the absence of human interven-
tion, we will return to the frozen world that predated
modern civilization. Much farther back in time, during
the Cretaceous Period, it is equally clear that the world
was so warm that deciduous forests stretched almost
as far as the poles. Climate change can be natural, but
today it is not entirely natural, and for those facing the
risk of climate change, the question is almost irrele-
vant. If the climate is changing, for whatever reason, it
places the lives of hundreds of thousands in peril and
the welfare of millions more at risk. There is a major
humanitarian crisis looming in the near future, and it
demands earnest engagement and prudent action.
This book will help you reach an informed decision
about global warming and climate change. Your decision
will be based on a scientific foundation that separates fact
from hypothesis and reason from conjecture. You will not
find all the answers in these pages, but you should find
yourself prepared to ask more of the right questions.
There is still hope. Your reading and research will
illuminate many possible solutions. It is a fascinating
journey from science through economics to psychology
and politics. It is a path festooned with hyperbolism
and speculation, specious conjecture, and professional
rivalry, and, at the end, the final destination is still not
clear. This is as much a moral, ethical, economic, and
political issue as it is a scientific issue, and progress
depends on the active engagement of people and gov-
ernments around the world. We take a serious risk by
ignoring the early symptoms of climate change. Wishful
inaction has a very poor historical record of success.
Whatever the cost—and there will be a cost—we all
need to ask ourselves “What are we willing to pay?”

To the Student
This book examines what scientists know about
global warming and climate change and considers
political and economic solutions that will balance the
competing needs of people around the world. It does
not answer every question it raises, but it invites you
to discover answers for yourself. The text contains
brief Checkpoints to help you review the material as
you read and short Pause for Thought sections that ask
you to consider some topics in a broader context. By
addressing Critical Thinking questions at the end of
each chapter, you are challenged to think about each
problem from the contrasting perspectives of different
stakeholders in the debate. This can be achieved
through role-play in class and online discussion,
where you can examine the arguments proposed by
each stakeholder group and analyze their discussions
with a professor.
Throughout the book, you are encouraged to
learn and apply the scientific method to your study.
You are encouraged to think in terms of observing,
recording, analyzing, and synthesizing data before
developing and testing hypotheses. As with any
other scientific debate, you must consider all the
available facts about climate change issues before
reaching a conclusion.
Climate change is an urgent concern that will
impact your life and the lives of your children. I hope
you will go out and get involved in the debate after
reading this book because, whatever your political
opinion, we need informed, engaged, and active
citizens who are prepared to take up new positions
of leadership in society. The cost of inappropriate
action could be measured in trillions of dollars, tens
of thousands of lost jobs, and many lost opportuni-
ties for economic development. It is equally true
that the cost of inaction will be measured by the loss
of millions of lives and by a level of environmental
destruction and species extinction unseen for millions
of years.
To the Teacher
This book is an introductory text for students with
a limited background in science, but it has enough
content to be suitable for more advanced classes.
Unlike most other textbooks on global climate change
and global warming, the content does not only focus
on the science but also includes extensive coverage of
social, economic, political, and environmental aspects
of climate change.
This book is optimal for classes where there is time
for discussion and debate. Many stakeholders are
involved in the climate debate, and many opportunities
Preface xvii
exist for students to role-play and discuss climate
change from different perspectives. Role-playing is a
great way to understand why the subject is so divisive,
and it encourages students to find answers through
further reading, research, and collaborative interaction
inside and outside class.
Throughout the book, but especially in Chapters 1
through 6, students are encouraged to learn and apply
the scientific method to their study. The overall thrust
of the text is to encourage critical thinking and analysis
and leave students with a deeper understanding of
how climate change will impact all levels of society. The
data used in this book are the most up-to date available
at time of writing and publication and take into con-
sideration the anticipated conclusions of the IPCC 5th
Assessment Report.
Chapter Features
Each chapter contains the following features and
tools:
• Learning Outcomes at the start of each chapter
help students focus on priority concepts and
topics.
• Checkpoint questions integrated throughout
chapter sections help students check their under-
standing as they read.
• Pause for Thought questions throughout the
chapters ask students to consider topics in a broader
context.
• Summary sections revisit the main chapter topics
and Learning Outcomes.
• Why Should We Care? sections emphasize the most
important chapter themes and present brief closing
thoughts on the chapter topics.
• Looking Ahead sections provide a bridge to and
preview of the next chapter’s topics and themes.
• Critical thinking Questions help students to extend
and apply their understanding of chapter topics
and themes with higher-order activities that can be
done alone or as group work.
• A list of Key Terms with references to chapter page
numbers reinforce important vocabulary. The Key
Terms are also defined in the back of book Glossary,
and Flashcard versions of the Key Terms Glossary
are available at the www.mygeoscienceplace.com
website.
• mygeoscienceplace.com references at the end of
each chapter encourage students to log in to the
book website and extend learning with a variety
of study resources, including Animations, Videos,
MapMaster Interactive Maps, references, In the
News RSS Feeds, quizzing, a Pearson eText version
of the book, and more.
xviii Global Climate Change
Chapter Organization
The chapters of this book are grouped into five sections
that address specific aspects of the climate change
debate.
Part One: The Evidence: Is This Normal?
Is the climate change we observe today part of a natural
cycle or due to the emission of heat-trapping green-
house gases by human activity?
Chapter 1: So What’s Up with the Weather? begins
with a discussion of the global climate change and
global warming debate and introduces some important
distinctions between climate and weather. Looking
back into the deep history of climate change, it becomes
clear that some climate change is normal and natural,
but greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere by
human activity have driven recent changes.
Chapter 2: The Evidence: Observing Climate
Change investigates the physical evidence of global
climate change. Data collected by satellite combined
with direct measurements from the land and oceans
show that the temperature of Earth is rising due to
an imbalance between the amount of energy entering
and leaving Earth’s atmosphere. From this discussion,
it becomes clear that we need to explore more of the
science behind Earth’s climate system if we want to
differentiate between the natural and anthropogenic
(human-made) factors that drive climate change.
Part Two: Follow the Energy:
Atmosphere, Oceans, and Climate
The energy that arrives on Earth from the Sun drives a
complex climate machine, where a small change in just
one part can have global consequences.
Chapter 3: Earth’s Climate System focuses on the
physical science of global warming and introduces
students to complex interactions between the Sun,
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, cryosphere, and
biosphere that determine how Earth’s climate changes.
The focus is on the flow of energy through Earth’s
climate system and how even small changes in the
balance between incoming and outgoing energy can be
amplified into significant changes in climate.
Chapter 4: Understanding Weather and Climate
investigates how these changes in the energy content
of Earth’s climate system are translated into changes in
regional climate and weather through the movement of
mass and energy in the atmosphere and oceans.
Part Three: Deep Time: A Long History
of Natural Climate Change
The best way to predict the future behavior of any
system is to understand how it has behaved in the
past.
Chapter 5: Revealing Ancient Climate introduces
the tools that scientists use to investigate the history
of ancient climate change. These tools range from a
simple hand lens that can be used to identify rocks and
fossils in the field to highly specialized and expensive
analytical equipment that delivers quantitative data on
the nature of ancient climate.
Chapter 6: Climate History considers three periods of
Earth history when the climate was so extreme that life
on Earth nearly came to an end. This chapter also traces
the evolution of Earth’s climate from the hothouse of
the Cretaceous world to the icehouse of today. The
chapter covers the last 150,000 years of climate history
in more detail, focuses on the origin of long and short-
term climate cycles, and investigates the rate at which
climate changes.
Part Four: The Impact of Climate
Change: From Polar Bears to Politics
Our knowledge of the risks associated with climate
change grows each year, but turning this knowledge
into effective political action has not been easy.
Chapter 7: The Global Impact of Climate Change
investigates the physical and environmental impacts of
climate change over the past 150 years and the possible
impact of continued warming on future climate. The
chapter focuses on the social and economic impact
of projected climate change, using case studies from
around the world to illustrate the many dimensions of
the climate problem.
Chapter 8: Politics and People considers how
growing awareness of climate change made global
warming an important political issue around the world,
culminating in the formation of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and the
Kyoto Protocol. This chapter considers the history of
the Kyoto Protocol, reflects on our inability to make
further progress with it, and illustrates the role of major
stakeholders in the climate debate. The chapter stresses
the major social, political, economic, and ethical issues
involved in the climate debate and will stimulate dis-
cussion about science, society, and the role of the media
in determining public opinion.

Part Five: Global Solutions: Managing
the Crisis
At a time when global action to prevent climate change
is more important than ever before, the world is increas-
ingly distracted by an urgent demand for economic
growth in the developing world and by the emergence
of new geopolitical rivalries.
Chapter 9: The Energy Crisis introduces the energy
crisis that is driven by population growth, and the
urgent need to avoid damaging climate change. The
chapter identifies energy poverty as a moral and ethical
challenge for a world that wants to cut greenhouse gas
emissions. Countries such as China and India still lag
far behind the developed nations in per capita gross
domestic product (GDP), and they need to make use of
cheap and abundant coal reserves to generate enough
power to support their economic growth. This chapter
looks at all the major sources of energy available to
meet this rising demand for energy, and considers how
different priorities and changing government subsidies
could encourage the more rapid development of clean,
renewable energy technologies.
Chapter 10: Turning Knowledge into Action looks
for ways to balance the competing priorities of economic
growth and emissions reduction in a world where rapid
population growth is expected to continue well into this
century. The chapter considers whether it is possible to
minimize greenhouse gas emissions without harming
economic development and still prepare the world to
adapt to the inevitable climate change that is already
locked into Earth’s climate system.
There is an immense amount of useful NASA, NOAA,
and USGS original data available to students, and Online
Exercises associated with this book were developed
with the help of the National Council for Science and the
Environment and a NASA Climate Change Education
Program grant that is gratefully acknowledged. The
book website at www.mygeoscienceplace.com includes
these and a variety of other study resources, including
Animations, Videos, MapMaster Interactive Maps, refer-
ences, In the News RSS Feeds, quizzing, a Pearson eText
version of the book, and more.
Acknowledgments
I want to acknowledge the help and assistance of many
people who helped me write this text. To Don Beville
formerly of Pearson, for suggesting that I take on the
project in the first place. To my dean, James Narduzzi,
Preface xix
and colleagues at the University of Richmond, for help
and understanding. To Geography/GIS/Meteorology
Editor Christian Botting and Senior Project Editor
Crissy Dudonis for their humanity, constant encour-
agement, and help with making this book the best it
could be. I would also like to thank their colleagues at
Pearson, including Editorial Assistant Bethany Sexton,
Assistant Editor Sean Hale, Media Producer Tod Regan,
Senior Marketing Manager Maureen McLaughlin, and
Senior Marketing Assistant Nicola Houston. I would
also like to thank the many production staff at Pearson
and elsewhere who helped produce the book, including
Managing Editor Gina Cheselka, Production Liaison
Connie Long, International Mapping Project Manager
Kevin Lear, Element Associate Director, Full Service
Heidi Allgair, and Photo Researcher Christa Tilley.
I am grateful to the following reviewers for their
feedback during the book development; they were
immensely helpful in focusing and improving the text:
Mark Boardman, Miami University;
Wolfgang H. Berger, University of California: San
Diego
Carsten Braun, Westfield State College
Jeffrey Bury, University of California: Santa Cruz
Greg Carbone, University of South Carolina: Columbia
John Chiang, University of California: Berkeley
Dawn Ferris, The Ohio State University
Tim G. Frazier, University of Idaho
Ryan Zahn Hinrichs, Drew University
Peter Jacques, University of Central Florida
Bruce R. James, University of Maryland
Jean Lynch-Stieglitz, Georgia Tech
Scott A. Mandia, Suffolk County Community College
Patricia Manley, Middlebury College
Heidi Marcum, Baylor University
Isabel Montanez, University of California: Davis
Dave Robertson, University of Missouri
Jame Schaeffer, Marquette University
Marshall Shepherd, University of Georgia
Richard Snow, Embry Riddle Aeronautical University
Robert Turner, Skidmore University
Stacey Verardo, George Mason University.
A special thanks to Thompson Webb, Brown Univer-
sity, for his incredibly helpful accuracy reviews.
But most of all, I want to thank my wife, Michele
Cox, and daughter, Sarah, who had to live with me as
I spent far too many weekends working inside, when I
should have been outside playing with them instead.
David Kitchen
University of Richmond
kitchenclimatebook@gmail.com
The Teaching and Learning Package
For the Teacher and Student
MyGeosciencePlace
A dedicated Premium Website at www.mygeoscienceplace.com
offers a variety of resources for students and teachers,
including Geoscience Animations, MapMaster
Interactive Maps, Videos, Glossary Flashcards, In the
News RSS Feeds, web links, references, chapter quizzes,
and a Pearson eText version of the book. The website
includes Class Manager and GradeTracker Gradebook
functionality for teachers.
• Geoscience Animation Library on DVD 5th edition
(0321716841) This resource offers over 100 ani-
mations covering the most difficult-to-visualize
topics in physical geography, physical geology,
oceanography, meteorology, and Earth science.
The animations are provided as Flash files
and preloaded into PowerPoint slides for both
Windows and Mac. This library was created
through a unique collaboration among Pearson’s
leading geoscience authors—including Darrel
Hess, Robert Christopherson, Frederick Lutgens,
Aurora Pun, Gary Smith, Edward Tarbuck, and
Alan Trujillo.
• Television for the Environment Earth Report Videos
on DVD (0321662989) This three-DVD set helps
students visualize how human decisions and
behavior have affected the environment and how
individuals are taking steps toward recovery. With
topics ranging from the poor land management
promoting the devastation of river systems in
Central America to the struggles for electricity in
China and Africa, these 13 videos from Television
for the Environment’s global Earth Report series
recognize the efforts of individuals around the
world to unite and protect the planet.
• Television for the Environment Life World Regional
Geography Videos on DVD (013159348X) From the
Television for the Environment’s global Life series,
this two-DVD set brings globalization and the devel-
oping world to the attention of any world regional
geography course. These 10 full-length video
programs highlight matters such as the growing
number of homeless children in Russia, the lives
of immigrants living in the United States trying to
aid family still living in their native countries, and
the European conflict between commercial interests
and environmental concerns.
• Television for the Environment Life Human Geography
Videos on DVD (0132416565) This three-DVD set is
designed to enhance any human geography course.
xx
These DVDs include 14 full-length video programs
from Television for the Environment’s global Life
series, covering a wide array of issues affecting peo-
ple and places in the contemporary world, includ-
ing the serious health risks of pregnant women in
Bangladesh, the social inequalities of the “untouch-
ables” in the Hindu caste system, and Ghana’s
struggle to compete in a global market.
For the Teacher
Instructor’s Resource Center (IRC) (download only): The
IRC puts your lecture resources all in one easy-to-reach
place:
• All of the line art, tables, and photos from the text, as
.jpg and PDF files
• PowerPointTM presentations for each chapter
• The Instructor Resource Manual in Microsoft Word
• The Test Bank in Microsoft Word
• TestGen test-generation and management software
www.pearsonhighered.com/irc
PowerPoints: On the IRC online, you’ll find three
PowerPoint files for each chapter. They will help you
cut down on your preparation time, no matter what
your lecture needs, by providing the following:
• Art and photos—All the line art, tables, and photos
from the text are preloaded into PowerPoint slides
for easy integration into your presentation.
• Lecture outlines—This set includes customizable
lecture outlines with supporting art from the text.
• Classroom response system (“Clicker”) questions—
These PowerPoint presentation quizzes are
authored for use in conjunction with any classroom
response system and are tied to the book’s Learning
Outcomes and Bloom’s Taxonomy.
Instructor Resource Manual (download only): The
Instructor Resource Manual contains learning objec-
tives, chapter outlines, answers to Checkpoints, Pause
for Thought, and end-of-chapter Critical Thinking
questions, and suggested teaching strategies to enhance
the classroom.
TestGen®Test Bank (download only): TestGen® is a
computerized test generator that lets instructors view
and edit Test Bank questions, transfer questions to tests,
and print tests in a variety of customized formats. Also
available in Microsoft Word®, this Test Bank authored
by Scott Mandia of Suffolk County Community College,
includes 1,000 multiple-choice, true/false, short-answer,
essay, and visual-based questions that are correlated to
Bloom’s Taxonomy and the book’s Learning Outcomes.

For the Student
Goode’s World Atlas, 22nd Edition (0321652002)
Goode’s World Atlas has been the world’s premiere
educational atlas since 1923—and for good reason. It
features more than 250 pages of maps, from defini-
tive physical and political maps to important thematic
maps that illustrate the spatial aspects of many
important topics. The 22nd edition includes 160 pages
of new, digitally produced reference maps, as well as
new thematic maps on global climate change, sea level
rise, CO2 emissions, polar ice fluctuations, deforesta-
tion, extreme weather events, infectious diseases, water
resources, and energy production.
Dire Predictions: Understanding Global Warming
by Michael Mann and Lee R. Kump (0136044352) This
text is for any science or social science course in need of
a basic understanding of Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) reports. Periodic reports from
the IPCC evaluate the risk of climate change brought
on by humans. But the sheer volume of scientific data
remains inscrutable to the general public, particularly
to those who may still question the validity of climate
change. In just over 200 pages, this practical text
presents and expands upon the essential findings in
a visually stunning and undeniably powerful way to
the lay reader. Scientific findings that provide validity
to the implications of climate change are presented in
clearcut graphic elements, striking images, and under-
standable analogies.
The Teaching and Learning Package xxi
Pearson’s Encounter Series
Pearson’s Encounter series provides rich, interactive
explorations of geoscience concepts through Google
Earth™ activities, exploring a range of topics in
physical, human, and regional geography. All chapter
explorations are available in print workbooks as well
as in online quizzes, at www.mygeoscienceplace.com,
accommodating different classroom needs. Each
exploration consists of a worksheet, online quizzes,
and a corresponding Google Earth™ KMZ file:
• Encounter Physical Geography Workbook and
Website by Jess C. Porter and Stephen O’Connell
(0321672526)
• Encounter Human Geography Workbook and
Website by Jess C. Porter (0321682203)
• Encounter World Regional Geography Workbook
and Website by Jess C. Porter (0321681754)
• Encounter Geosystems Workbook and Website by
Charlie Thomsen (0321636996)
• Encounter Earth Workbook and Website by Steve
Kluge (0321581296)
About the Author

David Kitchen earned a B.Sc.

and Ph.D. in geology from Queen’s
University–Belfast. After working for
two years as a petroleum geologist in
the North Sea, he was appointed as lec-
turer in the University of Ulster where he
taught Earth Sciences and worked with
research administration and development
from 1981 to 2001. He also spent many
happy summers working as adjunct pro-
fessor on field courses for the UK’s Open
University. In 2001, Dr. Kitchen moved to
the United States to work at the University
of Richmond in Virginia. As associate dean and associate professor he leads a team developing
academic, professional, and lifelong education programs and teaches environmental sciences,
with a focus on climate change. He has served as the university representative on the National
Council of Environmental Deans and Directors, as environmental fellow for the Associated
Colleges of the South, as coordinator of university environmental programs, and as coordina-
tor of the Environmental Studies course team, and he serves on the university’s Sustainability
Working Group and Environmental Awareness Group. In collaboration with the National Council
for Science and the Environment, Dr. Kitchen was awarded a NASA climate change education
grant to help develop new online modules in global climate change.

xxii
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 PLATE CCLXIV.

PROTEA GLOMERATA.

Woolly-headed Protea.

CLASS IV. ORDER I.

TETRANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Four Chives. One Pointal.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Corolla 4-fida seu 4-petala. Antheræ lineares, insertæ petalis infra

apicem. Calyx proprius nullus. Semina solitaria.
Blossom 4-cleft or 4 petals. Tips linear, inserted into the petals below the
point. Cup proper, none. Seeds solitary.
See Protea formosa, Vol. I. Pl. XVII.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Protea foliis bipinnatis, filiformibus; pedunculo communi elongato, nudo,

pedicellis capitulis longioribus; corollis extus lanatis.
Protea with doubly winged leaves, thread-shaped; common foot-stalk
lengthened, naked, partial foot-stalks longer than the heads of flowers;
blossoms woolly without.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. A Floret, natural size.

2. The Blossom, magnified.
3. The Pointal, natural size, with the summit detached, magnified.
4. A Cone, after the flowers have all fallen off.
In the year 1789, this species of Protea was first raised from seeds;
received at the Hammersmith nursery from Vienna; they having been
collected for the Emperor’s gardens at Schonbrun, and from thence
transmitted to Messrs. Lee and Kennedy. Many plants have since been
raised, in different collections; and our present figure was made, from a fine
specimen, in the Hibbertian collection. It is rather delicate when young, but
not easily destroyed when grown to a foot in height. It will attain to five or
six feet, and makes a very pretty appearance, when in full flower. It may be
propagated by cuttings, but with difficulty, and must be planted in light
yellow loam.
 PLATE CCLXV.

CYRTANTHUS OBLIQUUS.

Oblique-leaved Cyrtanthus.

CLASS VI. ORDER I.

HEXANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Six Chives. One Pointal.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

Calyx. Involucrum polyphyllum; foliolis lanceolatis, persistentibus.

Corolla monopetala, clavata, curva, apice sexfida; laciniis ovato-
oblongis, incurvis, concavis, tribus alternis apice glandulosis.
Stamina. Filamenta sex, tubo corollæ inserta, erecta, subulata, corolla
dimidio breviora. Antheræ sagitatæ, erectæ, inclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen inferum, obtuse-trigonum. Stylus filiformis,
longitudine floris. Stigma obsolete-trifidum.
Pericarpium. Capsula subovata, trilocularis, trivalvis.
Semina plura, plana, oblonga, incumbentia.
Empalement. Fence many-leaved; leaflets lance-shaped, remaining.
Blossom one petal, club-shaped, bent, six-cleft at top; segments oblong
egg-shaped, turned inwards and concave, the three outer ones glandular at
the end.
Chives. Six threads inserted into the tube of the blossom, upright, awl-
shaped, half the length of the blossom. Tips arrow-shaped, upright, within
the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-bud beneath, obtusely three-cornered. Shaft thread-
shaped, the length of the flower. Summit obscurely three-cleft.
Seed-vessel. Capsule nearly egg-shaped, three-celled, three-valved.
Seeds many, flat, oblong, lying upon one another.
 SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Cyrtanthus foliis linearibus, obtusis planis, oblique flexis, floribus

pendulis, tricoloratis.
Cyrtanthus with linear, obtuse leaves, flat, and bent obliquely; flowers
hanging down and three-coloured.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. Part of the Bulb, and the leaves of the plant in miniature.

2. A Flower, cut and spread open, with the Chives in their place.
3. The Pointal and Seed-bud, natural size. Summit magnified.
This most beautiful, and rare plant, together with C. angustifolius, (the other
species) were introduced, in the year 1774, to the Kew Gardens, by Mr. F.
Masson, from the Cape of Good Hope. Mons. L’Heritier, when in England,
procured drawings of both species, and figured them in his Sertum
Anglicum, tab. 15 and 16, under the names of Amaryllis cylindracea, and A.
umbrella: but, as we have had formerly occasion to mention our objections,
in following that gentleman in his alterations of accepted Genera, in this
country; we have, in the present instance, chose rather the authority of
Martyn, Curtis, Willdenow, &c. in preference; who all have followed the
Kew Catalogue in the name of this Genus. It is true, Thunberg, in his
Prodromus Plantarum Capensium, P. 1. p. 59, has it still under the Genus,
Crinum; and, as Crinum pendulum, our present subject, was known for many
years. It is a very scarce plant, and is to be found but in few collections; the
increase being only from the root, and the importation of the bulbs has been
but seldom. The seeds do not come to maturity with us, of this species;
although those of the C. angustifolius are constantly perfected. It must be
treated as a dry stove plant, or kept on a shelf in the hot-house; should be
planted in sandy loam, and have plenty of room in the pot. Flowers in July
and August.
From the choice collection of Joseph Cowper, Esq. of Clapton, we were
obligingly favoured with the plant, from which this figure was taken.
 PLATE CCLXVI.

PLATYLOBIUM OVATUM.

Oval-leaved Flat-Pea.

CLASS XVII. ORDER IV.

DIADELPHIA DECANDRIA. Chives in two Sets. Ten Chives.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Calyx campanulatus, quinquefidus; laciniis duabus supremis maximis,

obtusis. Stamina omnia coalita. Legumen pedicillatum, compressum, dorso
alatum, polyspermum.
Cup bell-shaped, five-cleft; the two upper segments very large and
obtuse. The Chives all united. Pod on a foot-stalk, compressed, winged
along the back, many seeded.
See Platylobium scolopendrum. Pl. CXCI. Vol. III.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Platylobium foliis ovatis, glaberrimis, distichis; floribus solitariis,

axillaribus; ramis teretibus.
Flat-Pea with egg-shaped leaves, very smooth and pointing opposite
ways; flowers grow solitary from the insertion of the leaves; branches
cylinder-shaped.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement of the Flower.

2. The Standard, or upper petal of the blossom.
3. One of the Wings, or side petals of the same.
4. The two lower Petals, or Keel of the blossom.
5. The Chives, magnified.
 6. The Seed-bud, magnified.
This species of Flat-Pea was brought from New South Wales, at the same
time as P. scolopendrum, and P. lanceolatum, to which last it has much
affinity; but, we think, possesses a sufficient number of differing characters
to constitute a distinct species. It has not as yet been increased, we believe,
in Britain; any attempt, to that end, has hitherto proved abortive; from which
circumstance the plants are at present scarce, and are to be found in few
collections. The same treatment to preserve, and render the plant flourishing,
is required for this, as for the other species. Our Drawing was made in 1801,
at the Nursery of Messrs. Lee and Kennedy, Hammersmith, who first
introduced it.
 PLATE CCLXVII.

JATROPHA PANDURÆFOLIA.

Fiddle-leaved Physic-Nut.

CLASS XXI. ORDER VIII.

MONOECIA MONADELPHIA. Chives and Pointals separate. Threads
united.

GENERIC CHARACTER.

Masculi flores.
Calyx. Perianthium vix manifestum.
Corolla monopetala infundibuliformis; tubus brevissimus; limbus
quinquepartitus, laciniis subrotundis, patentibus, convexis, subtus concavis.
Stamina. Filamenta decem, subulata, in medio approximata, quinque
alterna breviora, erecta, basi connexa. Antheræ subrotundæ, versatiles.
Pistillum. Rudimentum debile in fundo floris latet.
Feminei flores in eadem umbella cum Masculis.
Calyx nullus.
Corolla pentapetala, rosacea.
Pistillum. Germen subrotundum, trisulcatum. Styli tres, bifidi. Stigmata
simplicia.
Pericarpium. Capsula subrotunda, tricocca, trilocularis; loculis
bivalvibus.
Semina solitaria, subrotunda.
Male flowers.
Empalement. Cup scarcely perceptible.
Blossom one petal, funnel-shaped; tube very short; border five-parted;
segments roundish, spreading, convex, concave beneath.
 Chives. Ten threads awl-shaped, close together in the middle, the five
alternate ones shorter, upright, connected at the base. Tips roundish,
versatile.
Pointal. A weak rudiment lies hid in the bottom of the flower.
Female flowers in the same umbel with the males.
Empalement none.
Blossom five-petalled, rosaceous.
Pointal. Seed-bud roundish, three furrowed. Three shafts, two-cleft.
Summits simple.
Seed-vessel. Capsule roundish, three-seeded, three celled; cells with two
valves.
Seeds solitary, roundish.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Jatropha calyculata; foliis panduræformibus, apice acutis, basi inequaliter

acutè-lobatis; floribus atro-coccineis.
Physic-Nut with a flower cup; fiddle-shaped leaves, sharp-pointed at the
end, and unequally sharp-lobed at the base; flowers deep crimson.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Cup and Pointal of a female flower.

2. The Cup and Chives of a male flower.
3. The Pointal and Seed-bud of a female flower, without the cup.
This plant, a native of the Island of Cuba, was imported from thence, by Mr.
J. Fraser, King’s Road, Chelsea, in the year 1801. It is, unquestionably, as
handsome a plant as any at present cultivated in our hot-houses, and its
continuing to produce fresh umbels of flowers, during at least nine months
of the year, renders it, perhaps, the most desirable. It grows to the height of
near three feet, producing but few branches. The leaves are extremely
irregular in their form, and, when the plant is in a sickly state, the older ones
are subject to be slightly blotched, on the under side. Few tropical plants that
thrive with so little heat, or care; nevertheless, we have not any hopes, of its
ever becoming a proper subject for the green-house; but as yet our
experience on that point will not permit us to decide upon it. It should be
planted in a mixture of leaf mould, rotten dung, and loam; and may be
propagated by cuttings. From a plant at the Hammersmith nursery, ripe seeds
have been procured this year; they have the exact appearance of the seeds of
the lesser Palma Christi, but rather smaller in size and have the same oily
character. Indeed, there is so little difference between some species of the
Genus Ricinus, and Jatropha, that botanists have been puzzled where to
place them. Our drawing was made from a plant in the collection of the
Right Hon. the Marquis of Blandford, White Knights, Berkshire.
 PLATE CCLXVIII.

GLADIOLUS PLICATUS.

Plaited-leaved Gladiolus.

CLASS III. ORDER I.

TRIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Three Chives. One Pointal.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Corolla sexpartita, ringens. Stamina adscendentia.

Blossom sixdivided, gaping. Chives ascending.
See Gladiolus roseus, Pl. XI. Vol. I.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Gladiolus foliis ensiformibus, plicatis, villosis; corollis regularibus;

spatha trivalvi; scapo laterali.
Gladiolus with sword-shaped leaves, plaited and hairy; blossoms regular;
sheath three-valved; flower-stem lateral.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The three-valved Sheath.

2. A Blossom spread open, to shew the situation and direction of
Tips.
3. The Pointal, and Seed-bud, one of the Summits magnified.
The varieties, generally comprehended as such, of this species of Gladiolus,
are extended, in number, beyond any others with which we are, as yet,
acquainted, of this extensive genus. Already, we have drawings of 22; and
many more, certainly, there are, even in this kingdom; but we shall content
ourselves with figuring, in the Bot. Rep. 3 or 4, of the most curious. One of
the varieties of this plant, has been in cultivation with us since the year 1757,
when it was raised by Mr. Miller from Cape seeds. The one represented in
our present figure, was received, from Holland, in the year 1794, by Messrs.
Lee and Kennedy, Hammersmith; it is one of the hardiest, and surest
flowering varieties of the species; for there are but few of them which
blossom freely. The bulbs should be planted in sandy peat, about October,
and taken into the hot-house, or placed on a hot-bed, in January, to
encourage a rapid and early growth; by which means, they are more
frequently induced to throw out their flower stems the beginning of April,
which otherwise, often prove abortive. The roots should not be removed
from the pots, till the leaves are somewhat decayed.
This is the Glad. plicatus of Linn. Sp. Pl. p. 53; Thunb. Diff. de Glad, n.
24; Jac. Ic. Rar. 2. t. 237; of the Kew Cat. Vol. I. p. 63; Martyn’s Miller, art.
Glad. 5. and of Willdenow’s Spe. Plant. T. 1. p. 220; yet, we cannot refrain
from joining in opinion with the late Mr. Curtis that it approaches as near
Ixia, as Gladiolus; for the Ixia rubro-cyanea of the Bot. Mag. is but a variety
of this species. But we cannot so readily baboonify our senses, with trifling
changes, as to think, with a modern reforming author, that a new genus was
necessary, in this instance, to rectify this part of the Species Plantarum, of
the incompetent! Linnæus.
 PLATE CCLXIX.

GERANIUM LACINIATUM.

Var. bicolor.
Ragged-leaved Geranium.
Two coloured-flower Var.

CLASS XVI. ORDER IV.

MONADELPHIA DECANDRIA. Threads united. Ten Chives.

ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.

Monogyna. Stigmata quinque.

Fructus rostratus; pentacoccus.
One Pointal. Five Summits.
Fruit furnished with long awns; five dry berries.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Geranium foliis radicalibus integris laciniatisque; laciniis acutis; petiolis

filiformibus; calycibus monophyllis; staminibus quinque fertilibus; radice
tuberosa; floribus bicoloribus.
Geranium with the leaves growing from the root entire and jagged;
segments pointed; foot stalks thread-shaped; cups one-leaved; five fertile
chives; root tuberous; flowers two-coloured.

REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.

1. The Empalement, a little magnified.

2. Chives, natural size.
3. The same, magnified and spread open.
4. The Pointal and seed-bud, magnified.
This very handsome variety of the ragged-leaved geranium, is but little
different from the purple-flowered Var. figured No. CCIV. of this work, Vol.
III, except in the colour of the flowers, and that the leaves are rather more
cut. It was introduced the same year to the Hibbertian collection, flowers in
the same month and requires the same treatment, as the above variety.