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Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht
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Acknowledgments
Dr. Sylvia Mader is one of the icons of science education. Her dedication to her students, coupled to her clear, concise writing
style, has benefited the education of thousands of students over the past four decades. As an educator, it is an honor to continue
her legacy and to bring her message to the next generation of students.
As always, I had the privilege to work with a phenomenal group of people on this edition. I would especially like to thank you,
the numerous instructors who have shared emails with me or have invited me into your classrooms, both physically and virtually,
to discuss your needs as instructors and the needs of your students. You are all dedicated and talented teachers, and your energy
and devotion to quality teaching is what drives a textbook revision.
Many dedicated and talented individuals assisted in the development of this edition of Essentials of Biology. I am very grateful
for the help of so many professionals at McGraw-Hill who were involved in bringing this book to fruition. Therefore, I would like
to thank the following:
∙ My product developer, Anne Winch, for her incredible ability to manage all aspects of this project simultaneously.
∙ My executive portfolio manager, Michelle Vogler, for her guidance and for reminding me why what we do is important.
∙ My marketing manager, Britney Ross, and market development manager, Beth Bettcher, for placing me in contact with great
instructors, on campus and virtually, throughout this process.
∙ My digital expert, Eric Weber, for helping me envision the possibilities in our new digital world.
∙ My content project manager, Kelly Hart, and program manager, Angie FitzPatrick, for guiding this project throughout the
publication process.
∙ Lori Hancock and David Tietz for the photos within this text. Biology is a visual science, and their contributions are evident
on every page.
∙ Michael McGee and Sharon O’Donnell who acted as my proofreaders and copyeditors for this edition.
∙ Jane Peden for her behind-the-scenes work that keeps us all functioning.
As both an educator and an author, communicating the importance of science represents one of my greatest passions. Our modern
society is based largely on advances in science and technology over the past few decades. As I present in this text, there are many
challenges facing humans, and an understanding of how science can help analyze, and offer solutions to, these problems is critical
to our species’ health and survival.
I also want to acknowledge my family and friends for all of their support. My wife, Sandy, who has never wavered in her support of my
many projects. Over the course of my work with McGraw-Hill, I have watched the natural curiosity of my children, Devin and Kayla,
develop them into the phenomenal individuals that they are today. Thank you both for your motivation in making our world a better place.
Michael Windelspecht, PhD
Blowing Rock, NC
Reviewers for This Edition

I would like to thank the individuals below for taking the time to review the content of the previous edition. Your comments and
suggestions played an important part of this revision.
Reviewers of the Sixth Edition

Jennifer Bogdanoff, Coastal Carolina Community College Michele Engel, California State University Bakersfield
Lauri Carey, Illinois Valley Community College Carole S. Griffiths, LIU Brooklyn
Thomas R. Cholmondeley, Cincinnati State Technical and Diane Lewis, Ivy Tech Community College
Community College Craighton S. Mauk, Madisonville Community College (Kentucky
Gregory A. Dahlem, Northern Kentucky University Community and Technical College System)
Joy O. Davis, Baton Rouge Community College Murali Panen, Luzerne County Community College
Dale Emeagwali, Excelsior College Amanda Rodrigues, Johnston Community College
Ray Emmett, Daytona State College Clement Yedjou, Jackson State University
viii

Contents
CHAPTER
1 Types of Chemical Bonds 26
Chemical Formulas and Reactions 28
Biology: The Science of Life 1 2.2 Water’s Importance to Life 29

The Structure of Water 29
1.1 The Characteristics of Life 2 Properties of Water 29
Life Requires Materials and Energy 2
Living Organisms Maintain an Internal Environment 4 2.3 Acids and Bases 32
Living Organisms Respond and Develop 5 Acidic Solutions 33
Living Organisms Have Adaptations 5 Basic Solutions 33
pH and the pH Scale 34
1.2 Evolution: The Core Concept of Biology 6 Buffers and pH 35
Natural Selection and Evolutionary Processes 7
Organizing the Diversity of Life 9
1.3 Science: A Way of Knowing 11

CHAPTER
3
Start with an Observation 12 The Organic Molecules of Life 38
Develop a Hypothesis 12
3.1 Organic Molecules 38
Make a Prediction and Perform Experiments 12
The Carbon Atom 38
Develop a Conclusion 13
The Carbon Skeleton and Functional Groups 39
Scientific Theory 14
An Example of a Controlled Study 14 3.2 The Biological Molecules of Cells 40
Publishing the Results 15 Carbohydrates 40
Lipids 43
1.4 Challenges Facing Science 16
Proteins 48
Climate Change 16
Nucleic Acids 52
Biodiversity and Habitat Loss 17
4
Emerging and Reemerging Diseases 18
CHAPTER
Inside the Cell 57

UNIT I The Cell
4.1 Cells Under the Microscope 58
2
The Limit to Cell Size 60
CHAPTER
4.2 The Plasma Membrane 60
The Chemical Basis of Life 21 Functions of Membrane Proteins 62
2.1 Atoms and Atomic Bonds 22 4.3 The Two Main Types of Cells 63
Prokaryotic Cells 63
Atomic Structure 23
The Periodic Table 23 4.4 A Tour of the Eukaryotic Cell 65
Isotopes 24 Nucleus and Ribosomes 67
Arrangement of Electrons in an Atom 25 Endomembrane System 70
Vesicles and Vacuoles 71
ix

x CONTENTS
Energy-Related Organelles 71 6.4 Variations in Photosynthesis 108

The Cytoskeleton and Motor Proteins 74 C3 Photosynthesis 109
Centrioles 75 C4 Photosynthesis 109
Cilia and Flagella 75 CAM Photosynthesis 110
4.5 Outside the Eukaryotic Cell 76 Evolutionary Trends 110
Cell Walls 76
Extracellular Matrix 76
Junctions Between Cells 76
CHAPTER
7
Energy for Cells 113
CHAPTER
5 7.1 Cellular Respiration 114
Phases of Complete Glucose Breakdown 114
The Dynamic Cell 81 7.2 Outside the Mitochondria: Glycolysis 116

Energy-Investment Step 116
5.1 What Is Energy? 82
Energy-Harvesting Steps 117
Measuring Energy 82
Energy Laws 83 7.3 Outside the Mitochondria: Fermentation 117
Lactic Acid Fermentation 118
5.2 ATP: Energy for Cells 84 Alcohol Fermentation 119
Structure of ATP 84
Use and Production of ATP 85 7.4 Inside the Mitochondria 119
The Flow of Energy 87 Preparatory Reaction 119
The Citric Acid Cycle 120
5.3 Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes 88 The Electron Transport Chain 120
An Enzyme’s Active Site 89
Energy of Activation 90 7.5 Metabolic Fate of Food 123
Energy Yield from Glucose Metabolism 123
5.4 Cell Transport 90 Alternative Metabolic Pathways 124
Passive Transport: No Energy Required 91
Active Transport: Energy Required 94
Bulk Transport 94 UNIT II Genetics
CHAPTER
6
CHAPTER
8
Cellular Reproduction 128
Energy for Life 98
8.1 An Overview of Cellular Reproduction 129
6.1 Overview of Photosynthesis 99 Chromosomes 129
Plants as Photosynthesizers 100 Chromatin to Chromosomes 130
The Photosynthetic Process 101
8.2 The Cell Cycle: Interphase, Mitosis, and
6.2 The Light Reactions—Harvesting Energy 102 Cytokinesis 131
Photosynthetic Pigments 102 Interphase 131
The Light Reactions: Capturing Solar Energy 103 M (Mitotic) Phase 132
6.3 The Calvin Cycle Reactions—Making 8.3 The Cell Cycle Control System 137
Sugars 106 Cell Cycle Checkpoints 137
Overview of the Calvin Cycle 106 Internal and External Signals 138
The Many Uses of G3P 107 Apoptosis 138

CONTENTS xi
8.4 The Cell Cycle and Cancer 139 10.3 Beyond Mendel’s Laws 176
Proto-oncogenes and Tumor Incomplete Dominance 176
Suppressor Genes 140 Multiple-Allele Traits 177
Other Genetic Changes and Cancer 141 Polygenic Inheritance 177
8.5 Characteristics of Cancer 143 Gene Interactions 179
Characteristics of Cancer Cells 143 Pleiotropy 180
Cancer Treatment 144 Linkage 180
Prevention of Cancer 145 10.4 Sex-Linked Inheritance 181
Sex-Linked Alleles 182
9
Pedigrees for Sex-Linked Disorders 182
CHAPTER X-Linked Recessive Disorders 183
Meiosis and the Genetic Basis of

Sexual Reproduction 149
9.1 An Overview of Meiosis 150
CHAPTER
11
Homologous Chromosomes 150
DNA Biology 187
The Human Life Cycle 151 11.1 DNA and RNA Structure
Overview of Meiosis 152 and Function 188
The Structure of DNA 188
9.2 The Phases of Meiosis 154
Replication of DNA 192
The First Division—Meiosis I 155
RNA Structure and Function 193
The Second Division—Meiosis II 155
11.2 Gene Expression 194
9.3 Meiosis Compared with Mitosis 156
From DNA to RNA to Protein 195
Meiosis I Compared with Mitosis 157
Review of Gene Expression 199
Meiosis II Compared with Mitosis 158
Mitosis and Meiosis Occur at 11.3 Gene Regulation 201
Different Times 158 Levels of Gene Expression Control 201
9.4 Changes in Chromosome Number 158
12
Down Syndrome 160
Abnormal Sex Chromosome Number 160 CHAPTER
Biotechnology and Genomics 210

CHAPTER
10 12.1 Biotechnology 211
Recombinant DNA Technology 211
Patterns of Inheritance 164 DNA Sequencing 212
Polymerase Chain Reaction 212
10.1 Mendel’s Laws 165
DNA Analysis 213
Mendel’s Experimental Procedure 165
Genome Editing 214
One-Trait Inheritance 166
Two-Trait Inheritance 169 12.2 Biotechnology Products 215
Mendel’s Laws and Probability 170 Genetically Modified Bacteria 215
Mendel’s Laws and Meiosis 171 Genetically Modified Plants 215
Genetically Modified Animals 216
10.2 Mendel’s Laws Apply to Humans 172
Family Pedigrees 172 12.3 Stem Cells and Cloning 217
Genetic Disorders of Interest 174 Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning 218

xii CONTENTS
12.4 Genomics and Proteomics 219

Sequencing the Bases of the Human Genome
Proteomics and Bioinformatics 221
220
CHAPTER
15
Evolution on a Small Scale 255
CHAPTER
13 15.1 Natural Selection 256
Types of Selection 257
Sexual Selection 258
Mutations and Genetic Testing 224 Adaptations Are Not Perfect 259
13.1 Gene Mutations 225 Maintenance of Variations 259
Causes of Gene Mutations 225
15.2 Microevolution 261
Types and Effects of Mutations 226
Evolution in a Genetic Context 261
13.2 Chromosomal Mutations 227 Causes of Microevolution 264
Deletions and Duplications 227
Translocation 228
Inversion 229
CHAPTER
16
13.3 Genetic Testing 229 Evolution on a Large Scale 269
Obtaining Chromosomes for Analysis 230
16.1 Speciation and Macroevolution 270
Karyotype Analysis 230
Defining Species 270
Testing for a Protein 231
Models of Speciation 273
Testing the DNA 231
Testing the Fetus 233 16.2 The Fossil Record 276
Testing the Embryo and Egg 234 The Geologic Time Scale 276
The Pace of Speciation 278
13.4 Gene Therapy 235
Causes of Mass Extinctions 279
Ex Vivo Gene Therapy 235
In Vivo Gene Therapy 236 16.3 Systematics 281
Linnaean Classification 281
Phylogenetic Trees 282
Cladistics and Cladograms 284
The Three-Domain System 285
UNIT III Evolution
CHAPTER
14 UNIT IV Diversity of Life
Darwin and Evolution 239
14.1 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution 240
Before Darwin 241
Darwin’s Conclusions 242
CHAPTER
17
Natural Selection and Adaptation 244
Viruses, Bacteria, and Protists 290
Darwin and Wallace 247 17.1 Viruses 291
Structure of a Virus 291
14.2 Evidence of Evolutionary Change 248
Viral Reproduction 292
Fossil Evidence 248
Plant Viruses 293
Biogeographical Evidence 250
Animal Viruses 293
Anatomical Evidence 250
Molecular Evidence 252 17.2 Viroids and Prions 296

CONTENTS xiii
17.3 Prokaryotes 298 Molluscs 349

The Origin of the First Cells 298 Annelids: Segmented Worms 350
Bacteria 299 19.4 Roundworms and Arthropods:
The Archaea 304 The Ecdysozoans 352
17.4 Protists 306 Roundworms: Pseudocoelomates 352
Evolution of Protists 306 Arthropods: Jointed Appendages 353
Classification of Protists 306 19.5 Echinoderms and Chordates:
The Deuterostomes 358
CHAPTER
18 Echinoderms 358
Chordates 359
Fishes: First Jaws and Lungs 361
Plants and Fungi 316
Amphibians: Jointed Vertebrate Limbs 363
18.1 An Overview of Plants 317 Reptiles: Amniotic Egg 364
An Overview of Plant Evolution 317 Mammals: Hair and Mammary Glands 366
Alternation of Generations 319
19.6 Human Evolution 369
18.2 The Diversity of Plants 320 Evolution of Humanlike Hominins 370
Nonvascular Plants 320 Evolution of Modern Humans 373
Vascular Plants 321
Gymnosperms 324
Angiosperms 326
UNIT V Plant Structure and Function
Economic Benefits of Plants 329
Ecological Benefits of Plants 329
18.3 Fungi 330

CHAPTER
20
General Biology of a Fungus 331 Plant Anatomy and Growth 378
Fungal Diversity 331
Ecological Benefits of Fungi 334 20.1 Plant Cells and Tissues 379
Economic Benefits of Fungi 335 Epidermal Tissue 379
Fungi as Disease-Causing Organisms 336 Ground Tissue 380
Vascular Tissue 381
CHAPTER
19 20.2 Plant Organs 381
Monocots Versus Eudicots 382
Animals 341 20.3 Organization of Leaves, Stems,

and Roots 383
19.1 The Evolution of Animals 342
Leaves 384
Ancestry of Animals 343
Stems 386
The Evolutionary Tree of Animals 343
Roots 388
Evolutionary Trends 344
20.4 Plant Nutrition 391
19.2 Sponges and Cnidarians: The Early
Adaptations of Roots for Mineral Uptake 392
Animals 346
Sponges: Multicellularity 346 20.5 Transport of Nutrients 393
Cnidarians: True Tissues 347 Water Transport in Xylem 393
Sugar Transport in Phloem 394
19.3 Flatworms, Molluscs, and Annelids:
The Lophotrochozoans 348
Flatworms: Bilateral Symmetry 348

xiv CONTENTS
21
Sensory Input and Motor Output 431
CHAPTER Reproduction 431
22.3 Homeostasis 432

Plant Responses and Organ Systems and Homeostasis 432
Reproduction 398 Negative Feedback 433
21.1 Plant Hormones 399
Auxins 399
Gibberellins 400
Cytokinins 401
CHAPTER
23
Abscisic Acid 401
The Transport Systems 437
Ethylene 402 23.1 Open and Closed Circulatory Systems 438
Open Circulatory Systems 439
21.2 Plant Responses 403
Closed Circulatory Systems 440
Tropisms 403
Comparison of Vertebrate Circulatory Pathways 440
Photoperiodism 404
23.2 Circulation in Humans 441
21.3 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 405
The Human Heart 442
Overview of the Plant Life Cycle 405
Blood Vessels 443
Flowers 406
Lymphatic System 446
From Spores to Fertilization 407
Capillary Exchange in the Tissues 447
Development of the Seed in a Eudicot 409
Monocots Versus Eudicots 409 23.3 Blood: A Transport Medium 448
Fruit Types and Seed Dispersal 410 Plasma 448
Germination of Seeds 411 Formed Elements 449
Cardiovascular Disorders 451
21.4 Asexual Reproduction and Genetic
Engineering in Plants 413
Propagation of Plants in a Garden 413
Propagation of Plants in Tissue Culture 413
Genetic Engineering of Plants 414
CHAPTER
24
The Maintenance Systems 456
24.1 Respiratory System 457
The Human Respiratory Tract 458
UNIT VI Animal Structure and Function
Breathing 459
22
Lungs and External Exchange of Gases 460
CHAPTER Respiration in Other Animals 461
Transport and Internal Exchange of Gases 461
Being Organized and Steady 420
24.2 Urinary System 463
22.1 The Body’s Organization 421 Human Kidney 464
Epithelial Tissue Protects 423 Problems with Kidney Function 467
Connective Tissue Connects and Supports 425
25
Muscular Tissue Moves the Body 427
Nervous Tissue Communicates 428 CHAPTER
22.2 Organs and Organ Systems 429

Transport and Protection 430
Digestion and Human Nutrition 471
Maintenance of the Body 430 25.1 Digestive System 472
Control 430 Complete and Incomplete Digestive Systems 472

CONTENTS xv
The Digestive Tract 472

Accessory Organs 478
Digestive Enzymes 479
CHAPTER
27
The Control Systems 519
25.2 Nutrition 481
Introducing the Nutrients 481 27.1 Nervous System 520
Examples of Nervous Systems 521
25.3 The Classes of Nutrients 482 The Human Nervous System 521
Carbohydrates 483 Neurons 522
Lipids 484 The Nerve Impulse 522
Proteins 485 The Synapse 524
Minerals 486 Drug Abuse 524
Vitamins 488 The Central Nervous System 526
Water 489 The Peripheral Nervous System 529
25.4 Understanding Nutrition Guidelines 490 27.2 Endocrine System 532
Updating Dietary Guidelines 490 The Action of Hormones 532
Visualizing Dietary Guidelines 490 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 533
The Bottom Line 492 Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands 536
25.5 Nutrition and Health 493 Adrenal Glands 537
Body Mass Index 493 Pancreas 538
Disorders Associated with Obesity 496
Eating Disorders 498
CHAPTER
28
CHAPTER
26 Sensory Input and Motor Output 542
28.1 The Senses 543
Defenses Against Disease 502 Chemical Senses 543
26.1 Overview of the Immune System 503 Hearing and Balance 544
Lymphatic Organs 503 Vision 548
Cells of the Immune System 505 Cutaneous Receptors and Proprioceptors 550
26.2 Nonspecific Defenses and 28.2 The Motor Systems 552

Innate Immunity 505 Types of Skeletons 552
Barriers to Entry 505 The Human Skeleton 553
The Inflammatory Response 506 Skeletal Muscle Structure and Physiology 554
The Complement System 507
Natural Killer Cells 507
26.3 Specific Defenses and Adaptive

CHAPTER
29
Immunity 508 Reproduction and Embryonic
B Cells and the Antibody Response 508
Development 562
T Cells and the Cellular Response 509
29.1 How Animals Reproduce 563
26.4 Immunizations 512 Asexual Versus Sexual Reproduction 563
26.5 Disorders of the Immune System 514 Sexual Reproduction 563
Allergies 514
29.2 Human Reproduction 565
Autoimmune Diseases 515
Male Reproductive System 565
AIDS 515

xvi CONTENTS
Female Reproductive System 568 31.2 Ecology of Ecosystems 615

Control of Reproduction 571 Autotrophs 615
Infertility 573 Heterotrophs 615
Sexually Transmitted Diseases 574 Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling 616
29.3 Human Embryonic Development 577 Chemical Cycling 619
Fertilization 578 31.3 Ecology of Major Ecosystems 625
Early Embryonic Development 578 Primary Productivity 628
Later Embryonic Development 579
Placenta 581
Fetal Development and Birth 582
CHAPTER
32
Human Impact on the Biosphere 632
32.1 Conservation Biology 633
UNIT VII Ecology 32.2 Biodiversity 634

Direct Values of Biodiversity 635
CHAPTER
30 Indirect Values of Biodiversity 637
32.3 Resources and Environmental Impact 639

Ecology and Populations 586 Land 639
Water 641
30.1 The Science of Ecology 587
Food 643
Ecology: A Biological Science 588
Energy 645
30.2 The Human Population 589 Minerals 647
Present Population Growth 589 Other Sources of Pollution 647
Future Population Growth 590
32.4 Sustainable Societies 649
More-Developed Versus Less-Developed Countries 591
Today’s Society 649
Comparing Age Structures 592
Characteristics of a Sustainable Society 650
Population Growth and Environmental Impact 593
30.3 Characteristics of Populations 594

Distribution and Density 594 Appendix A Periodic Table of Elements
Population Growth 594 & The Metric System A-1
Patterns of Population Growth 596 Appendix B Answer Key B-1
Factors that Regulate Population Growth 597
Glossary G-1
30.4 Life History Patterns and Extinction 601
Extinction 602 Index I-1
CHAPTER
31
Communities and Ecosystems 605
31.1 Ecology of Communities 606
Community Composition and Diversity 607
Ecological Succession 608
Interactions in Communities 609
Community Stability 613

C H A P T E R
1
Biology: The
Science of Life
©Thomas Deerinck/Science Source
Artificial Life OUTLINE

What are the minimal requirements for life? That question has occupied the 1. 1 The Characteristics of Life
minds of philosophers and scientists for thousands of years. However, in just
the past decade, answers to this question have begun to emerge from a devel-
1.2 Evolution: The Core Concept of
oping field of scientific study called artificial life. Biology
One of the first of these studies occurred in 2010, when a research team 1.3 Science: A Way of Knowing
led by Craig Venter (a pioneer in genetic research) was successful in removing
the genetic information contained within the DNA of a bacterium and replacing
1.4 Challenges Facing Science
it with a synthetic form of DNA.
In 2016, the same group of researchers took their research one step fur-
ther. This time, they asked what minimal instructions were needed by a cell for
it to be considered alive. They constructed a cell that functioned on just 473
genes (humans have around 19,000). In the process, they not only narrowed in
on what the minimal requirements for life are, but also created the first example
of an artificial species.
The development of artificial life opens up the opportunity for humans to
construct cells that perform specific tasks, such as producing insulin, cleaning
toxic waste, or producing fuel more efficiently. However, there are concerns
about these new endeavors, and some scientists are urging constraint until the
risks have been determined.
In this chapter, we will explore the concept of life by examining the general
characteristics shared by all living organisms on our planet.
As you read through this chapter, think about the following questions:
1. What characteristics do you share with the diversity of life on the
planet?
2. How does adaptation and the process of evolution relate to living
organisms?
3. What are some of the challenges facing science and society today?
mad87328_ch01_001-020.indd 1 19/08/19 1:50 PM

2 CHAPTER 1 Biology: The Science of Life
1.1 The Characteristics of Life

Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to

1. Explain the basic characteristics common to all living organisms.
2. Distinguish between the levels of biological organization.
3. Summarize how the terms homeostasis, metabolism, and adaptation
relate to all living organisms.
4. Contrast chemical cycling and energy flow within an ecosystem.
bacteria human
As we observed in the chapter opener, life is diverse (Fig. 1.1). Life may be
found everywhere on the planet, from thermal vents at the bottom of the ocean
to the coldest reaches of Antarctica. Biology is the scientific study of life.
Biologists study not only life’s diversity but also the characteristics shared by
all living organisms. These characteristics include levels of organization, the
ability to acquire materials and energy, the ability to maintain an internal envi-
ronment, the ability to respond to stimuli, the ability to reproduce and develop,
and the ability to adapt and evolve to changing conditions. By studying these
characteristics, we gain insight into the complex nature of life, which helps us
distinguish between living organisms from nonliving things. In the next sec-
tions, we will explore these characteristics in more detail.
plant fungi The complex organization of life begins with atoms, the basic units of
matter. Atoms combine to form small molecules, which then join to form
Figure 1.1 Diversity of life. larger molecules within a cell, the smallest, most basic unit of life. Although a
Biology is the study of life in all of its diverse forms. cell is alive, it is made from nonliving molecules (Fig. 1.2).
(bacteria): ©Science Photo Library/Getty Images; (human): ©Purestock/
Superstock; (plant): ©Zeljko Radojko/Shutterstock; (fungi): ©Jorgen Bausager/
The majority of life on the planet, such as bacteria, are single-celled.
Getty Images Plants, fungi, and animals are multicellular organisms and are therefore com-
posed of many types of cells, which often combine to form tissues. Tissues
make up organs, as when various tissues combine to form the heart of an ani-
mal or the leaf of a plant. Organs work together in organ systems; for example,
the heart and blood vessels form the cardiovascular system. Various organ
systems often work together within complex organisms.
The organization of life extends beyond the individual organism. A
species is a group of similar organisms that are capable of interbreeding. All of
the members of a species within a particular area belong to a population.
When populations interact, such as the humans, zebras, and trees in Figure 1.2,
they form a community. At the ecosystem level, communities interact with the
physical environment (soil, atmosphere, etc.). Collectively, the ecosystems on
the planet are called the biosphere, the zone of air, land, and water at the sur-
face of the Earth where living organisms are found.
Life Requires Materials and Energy

All life, from single cells to complex organisms, is not capable of maintaining
organization or carrying on its necessary activities without an outside source of
materials and energy. Food provides nutrient molecules, which are used as
building blocks or energy sources. Energy is the capacity to do work, and it
takes work to maintain the organization of the cell and the organism. When
cells use nutrient molecules to make their parts and products, they carry out a
sequence of chemical reactions. The term metabolism encompasses all the
chemical reactions that occur in a cell.
mad87328_ch01_001-020.indd 2 19/08/19 1:54 PM

CHAPTER 1 Biology: The Science of Life 3
Figure 1.2 Levels of biological organization.

Biosphere All life is connected by levels of biological organization that extend from
Regions of the Earth’s crust,
atoms to the biosphere.
waters, and atmosphere inhabited
by living organisms
Ecosystem
A community plus the physical environment
Community
Interacting populations in a particular area
Population
Organisms of the same species
in a particular area
Species
A group of similar, interbreeding organisms
human tree
Organism
An individual; complex individuals
contain organ systems
Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs system system
working together
Organ the brain leaves

Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task
Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue leaf tissue
nerve cell plant cell

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living organisms
methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms
of the same or different elements
oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element; composed of
electrons, protons, and neutrons
mad87328_ch01_001-020.indd 3 19/08/19 1:56 PM

The ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on Earth is the sun.
Plants and certain other organisms are able to capture solar energy and carry
on photosynthesis, a process that transforms solar energy into the chemical
energy of nutrient molecules (see Section 6.1). For this reason, these organ-
isms are commonly called producers. Animals and plants get energy by metab-
olizing (Fig. 1.3), or breaking down, the nutrient molecules made by the
producers (see Section 7.1).
The energy and chemical flow between organisms also defines how an
ecosystem functions (Fig. 1.4). Within an ecosystem, chemical cycling and
energy flow begin when producers, such as grasses, take in solar energy and
inorganic nutrients to produce food (organic nutrients) by photosynthesis.
Chemical cycling (aqua arrows) occurs as chemicals move from one popula-
tion to another in a food chain, until death and decomposition allow inorganic
nutrients to be returned to the producers once again. Energy (red arrows), on
Figure 1.3 Acquiring nutrient materials and energy. the other hand, flows from the sun through plants and the other members of the
All organisms, including this otter eating shellfish, require nutrients food chain as they feed on one another. The energy gradually dissipates and
and energy. returns to the atmosphere as heat. Because energy does not cycle, ecosystems
©Kirsten Wahlquist/Shutterstock could not stay in existence without solar energy and the ability of photosyn-
thetic organisms to absorb it.
Energy flow and nutrient cycling in an ecosystem largely determine
where different ecosystems are found in the biosphere. The two most biologi-
Solar cally diverse ecosystems—tropical rain forests and coral reefs—occur where
energy
solar energy is very abundant and nutrient cycling is continuous.
The availability of energy and nutrients also determines the type of bio-
logical communities that occur within an ecosystem. One example of an eco-
Heat
system in North America is the grasslands, which are inhabited by populations
of rabbits, hawks, and various types of grasses, among many others. The energy
input and nutrient cycling of a grassland are less than those of a rain forest,
Producers
which means that the community structure and food chains of these ecosys-
tems also differ.
Heat
Living Organisms Maintain an

Consumers
Internal Environment
For metabolic processes to continue, living organisms need to keep themselves
Chemicals
stable with regard to temperature, moisture level, acidity, and other factors
critical to maintaining life. Many of the metabolic activities of an organism are
Chemicals
involved in maintaining homeostasis, or an internal environment that acts

within a set of physiological boundaries.
Animals often vary their activity to regulate their internal environment.
A chilly lizard may raise its internal temperature by basking in the sun on a hot
rock. When it starts to overheat, it scurries for cool shade. Other organisms
have control mechanisms that do not require any conscious activity. When you
Decomposers Heat are studying and forget to eat lunch, your liver releases stored sugar to keep
your blood sugar level within normal limits. Many of the organ systems of our
bodies are involved in maintaining homeostasis.
Figure 1.4 Chemical cycling and energy flow in an ecosystem.
In an ecosystem, chemical cycling (aqua arrows) and energy flow
(red arrows) begin when plants use solar energy and inorganic
nutrients to produce their own food. Chemicals and energy are
Living Organisms Respond
passed from one population to another in a food chain. Eventually, Living organisms find energy and/or nutrients by interacting with their
energy dissipates as heat. With the death and decomposition of surroundings. Even single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, can respond to
organisms, chemicals are returned to living plants once more. their environment. The beating of microscopic hairs or the snapping of whiplike
mad87328_ch01_001-020.indd 4 19/08/19 1:56 PM

tails moves them toward or away from light or chemicals. Multi-

cellular organisms can manage more complex responses. A mon-
arch butterfly can sense the approach of fall and begin its flight
south, where resources are still abundant. A vulture can smell
meat a mile away and soar toward dinner.
The ability to respond often results in movement: The
leaves of a plant turn toward the sun, and animals dart toward
safety. Appropriate responses help ensure survival of the organ-
ism and allow it to carry on its daily activities. Altogether, we
call these activities the behavior of the organism.
Living Organisms Reproduce and Develop

Life comes only from life. Every living organism has the ability
to reproduce, or make another organism like itself. Bacteria and
other types of single-celled organisms simply split in two. In
multicellular organisms, the reproductive process usually begins
with the pairing of a sperm from one partner and an egg from the
other partner. The union of sperm and egg, followed by many cell
divisions, results in an immature individual, which grows and
develops through various stages to become an adult.
An embryo develops into a whale or a yellow daffodil or a
human because of the specific set of genes, or genetic instructions,
inherited from its parents (Fig. 1.5). In all organisms, the genes are
located on long molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the
genetic blueprint of life. Variations in genes account for the differ-
ences between species and individuals. These differences are the
result of mutations, or inheritable changes in the genetic informa-
tion. Mutation provides an important source of variation in the
genetic information. However, not all mutations are bad—the
observable differences in eye and hair color are examples of DNA
NA
mutations.
By studying DNA, scientists are able to understand not
only the basis for specific traits, like susceptibility for certain
types of cancer, but also the evolutionary history of the species.
Reproduction involves the passing of genetic information from a
parent to its offspring. Therefore, the information found within
Figure 1.5 Reproduction is a characteristic of life.
the DNA represents a record of our molecular heritage. This includes not
Whether they are single-celled or multicellular, all organisms
only a record of the individual’s lineage, but also how the species is related
reproduce. Offspring receive a copy of their parents’ DNA and
to other species. therefore a copy of the parents’ genes.
DNA provides the blueprint or instructions for the organization and (photo): ©Purestock/Superstock; (DNA): ©Molekuul/SPL/AGE Fotostock
metabolism of the particular organism. All cells in a multicellular organism
contain the same set of genes, but only certain ones are turned on in each type
of specialized cell. Through the process of development, cells express spe-
cific genes to distinguish themselves from other cells, thus forming tissues
and organs.
Living Organisms Have Adaptations

Adaptations are modifications that make a species suited to their way of life.
Some hawks have the ability to catch fish; others are best at catching rabbits.
Hawks can fly, in part, because they have hollow bones to reduce their weight
mad87328_ch01_001-020.indd 5 19/08/19 2:00 PM

and flight muscles to depress and elevate their wings. When a hawk dives, its
strong feet take the first shock of the landing, and its long, sharp claws reach
out and hold onto the prey. Hawks have exceptionally keen vision, which
enables them not only to spot prey from great heights but also to estimate
distance and speed.
Humans also have adaptations that allow them to live in specific envi-
ronments. Humans who live at extreme elevations in the Himalayas (over
13,000 feet, or 4,000 meters) have an adaptation that reduces the amount of
hemoglobin produced in the blood (see Section 19.6). Hemoglobin is impor-
tant for the transport of oxygen. Normally, as elevation increases, the amount
CONNECTING THE CONCEPTS of hemoglobin increases, but too much hemoglobin makes the blood thick,
1.1 All living organisms, from bacteria which can cause health problems. In some high-elevation populations, a
to humans, share the same basic mutation in a single gene reduces this risk.
characteristics of life. Evolution, or the manner in which species become adapted to their envi-
ronment, is discussed in the next section of this chapter.
Check Your Progress 1.1

1. List the basic characteristics common to all life.
2. List in order, starting with the least organized, the levels of biological
organization.
3. Explain how chemical cycling and energy flow occur at both the
organism and the ecosystem levels of organization.
1.2 Evolution: The Core Concept

of Biology
Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to

1. Define the term evolution.
2. Explain the process of natural selection and its relationship to
evolutionary processes.
3. Summarize the general characteristics of the domains and major
kingdoms of life.
Despite diversity in form, function, and lifestyle, organisms share the same
basic characteristics. As mentioned, they are all composed of cells organized in
a similar manner. Their genes are composed of DNA, and they carry out the
same metabolic reactions to acquire energy and maintain their organization.
The unity of living organisms suggests that they are descended from a common
ancestor—the first cell or cells.
An evolutionary tree is like a family tree (Fig. 1.6). Just as a family
tree shows how a group of people have descended from one couple, an
evolutionary tree traces the ancestry of life on Earth to a common ancestor.
One couple can have diverse children, and likewise a population can be a
common ancestor to several other groups, each adapted to a particular set of
mad87328_ch01_001-020.indd 6 19/08/19 2:00 PM

Bacteria Archaea Protists Plants Fungi Animals

0
0.5
Billions of Years Ago (BYA)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
EUKARYA Figure 1.6 An evolutionary tree.
ARCHAEA Organisms grouped on the same branch of the tree have a common
3.0 BACTERIA ancestor located at the base of the branch. Organisms grouped on the
3.5 same branch (such as fungi and animals) are more closely related to one
another, meaning they have a more recent common ancestor than
4.0
organisms on different branches (such as animals and plants). The base of
First ancestral cell the tree itself represents the common ancestor of all living organisms.
environmental conditions. Evolution is the process in which populations

change over time to adapt to their environment, and pass on these changes
to the next generation. Evolution is considered the unifying concept of biol-
ogy because it explains so many aspects of biology, including the tremen-
dous diversity of life on the planet and how living organisms arose from a
single ancestor.
Natural Selection and Evolutionary

Processes
In the nineteenth century, two naturalists—Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel
Wallace—came independently to the conclusion that evolution occurs by
means of a process called natural selection (see Section 14.1). Charles
Darwin is the more famous of the two because he wrote a book called On the
Origin of Species, which presented his observations on how the process of
evolution worked using natural selection. Since that time, evolution has
become the core concept of biology, not only because the theory explains so
many different scientific observations, but because the wealth of data col-
lected since Darwin’s era supports the theory’s importance in every aspect of
the biological sciences.
The process of natural selection is the mechanism by which evolution-
ary change occurs. It is based on how a population changes in response to its
environment. Environments may change due to the influence of living factors
(such as a new predator) or nonliving factors (such as temperature). As the
environment changes over time, some individuals of a species may possess
certain adaptations that make them better suited to the new environment.
Individuals of a species that are better adapted to their environment tend to
live longer and produce more offspring than other individuals. This differen-
tial reproductive success, called natural selection, results in changes in the
mad87328_ch01_001-020.indd 7 19/08/19 2:01 PM

characteristics of a population over time. That is, adaptations that result in

higher reproductive success tend to increase in frequency in a population
from one generation to the next. This change in the frequency of traits in
populations is called evolution.
The phrase “common descent with modification” sums up the pro-
cess of evolution because it means that, as descent occurs from common
ancestors, modifications occur that cause the organisms to be adapted
(suited) to the environment. As a result, one spe-
cies can be a common ancestor to several
species, each adapted to a particular set of
environmental conditions. Specific adapta-
Kauai tions allow species to play particular roles in
‘Akialoa their environment.
The Hawaiian honeycreepers are
Laysan finch a remarkable example of this process
Kona finch
(Fig. 1.7). The more than 50 known
‘Akepa Maui parrotbill
species of honeycreepers (of which
Nukupu’u
only 17 species remain today) all
evolved from one species of finch, which
likely originated in North America and
Alauwahio ‘Anianiau arrived in the Hawaiian islands between 3
and 5 million years ago. Modern hon-
Palila
eycreepers have an assortment of bill
Amakihi shapes adapted to different types of
`Ō'ō food. Some honeycreeper species
have curved, elongated bills used for
‘Akiapola’au
drinking flower nectar. Others have
Crested honeycreeper strong, hooked bills suited to digging in
tree bark and seizing wood-boring insects or short, straight, finchlike bills
for feeding on small seeds and fruits. Even with such dramatic differences
‘Ula-‘ai-Hawane in feeding habits and bill shapes, honeycreepers still share certain charac-
‘Apapane
teristics, which stem from their common finch ancestor. The various hon-
eycreeper species are similar in body shape and size, as well as mating and
nesting behavior.
The study of evolution encompasses all levels of biological organiza-
tion. Indeed, much of today’s evolution research is carried out at the molecu-
lar level, comparing the DNA of different groups of organisms to determine
how they are related. Looking at how life has changed over time, from its
origin to the current day, helps us understand why there are so many different
Mamos
kinds of organisms and why they have the characteristics they do. An under-
standing of evolution by natural selection also has practical applications,
including the prevention and treatment of disease.
Today, we know that, because of natural selection, resistance to anti-
liwi
biotic drugs has become increasingly common in a number of bacterial
species, including those that cause tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and staph
infections. Antibiotic drugs, such as penicillin, kill susceptible bacteria.
However, some bacteria in the body of a patient undergoing antibiotic
treatment may be unharmed by the drug. Bacteria can survive antibiotic
drugs in many different ways. For example, certain bacteria can endure
treatment with penicillin because they break down the drug, rendering it
Figure 1.7 Evolution of Hawaiian honeycreepers. harmless. If even one bacterial cell lives because it is antibiotic-resistant,
Hawaiian honeycreepers, descendants of a single ancestral species, then its descendants will inherit this drug-defeating ability. The wide-
display an amazing diversity of bill shapes and sizes. spread use of antibiotics has favored the evolution of resistant bacterial
mad87328_ch01_001-020.indd 8 19/08/19 2:01 PM

strains, which in turn is limiting the effectiveness of many classes of

antibiotics.
Connections
How does evolution affect me personally?
Each year, starting around September, health agencies and pharmacies
begin alerting us to get our annual flu vaccine. Often, people question
the need to get an annual vaccine, and in the process, place themselves
at risk of infection.
What we call the flu is actually a response by our bodies to an infection

by influenza virus. Influenza viruses are relatively simple (see Section
17.1), but they have the ability to mutate each year, creating new strains
that have not been seen before by our immune systems. Some of these
changes have been responsible for strains that have created significant
outbreaks in the human population.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and other agen-
cies are responsible for monitoring the evolution of the influenza virus,
and for developing annual vaccines. However, at times, the virus may
evolve during the influenza season (as happened in 2018), thus reducing
the effectiveness of that year’s vaccine.
Organizing the Diversity of Life

Think of an enormous department store, offering thousands of different items
for sale. The various items are grouped in departments—electronics, apparel,
furniture, and so on—to make them easy for customers to find. Because life is
so diverse, it is helpful to have a system that groups organisms into categories.
Two areas of biology help us group organisms into categories: T axonomy is
the discipline of identifying and naming organisms according to certain rules,
and systematics makes sense out of the bewildering variety of life on Earth by
classifying organisms according to their presumed evolutionary relationships.
As systematists learn more about evolutionary relationships between species,
the taxonomy of a given organism may change. Systematists are even now
making observations and performing experiments that will one day bring about
changes in the classification system adopted by this text.
Table 1.1 Levels of Biological Organization
Categories of Classification Category Human Corn
The classification categories, from least inclusive to most inclusive, are spe- Domain Eukarya Eukarya
cies, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and domain (Table 1.1).
Kingdom Animalia Plantae
Each successive category above species contains more types of organisms than
the preceding one. Species placed within one genus share many specific char- Phylum Chordata Anthophyta
acteristics and are the most closely related, while species placed in the same Class Mammalia Liliopsida
domain share only general characteristics. For example, all species in the genus
Order Primates Commelinales
Pisum look pretty much the same—that is, like pea plants—but species in the
plant kingdom can be quite varied, as is evident when we compare grasses with Family Hominidae Poaceae
trees. By the same token, only modern humans are in the genus Homo, but Genus Homo Zea
many types of species, from tiny hydras to huge whales, are members of the
Species* H. sapiens Z. mays
animal kingdom. Species placed in different domains are the most distantly
related. For now, we will focus on the general characteristics of the domains *To specify an organism, you must use the full binomial name, such as
Homo sapiens.
and kingdoms of life.
mad87328_ch01_001-020.indd 9 04/10/19 12:55 PM

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sister. If she has sent no word I must wire,” he said.
Billy rose too. “I should never find my way back alone,” he said.
“I’m dumb as an oyster over here. It’s great being with some one
who knows the ropes.”
The girls protested against their going so soon, when they had
expended so much time and trouble in coming, but Mr. Trevelyan
insisted that he must get back at once, and Billy laughingly declared
that the girls would have to see him safely home if he stayed and
then he would have to see them safely back, and so ad infinitum.
When Babbie consulted her mother about the dance, Mrs.
Hildreth listened to the story of the boys’ call, and after a little
consideration decided that she couldn’t allow Babbie to go.
“Billy is a dear boy,” she said, “and his friend seems a thoroughly
nice fellow, but I couldn’t think of letting you go to a dance with them
out in some suburb of Paris, unless I knew you were in charge of a
sensible, careful chaperon. Mr. Trevelyan’s sister may or may not
answer the description. We have no idea how old she is, or what sort
of person she is, or whether she even understands from her brother
that you would be in her charge. Evidently you wouldn’t be while you
were going and coming. Oh, it’s quite impossible.”
And Babbie admitted sadly that it was. She brightened at once,
however. “If I’m as sleepy to-morrow night as I am to-night, I
shouldn’t enjoy it. After all, you can go to plenty of dances at home,
and you can’t go to these fascinating galleries and museums and
churches. I should waste to-morrow and perhaps the day after if I
went to the dance. Now I can go ahead and get as tired as I like
seeing things.”
So Babbie and Madeline conducted the novices to Notre Dame,
took them up in the tower to get a near view of the gargoyles, and
then hunted up the shop on the Rue Bonaparte where you can buy
small plaster gargoyles, exactly like those on the cathedral for two
francs and fifty centimes each. It took so long to decide which
Roberta would prefer, and which was best suited to K.’s taste and to
Rachel’s, that the girls had to snatch a hasty luncheon at an English
tea-room near the Louvre in order to be at the appointed rendezvous
by two o’clock. But they did get there exactly at the appointed time,
in spite of a little dispute between Babbie and Madeline about which
was the “main entrance” to the Louvre. However, Babbie was
speedily convinced that the main entrance was the one that had
been built for the main entrance —the one with the splendid façade
and not the one at the opposite side that happened to be more
conveniently situated and was consequently most used by visitors.
However, when they had waited fifteen minutes and the men had not
appeared, the subject began to be agitated again.
“Well, what does it matter?” demanded Babbie, who hated to be
kept waiting and was consequently rather out of temper. “They can
reason the thing out just as well as we can. If they’ve gone to the
other entrance and don’t find us there, they can come here. It’s their
place to find us, not ours to hunt for them.”
“I think it’s silly to stick here, just the same,” said Babe. “Why
don’t Madeline and I walk through to the other entrance and see if
they’re there?”
“Because they ought to do the walking,” persisted Babbie. “They
asked us to come and meet them, and anyhow it’s always the man’s
place to do the hunting. I’m not going to have you chase up Billy
Benson to tell him whether or not he’s going to take me to a dance
to-night.”
Whereupon Madeline murmured that it was Babbie’s party, not
hers, and Babe and Betty declared they would wait until exactly
quarter to three and then they were going to see the Mona Lisa.
And at quarter to three they went, Babbie giving a reluctant
consent to their making a detour past the other possible rendezvous.
But Billy and Mr. Trevelyan were not there, and when Madeline
inquired of the very stolid guard he only shrugged his shoulders and
said there had been any number of young men passing in since two
o’clock. Some had waited, some not.
“Seems to me Mr. Trevelyan isn’t such a good conductor as he
has the reputation for being,” said Betty. “Yesterday he didn’t meet
his sister, and nearly didn’t find us, and to-day his arrangements
haven’t worked out very well.”
“Well, fortunately it doesn’t matter,” said Babbie, sitting down with
a rapturous little sigh before the Mona Lisa. “The pictures are here,
and after we’ve seen a few we can go and have some of those little
boat-shaped strawberry tarts that we saw in the patisserie window. If
they’d taken us somewhere to eat we should probably have had to
have stupid ices.”
“And the moral, as our friend Mary would say,” laughed Madeline,
“is that when you’re hunting alone you can do as you please, which
is an advantage that our friend Mary has forever forfeited. Who votes
to have the strawberry tarts soon?”
“Maxim for travelers,” said Babe, dejectedly, “‘when you’ve had
enough, stop,’ and enough is what you can see in just a little more
than half a day.”
So the girls had crossed the Seine on the top of a lumbering
tram, and walked from the Luxembourg Gardens, where a concert
was going on, to the queer little street where Madeline’s pension was
hidden; and they had cooled off, rested, and dressed for dinner
before a maid brought Babbie a card—Billy Benson’s.
“Ask him into the garden and say I’ll be there in a moment,”
Babbie ordered, and went down after a perfectly needless delay, by
way of preliminary discipline, prepared to receive Billy’s excuses
coldly and to give him a very unhappy quarter of an hour in return for
the annoyance he had caused her earlier in the afternoon.
But Billy made no excuses. Instead he announced blandly, “Well,
I’m two hundred dollars poorer than I was last night and a good deal
wiser, and I feel like a young idiot; but it certainly makes a good
story, if that’s any consolation.”
Babbie stared. “What do you mean? Why aren’t you on your way
to your dance?”
Billy grinned. “Dance is off—that is, Trevelyan is dancing
somewhere, I guess, but all I get is a chance to pay the piper. You
see, it was this way—well, I’ll have to begin with this morning.”
“Wait,” commanded Babbie, crossing to Babe’s window and
giving the B’s familiar trill. “Come down, all three of you,” she called,
when Babe’s head appeared between the curtains. “Mr. Benson has
had a real adventure, and we’re on the edge of it ourselves.”
“You’re the causes of the final catastrophe,” accused Billy
smilingly, as Babbie came back to him. “If you’d made the proper
connections with us this afternoon, Trevelyan couldn’t have pulled off
his grand dénouement. Where were you, anyhow?”
“Right where we belonged,” said Babbie firmly. “You begin with
this morning, and we’ll fill in our part when the time comes.”
CHAPTER XV
A NOISY PARISIAN GHOST
“Makes me feel like the greenest variety of green freshman,” said

Billy, when he had shaken hands all around, “but still I do think he
managed awfully well, and that he’d have taken in almost anybody
with his smooth stories. Of course I haven’t traveled much, but still
——”
“Do go ahead and tell us about his taking your money,” begged
Babbie impatiently, “and then we can discuss him to our hearts’
content.”
Billy nodded assent. “Well,” he began, “you all know about our
coming over to Paris together. Naturally, as I can’t speak French,
Trevelyan chose the hotel—one he knew about on the Rue de Rivoli
—and our rooms opened together.” Billy chuckled. “I thought of that
when I gave him the money. Made me feel extra sure about getting it
back.”
“Do go straight along,” commanded Babbie. “If you don’t you’ll
never get to the robbery part.”
“Oh, it wasn’t a robbery,” laughed Billy. “It was something much
smoother. I’ll get to it in a minute. You know already about our going
sightseeing yesterday and then coming here. Well, when we got
home there was a note from Trevelyan’s missing sister.” Billy
paused. “Come to think of it, I didn’t see that note. But if I had, it
might have been faked just the same. Anyhow Trevelyan said there
was a note from his sister to say that the countess was prostrated by
the heat, and they’d had to hurry home right after lunch. That
sounded perfectly reasonable. It was a beastly hot day, and of
course if the countess was sick, somebody had to go home with her.
The sister said also that she was beginning to be in a hurry to get
into her own house, and Trevelyan said that if I didn’t mind he
guessed we’d better do a little shopping this morning. It seems that
his sister had ordered different things for the house put aside for his
approval, and he was to go to the shops and look at them and have
them sent out.” Billy paused reflectively. “Sounds reasonable
enough, doesn’t it?”
The girls nodded. “Do go on,” urged Madeline.
“Well,” Billy took up the tale, “this morning we started out in a
taximeter cab. First we went to two or three big stores and Trevelyan
looked at rugs and curtains and one thing and another that his sister
had selected and ordered them sent out to their house. At least he
said so. My not speaking French made me an easy mark for any tale
he wanted to tell me. Once or twice he counted his money to see if
he had enough to do one more errand with before we went to the
bank. It was too early to go when we started.”
“Did he actually pay for the curtains and things?” asked Babe.
Billy hesitated. “I—well, I guess I didn’t notice. Judging by the
sequel I’m pretty sure he didn’t. But he pretended that he had, and
finally he said we must go to the bank next. I waited in the carriage.
When he came back he was awfully put out. It seems there is a rule
in this town that you can’t draw money from a bank—from that one
where he had his account anyway—until you’ve been here three
days. Something to do with the police regulations about foreign
visitors. His three days wouldn’t be up till to-morrow, so he couldn’t
draw any money. He said he’d known the rule before but he’d
forgotten about it.”
“Well, couldn’t his shopping wait a day?” asked Babe.
“All but one item,” answered Billy solemnly. “You see the ball to-
night was to be in honor of his sister’s birthday, and he wanted to
take her a birthday present. She’d chosen that, too, at his request,
and we went to look at it. It was a beauty of a pearl pendant.
Trevelyan told the shop-keeper how he was fixed, and ordered the
pendant kept for him until to-morrow. Naturally I asked if I couldn’t
accommodate him with a little loan, so we could take the pendant out
with us to-night. But he thanked me and said he couldn’t think of
borrowing of me, and we drove off. He was awfully cut up about the
pendant, though he kept saying it didn’t matter at all, only, as he put
it, ‘You know how women are about such things. They like a present
at the time. If they’re going to have a birthday, they want their gifts on
the day. By the next day they’ve forgotten all about it.’ But this time it
couldn’t be helped, he said, and it didn’t really matter. And then he’d
remark again that he was afraid his sister would be awfully
disappointed, especially as he’d made a point of her picking out the
pendant and all. But when I offered to lend him some money again,
he seemed almost hurt and refused quick as a flash. Finally he
changed the subject, said it was a shame to make me waste a
morning in Paris over his private affairs, and asked me where we
should go sightseeing. It made me feel awfully small to think how
considerate and unselfish he was, and I pulled out all the money I
had and fairly forced it into his hands. He seemed pleased and
thanked me but said it wouldn’t be any use to him because it wasn’t
enough. The pendant cost fifty pounds, and he needed forty to make
up what he had. So I thought how we were to be together all the
afternoon at the Louvre with you girls and at the ball in the evening,
and then sleeping in adjoining rooms, and in the morning he could
get his money all right. So I stuffed my beggarly thirty dollars into my
pocket, and told him to tell the man to drive straight to the American
Express, so I could get two hundred dollars’ worth of checks
cashed.”
“And that time he didn’t object?” asked Betty.
Billy shook his head. “Told me I was a good fellow, wrung my
hand till it ached, and assured me that it was only a day’s loan or he
wouldn’t think of taking it. Then we got the money, had a gay little
lunch, and stopped at our hotel on our way to meet you. I didn’t go
in. Trevelyan wanted to change his coat for a lighter one, because it
had turned so hot. He stopped for the mail to be distributed, so he
was gone some minutes, and we were ten minutes late in meeting
you.”
“And then you went to the wrong place,” said Babbie severely.
“You can’t blame me for that,” returned Billy. “I asked right away if
there could be any mistake about the meeting-place and Trevelyan
said no. Later he explained that there was another principal
entrance, though he didn’t suppose any one would consider it the
main one, and he suggested that I wait while he went to look for you
at the other entrance and in some of the galleries. He’d been gone
about five minutes when I remembered my two hundred dollars, saw
through his little game, and started in hot pursuit.”
“And he got away?” demanded Madeline eagerly.
“Without trying. You see, he’d packed up his traps while he
waited for the mail to be distributed, and he had probably kept the
cab waiting to drive him back to our hotel whenever he managed to
shake me off. It’s almost across from the Louvre and I didn’t see a
cab, so I ran. But when I got there he was gone, bag and baggage—
by a back way at that, so the hotel has lost a little to keep me
company. It was a perfectly reliable hotel, you understand—one of
the first few in Baedeker.”
“And have you been to the police?” asked Babe excitedly. “They
ought to help you catch him.”
Billy smiled delightedly. “Then you don’t see the joke, either. The
hotel people promised to inform the police, and I went to see the
American consul. He put me on to the fact that I haven’t a thing
against Trevelyan. I lent him the money voluntarily—pressed it upon
him, in fact. The police can’t help me. I’ve ‘done’ myself.”
“You’re awfully cheerful about it,” said Madeline approvingly.
“I wasn’t at first,” laughed Billy, “but it’s such a good story—or it
would be if we knew all the fine points, such as whether or not there
is a sister or a countess.”
“But he telephoned the sister,” suggested Babe.
“May have telephoned thin air,” said Billy. “It was in a booth, so
no one knows what he did.”
“But the countess sent the invitation,” put in Betty.
“And I saw Trevelyan mail the answer,” added Billy. “But he may
have redirected it on the sly to some of his confederates. He must
have at least one in Paris, I think, to manage getting the mail back
and forth.”
“Do you still think it’s all right about his having two names?”
asked Babbie. “Did you depend on what he told you about that, or
did you make other inquiries?”
“About his having two names?” repeated Billy questioningly.
“The two that Betty wrote John about,” Babbie reminded him.
“I haven’t the least idea what you’re talking about,” Billy persisted.
When Betty had explained, he assured her that John never got her
letter. “But Trevelyan must have counted on your letting us know,” he
said. “Gee! but he had nerve to keep on when he knew he was
suspected. I wonder—do you suppose that had anything to do with
his not finding you sooner yesterday? My cab-man didn’t have the
least trouble to-day, I noticed.”
“And he sat near you while you were here. I remember that,”
contributed Babe. “But how about the dance? What was his object in
planning that?”
Billy hesitated. “The consul gave me a good fatherly talk, and he
had a pretty gruesome suggestion about that ball. He says
Fontainebleau—that’s where the countess lives, you know—is on the
edge of a great forest, and that you could get a stranger out there
and drive him off somewhere and rob him without half trying.” He
turned to Babbie. “Do you remember our guying him about your
money and your ring? Well, I think that was undoubtedly his scheme.
But when you hung back and he knew that you had probably heard
Miss Wales’s story, why then he cooked up a substitute. My checks
wouldn’t have been safe plunder, so there was no use in holding me
up.”
Babbie shivered. “I guess on the edge of a real adventure is as
near as I want to be. Think of being driven into a forest and robbed!”
Billy looked very solemn, too. “Please don’t think of it,” he
advised her. “I’d have given a lot more than two hundred dollars to
keep you out of a thing like that.”
“Have you got your passage home?” asked Betty, so seriously
that every one burst out laughing.
“I have,” Billy assured her, “all nicely paid for. And I shan’t send
home for more money, not if I have to pawn the beautiful garments
that I had made on Bond Street, expressly for the countess’s ball.
How Trevelyan must have enjoyed watching me order those clothes!
Well, he deserved to get some fun out of it. Sight-seeing with me
probably bored him awfully, if he wasn’t as new to London as he
pretended to be, and all his clever little contrivances must have kept
him working overtime. Lots of honest men earn two hundred a month
without taking half the trouble.”
“I’m confirmed in my belief that he was French,” declared
Madeline. “He certainly must have plenty of friends in Paris. He
probably was in hiding in Australia while one of his bold, bad
adventures was being forgotten over here.”
“Then he must have been there some little time,” said Billy, “for
his stories certainly had local color all right. But I don’t think I should
depend much on his advice if I were John Morton. John and he got
quite chummy over the prospects for sheep-raising out there. By the
way, John ought to be over here before long. Won’t it be fun
springing all this on him?”
“The best of it is,” said Madeline, “that the more you think about it
the nicer it gets. It’s all so clever and finished—and—well, typically
adventurous, from the minute he inquired of you about that London
Club until he vanished down the passage at the Louvre this
afternoon. It’s so interesting to wonder what he thought and how he
felt as he played his cool little game.”
“Only it wasn’t a game,” Babe objected. “It was business. Think of
making friends with people just so you can rob them afterward! I
always thought chewing gum was about the silliest kind of a
business, but I’d rather have my father in chewing gum than in
adventures.”
Mrs. Hildreth came into the garden just then and the girls
pounced upon her with their exciting story, making Billy stay to
dinner to help them tell it properly. At her plate Betty found a letter
which had been sent direct to the pension instead of to the express
office.
“I wonder who knows I’m here,” she said, tearing open the
envelope, which was addressed in a strange hand.
“Probably an advertisement,” suggested Madeline.
THE GIRLS POUNCED UPON HER

But it wasn’t. It was Betty’s letter to John Morton, with “not found”
written boldly across the address.
Billy inspected it eagerly. “That’s not his writing, but it’s his work.
Nobody else could have sent it here. So he did scheme to keep us
apart! That was why he took us to the wrong station to see you off.”
“And why he kept you out so late the night before,” put in
Madeline. “We might have tried to telephone you about the name
then. But I don’t see why he returned Betty’s letter. He might just as
well have thrown it away.”
“Things you throw away leave tracks behind,” said Billy wisely.
“But more likely he did it for the joke—timing it to get here to-night
and all. Following all his moves is like going to a cobweb party. It will
take us weeks, and then we shall miss some of the best points.”
As he was saying good-night Billy gave a sudden exclamation.
“I’ve got to go back to London to-morrow to meet the crew, and I’d
forgotten all about it. Well, I guess I’ve seen as much of some sides
of Parisian life as most fellows could in three days, even if I didn’t get
further than the front entrance of the Louvre.”
That night Babbie Hildreth slept lightly and dreamed strange
dreams. About midnight she knocked the B’s knock on Babe’s door.
“No, I’m not sick, and I haven’t been robbed,” she said, in answer
to Babe’s plaintive inquiries. “But there’s a ghost on my side of the
house, and all the rooms around me are empty, so you couldn’t
expect me to stay there all by myself.”
“Ghosts are your specialty,” murmured Babe, sleepily.
“Well, we’re not supposed to pursue our specialties alone,”
objected Babbie. “I thought you’d be interested. Honestly it’s the
funniest thing,” she went on earnestly. “Some one knocked on the
gate, because he was locked out, I suppose, softly at first and then
louder and louder. But now the gate has been opened, and still the
person stands and knocks and knocks. It’s a man, I think.”
“Perhaps he’s drunk and doesn’t know enough to come in,”
suggested Babe.
“No, he knocks as if he had a definite, sensible reason,” said
Babbie decisively. “Hark! He’s actually pounding now. I hope
Mademoiselle will turn him out in the morning, that is if he’s a
boarder and not a ghost trying to wake up the person that it has
come back to haunt.”
“Whatever he is, he’s stopped to rest,” said Babe. “If he doesn’t
begin again you’d be willing to go back to bed, wouldn’t you? Or I’ll
go back and you can stay here.”
“Listen.” Babbie clutched Babe’s arm. “There’s a noise on the
stairs.”
There was, and presently it came nearer down the hallway to the
door. It was a queer noise like a stealthy step with a dull thump
accenting it sharply now and then. Presently it stopped, somewhere
out in Babbie’s hallway, there was the click of a key in a lock, and
then the steps began again, coming slowly back through the hall and
down the stairs.
“Does sound ghostly,” admitted Babe, “and it doesn’t sound a bit
drunk. And it can’t be a boarder because it’s going out again.”
“Well, as long as it’s gone, I guess I dare to go back,” said Babbie
presently. “You watch me down the hall, Babe.”
“Stay here, if you’d rather,” Babe offered again, but Babbie
insisted that she wasn’t afraid and went off, her candle flickering in
the draughty passageway. The next thing Babe knew the sunshine
was sifting through the branches of the magnolia tree and her watch
said half-past eight o’clock. So, forgetting that it had been half an
hour fast the night before, she dressed in a tremendous hurry and
was astonished when she peeped out from behind her curtains as
usual to see who was down, to find only a solitary gentleman
breakfasting in the farthest corner of the garden.
“Why it looks like—it is John Morton,” she said to herself. “Now
what in the world is he doing here, I should like to know?” And she
sat down on the edge of her bed in a fashion that seemed to say, “If
any one thinks I’m going down to breakfast now, he’s much
mistaken.” But the very next minute she jumped up again, surveyed
herself anxiously in the glass, and, without stopping to get Madeline
and Betty, as the first one to be ready always did, marched down-
stairs and out into the court. Her start of surprise when she came
into sight of John would have secured her a part in the senior play at
Harding, but John was so surprised himself that any bungler could
have taken him in.
“You here?” he gasped.
“Yes,” said Babe, coolly. “Didn’t you know it?”
“Of course not. Some friend of Dwight’s gave us the address. It’s
very near to the big library where he’s got to bone.”
“I see,” said Babe. Then there was a long and dreadful pause. At
last Babe broke it. “I presume he won’t care to move. Don’t let’s act
like sillies. Let’s be perfectly nice and friendly, so no one will know
how you—how we feel. For instance, if I go off now into another
corner of the garden every one will want to laugh at us.”
“Do sit down here by all means,” said John politely, springing to
draw up a chair for her.
There was another pause.
“I suppose we’ve got to talk,” said John doggedly at last. “How
are the—what do you call them?—oh, yes, the dominant interests?
How are they coming on?”
“We had a ghost last night,” said Babe primly. “It was trying to
haunt some one in the house apparently. It banged and banged——”
“Why that was me,” said John with an ungrammatical
suddenness that broke the ice. “You see Dwight and I got here about
eight and after we’d settled our traps we went for a walk. Dwight got
sleepy and came back, but I tramped pretty nearly all over Paris, I
should say. And when I got here at last, I happened to think that I
didn’t know the way to my room well enough to risk finding it alone.
So I called up the porter. He thought I only wanted the gate opened,
and it seems he has it fixed so he can do that without getting out of
bed. But I pounded and pounded until he decided I was crazy, and
came to put me out. And I finally made him understand the fix I was
in.”
“You made the queerest noise coming up-stairs,” said Babe. “It
sounded too ghostly for anything.”
“The porter has a wooden leg,” explained John, “so he can’t go
quietly. He made all the noise that was made inside the house. I’m
very sorry I woke you all up and frightened you.”
“Oh, we aren’t so nervous as all that,” Babe assured him gaily,
and was frightened to see how friendly her words sounded. “Babbie,”
she called hastily, as Babbie appeared in the doorway, “come and
see the noisy Parisian ghost and tell him about the ghostly
disappearance of his dear friend Mr. Trevelyan.”
Under cover of the story, Babe disappeared.
“You silly, silly thing,” she whispered, in the seclusion of her nun’s
cell, “you’re glad to see him when you’re not sure he’s glad to see
you. Don’t try to deny it, because it’s true. But don’t you dare to let
him know it. When he says he’s sorry he was so horrid you can
decide what to say, but not before. I hope you’ve got pride enough to
be a man-hater as long as he is a woman-hater.”
Having relieved her mind to this extent, Babe went to find Betty
and told her about John.
“I rely on you to stick by me,” she said. “The others will all try to
leave us alone together, and that’s just what I don’t want. It’s queer
how easy it is to tell you things, Betty. I suppose that’s one reason
why Mr. Morton calls you Miss B. A.”
CHAPTER XVI
THE PROGRESS OF ROMANCE
When Babe and Betty joined the others, they found them still
talking about Mr. Trevelyan.
“Do you think now that he’s an authority on sheep-raising in
Australia?” inquired Babe blandly of John.
John flushed a little. “No, I don’t believe I care to use his letters of
introduction.” He produced a bulky packet. “His friends would
probably give me the same sort of send-off that he gave Billy. I
suppose Billy told you that I’d consulted him about chances out
there,” John added, looking inquiringly around the circle.
“But you weren’t serious about going, were you?” demanded
Madeline incredulously.
“I certainly was,” returned John in his stiffest manner, and Babe’s
little proud face hardened. He wasn’t sorry that he had been
disagreeable; he was just giving up Australia because Mr. Trevelyan
had proved unreliable.
After breakfast Mr. Dwight suggested that they should all go and
inspect the Pantheon, which was so near by that the girls, thinking
they could go there “any time,” hadn’t yet been to see it. As they
started off across the court Mr. Dwight happened to engage Betty’s
attention, and Madeline and Babbie marched off arm in arm, leaving
Babe and John together.
But—“Here, Babbie,” Babe called after her, “you’re forgetting to
take care of your property. Ghosts are your dominant interest, and
John is a ghost. Therefore you ought to look after him, Q. E. D.”
“Don’t you want to change interests with me?” asked Babbie
demurely. “You’ve been going to get a new one all summer in place
of your inaccessible chimney-pots.”
“Thank you,” said Babe coolly, “but I don’t want a second-hand
interest. If I change, it will be for something that nobody else has
tried. Come on, Madeline.”
John accepted Babe’s prompt solution of their difficulties, and in
the rôle of “Babbie’s tame Parisian ghost”—it was Madeline’s name,
of course—coöperated with Babe and Betty to avoid embarrassing
tête-à-têtes. Madeline and Babbie on the other hand, objected
strenuously to Betty’s enrolling herself in Babe’s faction.
“I suppose she’s told you all about it,” Babbie said dolefully, “and
made you promise to help her. She won’t tell me a thing, but I can
see for myself that in spite of her trying to appear so gay and lively,
she’s worried and nervous and growing thin. Just because you
discovered that match-making won’t work you needn’t try the other
thing.”
“I’m only keeping her good natured,” explained Betty laughingly.
“She told me a little, but she left out all the important points, just as
people in love always do. She doesn’t know what she wants, and
John doesn’t. Something will turn up before long, I hope, to help
them decide.”
“Of course it will,” agreed Madeline easily, “and meanwhile all
Paris is before us. Where shall we go to-day?”
“Let’s leave it to the man from Cook’s,” suggested Betty.
“Victor Hugo’s house, then,” announced Madeline promptly. “John
particularly wants to go there.”
But John had promised to meet a college friend that afternoon,
and Mr. Dwight was busy, so the four girls and Mrs. Hildreth went off
alone. When they got back John was in the garden with a formidable
collection of railway guides and Baedekers piled on a green table
before him.
“Have to be in Antwerp to-morrow at ten,” he explained
impressively, and handed Mrs. Hildreth a telegram.
“If you can really speak Dutch and French decently,” it read,
“meet me Antwerp, hotel St. Antoine, ten Thursday morning. J. J.
Morton.”
“I can’t imagine what he wants of me,” John went on, trying to be
perfectly matter of fact, “and I’m dead sure that my Dutch and
French won’t suit him, but there’s nothing like trying, so I shall go.
See here, which one of you told the governor that I could speak
Dutch and French?”
“I did,” Betty confessed, timidly. “I hope you don’t mind.”
“Oh, not at all,” said John, who was evidently trying not to appear
obnoxiously elated. “The thing I don’t understand is why he believed
you. You must have an awful lot of influence with him to make him
think that I can do anything. Will you lend me your precious French
dictionary for the trip?”
Betty promised and went off to find the book, while the other girls
said good-bye, and wished John a successful journey. The telegram,
it seemed, had come before he went out for the afternoon, and he
had looked up trains and packed, and was starting in a few minutes
more for the station.
When Babe got up-stairs, Betty was waiting to waylay her. “I don’t
see how I was so stupid,” she said, “but my collar stuck into me and
it hurt so while I burrowed around in my trunk tray for my dictionary,
that I took it off. Would you mind carrying this to John? I’m afraid he’s
in a hurry.”
Babe eyed her suspiciously. “I never knew you to be so absent-
minded,” she said.
“If you don’t want to go back, I can ask Madeline.” Betty started
toward the door, but Babe reached out a hand for the little dictionary.
“I can go as well as not,” she said, and hurried off.
“Say good-bye to him for me,” Betty called after her, and after a
discreet interval went off to find Madeline and Babbie and tell them
what she had done.
Meanwhile Babe had delivered the dictionary, with explanations,
and said good-bye again.
“You’ll be back soon, of course?” she asked, and in spite of all
her efforts there was a little quiver of eagerness in her voice.
“I can’t be sure.” John looked at her hard and held out his hand. “I
say, Babe, let’s shake and be friends—real friends, not friends for
show, as we have been lately. I was a goose about the Australian
business. Even if Trevelyan had been all right, it was a wildcat
scheme. I don’t know what my father wants of me, but I’m hoping it’s
help with a business deal of some kind. That will give me an
opportunity to show him that I’m not quite so no-account as he
thinks, and maybe he’ll give me a good chance next year, if he won’t
this. If I should make good with him, will you reconsider?”
Babe put her small brown hand into John’s big one. “I’d—well, I’d
consider reconsidering, I think,” she said slowly. “Remember, I don’t
promise anything but that, and—come back as soon as you can.
Good-bye.” Babe dashed across the garden and up-stairs like a
whirlwind.
John was gone three days. The girls spent most of the time in
hunting a present for Bob. “Some queer old thing that looks as if it
came from Europe” sounded easy enough to find, and it was—too
easy; so that each girl had her own pet idea and couldn’t bear to give
it up. Finally, Madeline suggested drawing lots.
“Each fix a piece of cake for Virginie. Put the four in a row, and
the one whose piece Virginie gobbles up first can have the say about
the present.”
All but Babe were satisfied to save a bit of the cake they had for
luncheon. Babe, who evidently understood Virginie’s tastes, went out
to a bakery near by and brought back a beautiful little frosted cake
with a cherry on top. And Virginie made straight for the cherry.
Mademoiselle happened to come through the garden just then,
and Babe, who was beginning to be as proud of her French as Betty
had been, rushed up to her triumphantly and announced, “Nous
avons mangé Virginie.”
Mademoiselle looked horrified and amazed until Babe pointed out
the family pet and the row of cake crumbs. “Avec gateaux,” she
added pleasantly.
Mademoiselle mildly suggested that they had “given Virginie to
eat of cake,” and Madeline asked Babe how Virginie tasted.
“I don’t care,” said Babe sturdily, when she had seen her mistake.
“I eat; I feed. It’s exactly the same thing. I eat Virginie; I feed Virginie.
Well, that isn’t, is it? Anyhow I know how to feed a turtle if I don’t
know how to talk about it. Now come and buy Bob’s candlesticks.”
But while Madeline and Babbie were bargaining with the shop-
keeper for the pair of candlesticks that Babe had chosen, Betty,
poking about in a dark corner, discovered a queer thing that
Madeline told her was a Flemish lamp; and everybody liked it so
much better than the candlesticks that Babe renounced the privilege
of choosing and joined the unanimous movement in favor of the
Flemish lamp. Then everybody wanted one for herself, and the
afternoon sped away in the pursuit, for no antique store boasted
many of the lamps. There was a great difference in the gracefulness
of the tall standards and the quaintness of the small hanging lamps,
and each girl insisted upon being exactly suited before she made her
choice.
“A perfect nuisance to pack,” laughed Betty on the way home,
“and absolutely useless. I can just hear Will say it.”
“Not half so bad to pack as the flossy hats you girls have been
buying; they are warranted not to break, and will make excellent
substitutes for hammers,” Madeline defended their purchases. “Let’s
take them into the garden and see how they look all together.”
Arranged on two little tables, the five lamps looked so imposing
that Mrs. Hildreth had to be called down to inspect them and admire
the “points” of each, as its fond owner dilated upon them.
In the midst of the “show,” as Babbie called it, John appeared.
His greetings were so subdued and formal that no one dared inquire
about his trip until Betty broke the ice by asking if any one had
mistaken him for a Dutchman again.
“Not quite,” said John modestly. “I guess you are the only ones
who ever did that; but my Dutch was all right and so was my French.

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Reviewers of the Sixth Edition

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Biology: The Science of Life 1 2.2 Water’s Importance to Life 29

1.3 Science: A Way of Knowing 11

Inside the Cell 57

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Energy-Related Organelles 71 6.4 Variations in Photosynthesis 108

The Dynamic Cell 81 7.2 Outside the Mitochondria: Glycolysis 116

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Meiosis and the Genetic Basis of

Biotechnology and Genomics 210

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12.4 Genomics and Proteomics 219

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17.3 Prokaryotes 298 Molluscs 349

18.3 Fungi 330

Animals 341 20.3 Organization of Leaves, Stems,

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22.3 Homeostasis 432

22.2 Organs and Organ Systems 429

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The Digestive Tract 472

26.2 Nonspecific Defenses and 28.2 The Motor Systems 552

26.3 Specific Defenses and Adaptive

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Female Reproductive System 568 31.2 Ecology of Ecosystems 615

UNIT VII Ecology 32.2 Biodiversity 634

32.3 Resources and Environmental Impact 639

30.3 Characteristics of Populations 594

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Artificial Life OUTLINE

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1.1 The Characteristics of Life

Upon completion of this section, you should be able to

Life Requires Materials and Energy

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Figure 1.2 Levels of biological organization.

Organ System nervous shoot

Organ the brain leaves

nerve cell plant cell

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Living Organisms Maintain an

involved in maintaining homeostasis, or an internal environment that acts

mad87328_ch01_001-020.indd 4 19/08/19 1:56 PM

tails moves them toward or away from light or chemicals. Multi-

Living Organisms Reproduce and Develop

Living Organisms Have Adaptations

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Check Your Progress 1.1

1.2 Evolution: The Core Concept