(eBook PDF) Educational Psychology

12th Edition
Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-educational-psychology-12th-edition/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

(eBook PDF) Educational Psychology 13th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-educational-
psychology-13th-edition/

Educational Psychology, 14th Edition (eBook PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/educational-psychology-14th-
edition-ebook-pdf/

(eBook PDF) Educational Psychology, 2nd Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-educational-
psychology-2nd-edition/

(eBook PDF) Educational Psychology, 3rd Australian

Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-educational-
psychology-3rd-australian-edition/
(eBook PDF) Educational Psychology Developing Learners
9th

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-educational-psychology-
developing-learners-9th/

(eBook PDF) Educational Psychology: Developing Learners

10th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-educational-psychology-
developing-learners-10th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Educational Psychology Active Learning

Edition 13th

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-educational-psychology-
active-learning-edition-13th/

(eBook PDF) Educational Psychology 4e by Anita Woolfolk

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-educational-
psychology-4e-by-anita-woolfolk/

(eBook PDF) Educational Psychology: Active Learning

Edition 13th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-educational-psychology-
active-learning-edition-13th-edition/

“Point/Counterpoint” sections in each chapter pres-
ent two perspectives on a controversial question relat-
ed to the field; topics include debates on the kinds of
research that should guide education (p. 19), brain-based
education (p. 40), the self-esteem movement (p. 98),
pills or skills for students with ADHD (p. 141), the best
way to teach English language learners (p. 190), track-
ing (p. 215), using rewards to encourage student learn-
ing (p. 274), what’s wrong with memorization (p. 310),
teaching critical thinking and problem solving (p. 345),
problem-based education (p. 370), teacher efficacy
(p. 409), the value of trying to make learning entertaining
(p. 450), zero tolerance (p. 493), homework (p. 525), and
holding children back (p. 569).
“Guidelines” appear throughout each chapter, pro-
viding concrete applications of theories or principles
discussed.
“Guidelines/Family and Community Partnerships”
sections offer specific guidelines for involving fami-
lies—especially relevant now, when demand for parental
involvement is at an all-time high—in the various aspects
of children’s learning.
454 C H A P T E R T W E LV E
POINT/COUNTERPOINT Does Making Learning Fun Make for Good Learning?
WHEN MANY BEGINNING teachers are asked about how to motivate students, they often mention making
learning fun. But is it necessary for learning to be fun?
Teachers should make learning fun. When I searched
“making learning fun” on Google.com, I found 10 pages of
POINT
resources and references. Clearly, there is interest in making
learning fun. Research shows that passages in texts that are
more interesting are remembered better (Schunk, Pintrich,
& Meece, 2008). For example, students who read books
that interested them spent more time reading, read more
words in the books, and felt more positively about reading
(Guthrie & Alao, 1997). Games and simulations can make
learning more fun, too.
For example, when my daughter was in the 8th grade, all the
students in her grade spent three days playing a game her teach-
ers had designed called ULTRA. Students were divided into groups
and formed their own “countries.” Each country had to choose a
name, symbol, national flower, and bird. They wrote and sang a
national anthem and elected government officials. The teachers
allocated different resources to the countries. To get all the materi-
als needed for the completion of assigned projects, the countries
had to establish trade with one another. There was a monetary
system and a stock market. Students had to work with their fel-
low citizens to complete cooperative learning assignments. Some
countries “cheated” in their trades with other nations, and this al-
lowed debate about international relations, trust, and war. Liz says
she had fun—but she also learned how to work in a group without
the teacher’s supervision and gained a deeper understanding of
world economics and international conflicts.
A highly motivating 3rd grade teacher in another study had
her class set up a post office for the whole school. Each classroom
in the school had an address and zip code. Students had jobs in
the post office, and everyone in the school used the post office
to deliver letters to students and teachers. Students designed
their own stamps and set postal rates. The teacher said that the
system “improves their creative writing without them knowing it”
(Dolezal, Welsh, Pressley, & Vincent, 2003, p. 254).
LA N G UA G E D EVELO PM EN T, LA N G UA G E D IVERS IT Y, A N D IM M IGR A N T E D U C AT I O N
GUIDELINES
Providing Emotional Support and Increasing Self-Esteem for English Language Learners
Create learning activities that promote success in reading and
writing.
Examples
1. Have weekly individual conferences with younger students
and record their retelling of a story. Let students edit and
revise the dictation and read it to a partner.
2. Do interactive journals with older students—collect each
week and write back.
Make sure students have plenty of time to practice and get
careful, targeted corrections.
Examples
1. Point out privately what is correct, almost correct, and wrong
in written work.
2. Be sensitive about public oral corrections and build on what
is correct, but do not accept clearly incorrect answers.
Connect teaching to relevant knowledge from students’ lives.
Examples
1. Ask students to survey family members about favorite films—
use film characters to discuss elements of literature—plot,
point of view, etc.
2. Have students create construction firms and plan projects to
learn math concepts.
Actively involve learners.
Examples
1. Use timelines in history compared to personal timelines
based on family history.
2. Do projects in science based on animals or farming for rural
students.
L A N G U A G E D E V E L O P M E N T, L A N G U A G E D I V E R S I T Y, A N D I M M I G R ANT EDUC ATI O N
GUIDELINES FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
Welcoming All Families
Make sure communication with families is understandable.
Examples
1. Use the families’ home languages wherever possible.
2. Use oral forms of communication—phone calls or home
visits—whenever possible.
Balance positive and negative messages.
Examples
1. Send home notes or descriptions about their child’s
accomplishments or acts of kindness.
2. Explain disciplinary actions as ways of helping children
succeed.
PREFA CE vii
.
Fun can get in the way of learning. As far back as
the early 1900s, educators warned about the dangers of
COUNTERPOINT
focusing on fun in learning. None other than John Dewey,
who wrote extensively about the role of interest in learning,
cautioned that you can’t make boring lessons interesting by
mixing in fun like you can make bad chili good by adding
some spicy hot sauce. Dewey wrote, “When things have to
be made interesting, it is because interest itself is wanting.
Moreover, the phrase itself is a misnomer. The thing, the
object, is no more interesting than it was before” (Dewey,
1913, pp. 11–12).
There is a good deal of research now indicating that
adding interest by incorporating fascinating but irrelevant
details actually gets in the way of learning the important
information. These “seductive details,” as they have been
called, divert the readers’ attention from the less interest-
ing main ideas (Harp & Mayer, 1998). For example, students
who read biographies of historical figures remembered more very
interesting—but unimportant—information compared to interest-
ing main ideas (Wade, Schraw, Buxton, & Hayes, 1993).
Shannon Harp and Richard Mayer (1998) found similar
results with high school science texts. These texts added emo-
tional interest and seductive details about swimmers and golf-
ers who are injured by lightning to a lesson on the process of
lightning. They concluded that, “in the case of emotional interest
versus cognitive interest, the verdict is clear. Adjuncts aimed at
increasing emotional interest failed to improve understanding of
scientific explanations” (p. 100). The seductive details may have
disrupted students’ attempts to follow the logic of the explana-
tions and thus interfered with their comprehending the text. Harp
and Mayer conclude that “the best way to help students enjoy a
passage is to help them understand it” (p. 100).
195
Use different grouping strategies.
Examples
1. Try pairs for writing stories and practicing oral presentations.
2. Create small teams to research recent immigrant groups’
culture and language.
Provide native language support.
Examples
1. Learn and use as much of the students’ language as
possible—if they can learn, so can you.
2. Find Internet translation sources and local native speaking
volunteers.
3. Bring native language magazines and books into the classroom.
Involve family and community members.
Examples
1. Bring in storytellers, local business owners, artists,
craftspeople.
2. Create a Welcome Center for your class.
Hold high expectations for all students, and communicate
these expectations clearly.
Examples
1. Keep scrapbooks of previous students who have gone on to
careers or college.
2. Don’t accept mediocre work.
3. Be a model of respect for diversity and an enemy of bigotry.
Source: Adapted from Echevarria, J., & Graves, A. (2011). Sheltered
content instruction: Teaching English learners with diverse abilities
(4th ed.). Columbus, OH: Pearson, pp. 67–77.
197
Establish systems for welcoming new families.
Examples
1. Assign more experienced “buddy” parents to communicate
with new families.
2. Connect with multilingual media in your community to make
announcements about school.
Make sure messages get through.
Examples
1. Establish telephone trees or texting networks.
2. Set the expectation that there will be a weekly note sent
home so parents can ask their children about it.
3. Establish a class newsletter or Web site and incorporate
multiple languages.
viii P REFAC E

“Teachers’ Casebook” sections present students with

m
TEACHERS’ CASEBOOK: Reaching and Teaching Every
Student
realistic classroom scenarios at the beginning of each
WHAT WOULD YOU DO?
You have started a new job in a high school in your hometown. When you were in
school, the students were fairly homogeneous—White, working to middle class, chapter and ask “What Would You Do?”—giving students
and English speaking. There was a “special education” class for students who had
serious learning or developmental problems. But in the classes you are teaching,
the opportunity to apply all the important topics of the
you find a wide range of reading levels, family incomes, and learning problems. chapter to these scenarios via application questions.
Two of your students are virtually ready for college, whereas several others can
barely read the texts—and their writing is impossible to decipher. Reading English Students may then compare their responses to those of
texts is a challenge for some of your ELL students, although they seem to speak
English with little trouble.
veteran teachers appearing at the end of each chapter.
CRITICAL THINKING
• How would you differentiate instruction for these very dissimilar students?
• Do different philosophies of teaching provide different answers to this question?
• How will you grade work if you have successfully differentiated instruction?

Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems

“Reaching Every Student” sections present ideas for
Students with severe behavior problems provide some of the most difficult challenges for
teachers. Two studies show how applied behavioral principles can be useful in helping
assessing, teaching, and motivating ALL of the students in
these students.
Lea Theodore and her colleagues (2001) worked with the teacher of five adolescent
males who were diagnosed as having severe emotional disorders. A short list of clear
today’s inclusive classrooms.
rules was established (e.g., use no obscene words, comply with the teacher’s requests
within five seconds, make no verbal putdowns). The rules were written on index cards
taped to each student’s desk. The teacher had a checklist on his desk with each student’s
name to note any rule breaking. This checklist was easily observable, so students could
monitor their own and each other’s performance. At the end of the 45-minute period,
a student chose a “criterion” from a jar. The possible criteria were: performance of the
whole group, student with the highest score, student with the lowest score, the average
of all students, or a random single student. If the student or students selected to be the
criterion had five checks or fewer for rule-breaking, then the whole class got a reward,
also chosen randomly from a jar. The possible rewards were things like a power drink,
a bag of chips, a candy bar, or a late-to-class pass. An ABAB design was used—baseline,
two-week intervention, two-week withdrawal of intervention, and two-week return to
group consequences. All students showed clear improvement in following the rules when
the reward system was in place. Students liked the approach and the teacher found it
easy to implement.

Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage Motivation “Lessons for Teachers” are succinct and usable prin-
Until four basic conditions are met for every student and in every classroom, no motiva-
tional strategies will succeed. First, the classroom must be relatively organized and free
from constant interruptions and disruptions. (Chapter 13 will give you the information
ciples for teaching based on the research.
you need to make sure this requirement is met.) Second, the teacher must be a patient,
supportive person who never embarrasses the students because they made mistakes.
Everyone in the class should view mistakes as opportunities for learning (Clifford, 1990,
1991). Third, the work must be challenging, but reasonable. If work is too easy or too
difficult, students will have little motivation to learn. They will focus on finishing, not on
learning. Finally, the learning tasks must be authentic. And as we have seen, what makes
a task authentic is influenced by the students’ culture (Bergin, 1999; Brophy & Kher, 1986;
Stipek, 1993).
Once these four basic conditions are met, the influences on students’ motivation
to learn in a particular situation can be summarized in four questions: Can I succeed at
this task? Do I want to succeed? What do I need to do to succeed? Do I belong? (Com-
mittee on Increasing High School Students’ Engagement and Motivation to Learn, 2004;
Eccles & Wigfield, 1985). We want students to have confidence in their ability so they
will approach learning with energy and enthusiasm. We want them to see the value of
the tasks involved and work to learn, not just try to get the grade or get finished. We
want students to believe that success will come when they apply good learning strate-
gies instead of believing that their only option is to use self-defeating, failure-avoiding,
face-saving strategies. When things get difficult, we want students to stay focused on
the task, and not get so worried about failure that they “freeze.” And we want students
to feel as though they belong in school—that their teachers and classmates care about
them and can be trusted.

“Connect and Extend to Licensure” exercises appear

. CONNECT AND EXTEND TO LICENSURE
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Miss Johnson would like for her students to be motivated to do
their work without bribing them with treats or promises of extra
recess time. Which one of the following is the type of motivation
should she encourage in her students?
A. Extrinsic
B. Intrinsic
C. Locus of control
D. Relatedness
Hint: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Feedback: Intrinsic motivation is the natural human tendency
to seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue personal
interests and exercise our capabilities. When we are intrinsically
motivated, we do not need incentives or punishments, because
the activity itself is satisfying and rewarding (Anderman &
Anderman, 2010; Deci & Ryan, 2002; Reiss, 2004).
2. Why should educators concern themselves with Abraham
4. Which of the following is true regarding extrinsic motivation?
at the end of every chapter, consisting of case studies
A. Extrinsic motivation should be avoided at all costs because
it undermines a student’s intrinsic desire.
B. Extrinsic motivation is not associated with grades and
with constructed-response questions, and multiple-choice
incentives.
C. Extrinsic motivation may be necessary to initially encour-
questions, all mimicking the types of questions found on
age students to engage in certain activities.
D. Extrinsic motivation is more desirable than intrinsic motiva-
tion in the classroom as educators have increased control.
licensure exams such as the Praxis tests published by the
.
Hint: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Feedback: To initially interest students in a topic, educators may
Educational Testing Service (ETS).
use extrinsic measures such as quizzes. The ultimate goal, how-
ever, is for students to eventually realize the intrinsic satisfaction
they acquire from engaging in certain activities or studying
particular topics.
CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS
 PREFA CE ix

Supplements
This Twelfth Edition of Educational Psychology provides a comprehensive and integrated
collection of supplements to assist students and professors alike in maximizing learning
and instruction. Together, these materials immerse students in the content of the text,
allowing them and their instructors to benefit from a deeper and more meaningful
learning experience. All of the instructor supplements are available at the Instructor
Resource Center. To access the Instructor’s Resource Manual, the PowerPoint lecture
presentation, and the Assessment Package, go to the Instructor Resource Center at
www.pearsonhighered.com and click on the “Educators” link. Here you will be able to
login or complete a one-time registration for a user name and password.

Innovative Online Course—MyEducationLab

THE POWER OF CLASSROOM PRACTICE In Preparing

Teachers for a Changing World, Linda Darling-Hammond and her colleagues point out
that grounding teacher education in real classrooms—among real teachers and students
and among actual examples of students’ and teachers’ work—is an important, and per-
haps even an essential, part of training teachers for the complexities of teaching in
today’s classrooms. MyEducationLab is an online learning solution that provides con-
textualized interactive exercises, simulations, and other resources designed to help you
develop the knowledge and skills that teachers need. All of the activities and exercises
in MyEducationLab are built around essential learning outcomes for teachers and are
mapped to professional teaching standards. Utilizing classroom video, authentic student
and teacher artifacts, case studies, and other resources and assessments, the scaffolded
learning experiences in MyEducationLab offer you a unique and valuable education tool.
On the MyEducationLab for this course you will find the following features and
resources.

STUDY PLAN AND BOOK RESOURCES SPECIFIC TO YOUR TEXT A MyEducationLab

Study Plan provides students with the opportunity to take a self-assessment after read-
ing each chapter of the text. Self-assessment questions are tied to learning outcomes, so
the students are assessed on their knowledge and comprehension of all the concepts
presented in each chapter. The quiz results automatically identify areas of the chapter
that still need some additional study time. Students are then presented with Review,
Practice, and Enrichment exercises to help ensure learning and to deepen understanding
of chapter concepts—when just re-reading and studying chapter content is not enough.
Flashcards for each chapter help students master definitions of key terms within each
chapter. The study plan is designed to help each student perform well on exams and to
promote deep understanding of chapter content.
In addition to the study plan, MyEducationLab resources specific to this book
include:
• AnitaTalks Podcasts: Direct links to relevant selections from Anita Talks about
Teaching, a selection of podcasts in which Dr. Woolfolk discusses how chapters of
this text relate to the profession of teaching.
• Connect and Extend to Licensure exercises allow students to complete the licensure-
style questions and activities shown at the end of each chapter of this text while
receiving hints that help scaffold their correct responses, as well as feedback with
which they can compare their responses.

CONNECTION TO NATIONAL STANDARDS Now it is easier than ever to see how

coursework is connected to national standards. Each topic, activity and exercise on
MyEducationLab lists intended learning outcomes connected to the appropriate national
standards.
x P REFAC E

ASSIGNMENTS AND ACTIVITIES Designed to enhance your understanding of concepts

covered in class, these assignable exercises show concepts in action (through videos,
cases, and/or student and teacher artifacts). They help you deepen content knowledge
and synthesize and apply concepts and strategies you read about in the book. (Correct
answers for these assignments are available to the instructor only.)

BUILDING TEACHING SKILLS AND DISPOSITIONS These unique learning units help
users practice and strengthen skills that are essential to effective teaching. After pre-
senting the steps involved in a core teaching process, you are given an opportunity to
practice applying this skill via videos, student and teacher artifacts, and/or case studies
of authentic classrooms. Providing multiple opportunities to practice a single teaching
concept, each activity encourages a deeper understanding and application of concepts,
as well as the use of critical thinking skills. Feedback for the final quizzes is available to
the instructor only.

IRIS CENTER RESOURCES The IRIS Center at Vanderbilt University (http://iris.

peabody.vanderbilt.edu), funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Special
Education Programs (OSEP), develops training enhancement materials for preservice
and practicing teachers. The Center works with experts from across the country to cre-
ate challenge-based interactive modules, case study units, and podcasts that provide
research-validated information about working with students in inclusive settings. In your
MyEducationLab course we have integrated this content where appropriate.

SIMULATIONS IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT One of the most difficult challenges

facing teachers today is how to balance classroom instruction with classroom manage-
ment. These interactive cases focus on the classroom management issues teachers most
frequently encounter on a daily basis. Each simulation presents a challenge scenario at
the beginning and then offers a series of choices to solve each challenge. Along the way
students receive mentor feedback on their choices and have the opportunity to make
better choices if necessary. Upon exiting each simulation, you will have a clear under-
standing of how to address these common classroom management issues and will be
better equipped to handle them in the classroom.

TEACHER TALK This feature emphasizes the power of teaching through videos of mas-
ter teachers, who each tell their own compelling stories of why they teach. These videos
help you see the bigger picture and consider why the concepts and principles you are
learning are important to your career as a teacher. Each of these featured teachers has
been awarded the Council of Chief State School Officers Teachers of the Year award, the
oldest and most prestigious award for teachers.

LESSON PLAN BUILDER The Lesson Plan Builder is an effective and easy-to-use tool
that you can use to create, update, and share quality lesson plans. The software also
makes it easy to integrate state content standards into any lesson plan.

CERTIFICATION AND LICENSURE The Certification and Licensure section is designed

to help you pass your licensure exam by giving you access to state test requirements,
overviews of what tests cover, and sample test items.
The Certification and Licensure section includes the following:
• State Certification Test Requirements: Here, you can click on a state and will then
be taken to a list of state certification tests.
• You can click on the Licensure Exams you need to take to find:
• Basic information about each test
• Descriptions of what is covered on each test
• Sample test questions with explanations of correct answers
 PREFA CE xi

• National Evaluation Series™ by Pearson: Here, students can see the tests in
the NES, learn what is covered on each exam, and access sample test items with
descriptions and rationales of correct answers. You can also purchase interactive
online tutorials developed by Pearson Evaluation Systems and the Pearson Teacher
Education and Development group.
• ETS Online Praxis Tutorials: Here you can purchase interactive online tutorials
developed by ETS and by the Pearson Teacher Education and Development group.
Tutorials are available for the Praxis I exams and for select Praxis II exams.
Visit www.myeducationlab.com for a demonstration of this exciting new online teaching
resource.

ONLINE INSTRUCTOR’S RESOURCE MANUAL The Online Instructor’s Resource

Manual synthesizes all of the resources available for each chapter and sifts through the
materials to match the delivery method (e.g., semester, quarter) and areas of emphasis
for the course. These materials can be used for traditional courses as well as online or
online-supported courses. The Instructor’s Resource Manual is available for download at
www.pearsonhighered.com.

ONLINE TEST BANK Students learn better when they are held accountable for what
they have learned. That is why we have developed a bank of hundreds of challeng-
ing questions in multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blanks, true/false, short-answer, and case
study formats, along with detailed answer keys. The Test Bank is available online at
www.pearsonhighered.com.

PEARSON MYTEST This is a powerful assessment generation program that helps

instructors easily create and print quizzes and exams. Questions and tests are authored
online, allowing ultimate flexibility and the ability to efficiently create and print assess-
ments any time, anywhere! Instructors can access Pearson MyTest and their test bank
files by going to www.pearsonmytest.com to log in, register, or request access. Features
of Pearson MyTest include:
Premium assessment content
• Draw from a rich library of assessments that complement your Pearson textbook
and your course’s learning objectives.
• Edit questions or tests to fit your specific teaching needs.

Instructor-friendly resources
• Easily create and store your own questions, including images, diagrams, and charts
using simple drag-and-drop and Word-like controls.
• Use additional information provided by Pearson, such as the question’s difficulty
level or learning objective, to help you quickly build your test.

Time-saving enhancements
• Add headers or footers and easily scramble questions and answer choices—all from
one simple toolbar.
• Quickly create multiple versions of your test or answer key, and when ready, simply
save to MS-Word or PDF format and print!
• Export your exams for import to Blackboard 6.0, CE (WebCT), or Vista (WebCT)!

ONLINE POWERPOINT SLIDES These visual aids display, summarize, and help explain
core information presented in each chapter. They are available for download at www.
pearsonhighered.com. All PowerPoint slides have been updated for consistency and to
reflect current content in this new edition.
xii PREFAC E

Acknowledgments
During the years I have worked on this book, from initial draft to this most recent
revision, many people have supported the project. Without their help, this text simply
could not have been written.
Many educators contributed to this and previous editions. Carol Weinstein wrote
the section in Chapter 13 on spaces for learning. Nancy Perry (University of British
Columbia) and Philip Winne (Simon Frasier University) wrote sections of Chapter 11 on
self-regulation. Brad Henry (The Ohio State University) crafted sections on technology
in two chapters and also read every chapter with the digital world in mind to suggest
updates. Michael Yough (Purdue University) looked over several chapters including the
new one on Language Development, Language Learning, and Immigrant Education. That
chapter was also improved by suggestions from Alan Hirvela, the Ohio State University.
Gregg Schraw, the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, provided invaluable guidance for
the chapters on cognitive learning. Gypsy M. Denzine (Northern Arizona University) is
responsible for the Test Bank. The portraits of students in Chapters 1 and 6 were pro-
vided by Nancy Knapp (University of Georgia). The Instructor’s Resource Manual and
PowerPoint™ Presentations were created by Michael Yough (Purdue University) and
Kate Kovach (The Ohio State University), future stars in our field.
As I made decisions about how to revise this edition, I benefited from the ideas
of colleagues around the country who took the time to complete surveys, answer my
questions, and review chapters.
For their revision reviews, thanks to: Frank D. Adams, Wayne State College; Karen
J. Dreyer, University of Pittsburgh; Aleza Greene, University of Arkansas; Martin H. Jones,
University of Memphis; Penny McGlawn, Harding University; Deborah Norland, Luther
College; Susan Parault, St. Cloud State University; Joseph Polvere, Montclair State Uni-
versity; Anuradhaa Shastri, SUNY College of Oneonta; A. Sean Taylor, Des Moines Area
Community College; Fredrick B. Van Sant, Ferris State University; Diane Ward, Roane
State Community College.
Many classroom teachers across the country and around the world contributed
their experience, creativity, and expertise to the Teachers’ Casebook. I have thoroughly
enjoyed my association with these master teachers, and I am grateful for the perspective
they brought to the book: Madya Ayala, Campus Garza Sada, Monterrey, N. L. Mexico;
Kelly McElroy Bonin, Klein Oaks High School, Spring, TX; Karen A. Boyarsky, Walter C.
Black Elementary, Hightstown, NJ; Keith J. Boyle, Dunellen, NJ; Jane Campbell, Dunellen
School District, Dunellen, NJ; Valerie Chilcoat, Glenmount School, Baltimore, MD; Katie
Churchill, Oriole Parke Elementary School, Chicago, IL; Paula Colemere, McClintock High
School, Tempe, AZ; Kelley Crockett, Meadowbrook Elementary School, Fort Worth, TX;
Lou DeLauro, Dunellen School District, Dunellen, NJ; Paul Dragin, Columbus East High
School, Columbus, OH; Aimee Fredette, Fisher Elementary School, Walpole, MA; Pam
Gaskill, Riverside Elementary School, Dublin OH; Linda Glisson, St. James Episcopal
Day School, Baton Rouge, LA; Jolita Harper, Weinland Park Elementary, Columbus, OH;
Danielle Hartman, Claymont Elementary, Parkway School District, Ballwin, MO; Carla
S. Higgins, Legend Elementary School, Newark, OH; Kelly L. Hoy, The Phillips Brooks
School, Menlo Park, CA; Marie Hoffman Hurt, Pickerington Local Schools, Pickerington,
OH; M. Denise Lutz, Grandview Heights High School, Columbus, OH; Jessica N.
Mahtaban, Woodrow Wilson Middle School, Clifton, NJ; Jennifer Matz, Williams Valley
Elementary School, Tower City, PA; Thomas Naismith, Slocum Independent School
District, Slocum, TX; Allan Osborne, Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA;
Katie Piel, West Park School, Moscow, ID; Jennifer Pincoski, Lee County School District,
Fort Myers, FL; Barbara Presley, C.W. Baker High School, Baldwinsville, NY; Lauren
Rollins, Boulevard Elementary School, Shaker Heights, OH; Dr. Nancy Sheehan-Melzack,
Snug Harbor Community School, Quincy, MA; Patricia Smith, Northside Independent
School District, San Antonio, TX; Linda Sparks, John F. Kennedy Elementary School,
Billerica, MA; Sara Vincent, Langley High School, McLean, VA; Jacalyn Walker, Treasure
Mountain Middle School, Park City, UT; Michael Yasis, L.H. Tanglen Elementary School,
Minnetonka, MN.
 PREFA CE xiii

In a project of this size so many people make essential contributions. Becky Savage,
Permissions Coordinator, worked diligently, often through weekends, to obtain permis-
sions for the material reproduced in this text and the supplements. The text designer,
Diane Lorenzo, and photo editor, Carol Sykes, made the look of this book the best yet—
hard to do after 11 editions. Again, Kathy Smith, Project Manager, held all aspects of
the project in her wonderfully ordered and intelligent mind. I will never forget that she
found power for her computer using a neighbor’s generator in the aftermaths of both the
Katrina and Gustav hurricanes so that we could keep the chapters flowing. All the regular
shipping services had stopped delivering but Kathy always delivers! She performed the
impossible again this edition—wouldn’t want to write without her! Mary Irvin, Produc-
tion Editor, coordinated all aspects of the project, with amazing skill and grace. Somehow
they brought sanity to what could have been chaos and fun to what might have been
drudgery. Now the book is in the able hands of marketing manager Joanna Sabella and
her staff. I can’t wait to see what they are planning for me now! What a talented and
creative group—I am honored to work with them all.
On this edition, I was again privileged to work with an outstanding editorial group.
Their intelligence, creativity, sound judgment, style, and enduring commitment to quality
can be seen on every page of this text. Kevin Davis, Publisher, guided the project from
reviews to completion with the eye of an artist, the mind of a scholar, and the logistical
capacity of high-powered computer. He proved to be an excellent collaborator with a
wise grasp of the field and a sense of the future. Lauren Carlson, Editorial Assistant, kept
everything running smoothly and kept my email humming. On this edition I was fortu-
nate again to have the help of Alicia Reilly, an outstanding developmental editor with the
perfect combination of vast knowledge, organizational ability, good humor, and creative
thinking. Once again, she coordinated every aspect of the revision, always staying just
ahead of whatever had to happen next, communicating with people around the world—
remarkable! The text features, Teachers’ Casebook, and excellent pedagogical supports
would not exist without her tireless efforts.
Finally, I want to thank my family and friends for their kindness and support during
the long days and nights that I worked on this book. To my family, Marion, Bob, Eric,
Suzie, Lizzie, Wayne K., Marie, Kelly, Tom, Lisa, Lauren, Mike, and the newest member,
Amaya—you are amazing.
And finally, to Wayne Hoy, my friend, colleague, inspiration, passion, husband—
you are simply the best.
—ANITA WOOLFOLK HOY
 BRIEF CONTENTS
1 Learning, Teaching, and Educational Psychology 

PART I STUDENTS
2 Cognitive Development 
3 The Self, Social, and Moral Development 
4 Learner Differences and Learning Needs 
5 Language Development, Language Diversity,
and Immigrant Education 
6 Culture and Diversity 

PART II LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

7 Behavioral Views of Learning 
8 Cognitive Views of Learning 
9 Complex Cognitive Processes 
10 The Learning Sciences and Constructivism 
11 Social Cognitive Views of Learning and
Motivation 
12 Motivation in Learning and Teaching 

PART III TEACHING AND ASSESSING

13 Creating Learning Environments 
14 Teaching Every Student 
15 Classroom Assessment, Grading, and Standardized
Testing 
 CONTENTS
Preface v POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Kind of Research
Should Guide Education? 19
Supporting Student Learning 21
CHAPTER 1 Summary and Key Terms 23
Connect and Extend to Licensure 24
Learning, Teaching, Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Child Behind:
and Educational What Would They Do? 25

Psychology 2
PART I STUDENTS
Teachers’ Casebook—Leaving No Student Behind: What
Would You Do? 2 CHAPTER 2
Overview and Objectives 3
Learning and Teaching Today 4 Cognitive
Students Today: Dramatic Diversity and Remarkable Development 28
Technology 4
Confidence in Every Context 5
High Expectations for Teachers and Students 6 Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals:
Do Teachers Make a Difference? 7 What Would You Do? 28
Teacher–Student Relationships 7 • The Cost of Poor Overview and Objectives 29
Teaching 7 A Definition of Development 30
What Is Good Teaching? 8 Three Questions Across the Theories 30
Inside Four Classrooms 8 What Is the Source of Development? Nature versus
A Bilingual 1st Grade 8 • A Suburban 5th Grade 8 Nurture 30 • What Is the Shape of Development? Continuity
• An Inclusive Class 8 • An Advanced Math Class 9 versus Discontinuity 31 • Timing: Is It Too Late? Critical
• So What Is Good Teaching? 9 versus Sensitive Periods 31 • Beware of Either/Or 31
Differentiated Instruction 10 General Principles of Development 32
Why Do We Need Differentiated Instruction? 10 • Elements The Brain and Cognitive Development 32
of Differentiation 10 The Developing Brain: Neurons 33
Beginning Teachers 11 The Developing Brain: Cerebral Cortex 35
The Role of Educational Psychology 12 Adolescent Development and the Brain 36
In the Beginning: Linking Educational Psychology Putting it All Together: How the Brain Works 37
and Teaching 12 Neuroscience, Learning, and Teaching 37
Educational Psychology Today 12 Instruction and Brain Development 37
Is It Just Common Sense? 13 The Brain and Learning to Read 38
Taking Turns 13 • Helping Students 13 • Skipping Emotions, Learning, and the Brain 39
Grades 13 • Obvious Answers? 13 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Brain-Based Education 40
Using Research to Understand and Improve Lessons for Teachers: General Principles 40
Learning 14 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 42
Descriptive Studies 14 • Correlation Studies 14 Influences on Development 43
• Experimental Studies 15 • Single-Subject Experimental Basic Tendencies in Thinking 43
Designs 16 • Microgenetic Studies 16 Organization 43 • Adaptation 43 • Equilibration 44
• The Role of Time in Research 16 • Teachers as Four Stages of Cognitive Development 44
Researchers 16 Infancy: The Sensorimotor Stage 44 • Early Childhood
What Is Scientifically Based Research? 18 to the Early Elementary Years: The Preoperational
Theories for Teaching 18 Stage 45 • Later Elementary to the Middle School Years:
The Concrete-Operational Stage 47
xvi C ON T EN T S
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Helping Families Care for Preoperational Children 47
GUIDELINES: Teaching the Concrete-Operational Child 49
High School and College: Formal Operations 50 • Do We All
Reach the Fourth Stage? 51
GUIDELINES: Helping Students to Use Formal
Operations 51
Information Processing, Neo-Piagetian, and Neuroscience
Views of Cognitive Development 52
Some Limitations of Piaget’s Theory 53
The Trouble with Stages 53 • Underestimating Children’s
Abilities 54 • Cognitive Development and Culture 54
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Perspective 55
The Social Sources of Individual Thinking 55
Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development 56
Technical Tools in a Digital Age 57 • Psychological Tools 57
The Role of Language and Private Speech 58
Private Speech: Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Views Compared 58
The Zone of Proximal Development 59
Private Speech and the Zone 59 • The Role of Learning and
Development 60
Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory 60
Implications of Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories for
Teachers 60
Piaget: What Can We Learn? 60
Understanding and Building on Students’ Thinking 61 • Activity
and Constructing Knowledge 61
Vygotsky: What Can We Learn? 62
The Role of Adults and Peers 62 • Assisted Learning 62
Reaching Every Student: Teaching in the “Magic
Middle” 63
GUIDELINES: Applying Vygotsky’s Ideas in Teaching 63
Cognitive Development: Lessons for Teachers 64
Summary and Key Terms 64
Connect and Extend to Licensure 66
Teachers’ Casebook—Symbols and Cymbals: What Would
They Do? 67
CHAPTER 3
The Self, Social,
and Moral
Development 68
Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would You Do? 68
Overview and Objectives 69
Physical Development 70
Physical and Motor Development 70
Young Children 70 • Elementary School Years 70 • The
Adolescent Years 71 • Early and Later Maturing 71
GUIDELINES: Dealing with Physical Differences in
the Classroom 72
Play, Recess, and Physical Activity 72
Physical Exercise and Recess 73
Challenges in Physical Development 73
Obesity 73 • Eating Disorders 74
GUIDELINES: Supporting Positive Body Images 75
Bronfenbrenner: The Social Context for Development 75
The Importance of Context and the Bioecological
Model 75
Families 77
Family Structure 77 • Parenting Styles 78 • Culture and
Parenting 78
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Connecting with Families 79
Attachment 80 • Divorce 80
Peers 80
GUIDELINES: Helping Children of Divorce 81
Crowds 81
Peer Cultures 82 • Cliques and Friendships 82
• Popularity 82 • Who Is Likely to Have Problems with
Peers? 83
Reaching Every Student: Teacher Support 83
Academic and Personal Caring 84
Teachers and Child Abuse 85
Society and Media 85
Identity and Self-Concept 87
Erikson: Stages of Psychosocial Development 87
The Preschool Years: Trust, Autonomy, and Initiative 88
• The Elementary and Middle School Years: Industry versus
Inferiority 89
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Initiative and Industry 90
Adolescence: The Search for Identity 90
GUIDELINES: Supporting Identity Formation 92
Identity and Technology 92 • Beyond the School Years 93
Racial-Ethnic Identity 93
Ethnic Identities: Outcome and Process 93 • Racial Identity:
Outcome and Process 94 • Racial and Ethnic Pride 94
Self-Concept 95
The Structure of Self-Concept 95 • How Self-Concept
Develops 95 • Self-Concept and Achievement 96
Self-Esteem 97
Sex Differences in Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 97
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Should Schools
Do to Encourage Students’ Self-Esteem? 98
Understanding Others and Moral Development 99
Theory of Mind and Intention 99
Moral Development 99
Kohlberg’s Theories of Moral Development 100 • Criticisms
of Kohlberg’s Theory 101 • Gender Differences: The
Morality of Caring 101
Moral Judgments, Social Conventions, and Personal
Choices 102

Moral versus Conventional Domains 103 • Implications for
Teachers 103
Diversity in Moral Reasoning 103
Moral Behavior: Aggression and Cheating 104
Aggression 104 • Relational Aggression 105 • Media,
Modeling, and Aggression 106 • Video Games and
Aggressive Behavior 106 • Cheating 106
GUIDELINES: Dealing with Aggression and Encouraging
Cooperation 107
Personal/Social Development: Lessons for Teachers 108
Summary and Key Terms 109
Connect and Extend to Licensure 111
Teachers’ Casebook—Mean Girls: What Would
They Do? 112
CHAPTER 4
Learner Differences
and Learning
Needs 114
Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student: What Would
You Do? 114
Overview and Objectives 115
Intelligence 116
Language and Labels 116
Disabilities and Handicaps 116 • Person-First
Language 117 • Possible Biases in the Application of
Labels 117
What Does Intelligence Mean? 119
Intelligence: One Ability or Many? 119
Multiple Intelligences 120
What Are These Intelligences? 120 • Critics of MI
Theory 120 • Gardner Responds 121 • Multiple
Intelligences Go to School 122
Multiple Intelligences: Lessons for Teachers 122
Intelligence as a Process 123
Measuring Intelligence 124
Binet’s Dilemma 124
GUIDELINES: Interpreting IQ Scores 125
What Does an IQ Score Mean? 125 • Group versus
Individual Tests 125 • The Flynn Effect: Are We Getting
Smarter? 126 • Intelligence and Achievement 126
Gender Differences in Intelligence 126
Heredity or Environment? 127 • Being Smart About IQ
Tests 128
Learning and Thinking Styles 128
Learning Styles/Preferences 128
Cautions about Learning Styles 129 • The Value of
Considering Learning Styles 129
Beyond Either/Or 130
C ON TEN TS xvii
Individual Differences and the Law 130
IDEA 131
Least Restrictive Environment 132 • Individualized
Education Program 132
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS:
Productive Conferences 133
The Rights of Students and Families 133
Section 504 Protections 135
Students with Learning Challenges 136
Neuroscience and Learning Challenges 136
Students with Learning Disabilities 136
Student Characteristics 137 • Teaching Students with
Learning Disabilities 139
Students with Hyperactivity and Attention
Disorders 139
Definitions 140 • Treating ADHD with Drugs 140
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Pills of Skills for
Children with ADHD? 141
Alternatives/Additions to Drug Treatments 141
Lessons for Teachers: Learning Disabilities and ADHD 142
Students with Communication Disorders 142
Speech Disorders 143 • Language Disorders 143
Students with Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties 144
GUIDELINES: Disciplining Students with Emotional
Problems 146
Suicide 146 • Drug Abuse 147 • Prevention 149
Students with Intellectual Disabilities 149
GUIDELINES: Teaching Students with Intellectual
Disabilities 150
Students with Health Impairments 150
Cerebral Palsy and Multiple Disabilities 150 • Seizure
Disorders (Epilepsy) 151 • Other Serious Health
Concerns: Asthma, HIV/AIDS, and Diabetes 152 • Students
with Vision Impairments 152 • Students Who Are
Deaf 153
Autism Spectrum Disorders and Asperger Syndrome 153
Theory of Mind 154 • Interventions 154
Response to Intervention (RTI) 155
Students Who Are Gifted and Talented 155
Who Are These Students? 156
What Is the Origin of These Gifts? 156 • What Problems
Do the Gifted Face? 157
Identifying Gifted Students 158
Recognizing Gifts and Talents 158
Teaching Gifted Students 158
Acceleration 158 • Methods and Strategies 159
Summary and Key Terms 161
Connect and Extend to Licensure 163
Teachers’ Casebook—Including Every Student:
What Would They Do? 164
xviii C O N T EN T S

CHAPTER 5 GUIDELINES: Providing Emotional Support and

Language Development,
Language Diversity,
and Immigrant
Education 166
Teachers’ Casebook—Cultures Class in the Classroom: What
Would You Do? 166
Overview and Objectives 167
The Development of Language 168
What Develops? Language and Cultural Differences 168
The Puzzle of Language 168
When and How Does Language Develop? 169
Sounds and Pronunciation 169 • Vocabulary and
Meaning 169 • Grammar and Syntax 170 • Pragmatics:
Using Language in Social Situations 170 • Metalinguistic
Awareness 171
Emergent Literacy 171
Inside-Out and Outside-In Skills 172 • Building a
Foundation 172
Emergent Literacy and Bilingual Children 173
GUIDELINES: Supporting Language and Promoting
Literacy 174
Diversity in Language Development 175
Dual Language Development 175
Second Language Learning 175 • Benefits of
Bilingualism 176 • Language Loss 176
Signed Languages 178
What Is Involved in Being Bilingual? 178
Contextualized and Academic Language 180
GUIDELINES: Promoting Language Learning 181
Dialect Differences in the Classroom 182
Dialects 182
Dialects and Pronunciation 182 • Dialects and Teaching 183
Genderlects 184
Teaching Immigrant Students and English Language
Learners 184
Immigrants and Refugees 185
Classrooms Today 186
Four Student Profiles 186
Generation 1.5: Students in Two Worlds 188
Bilingual Education and English Learners 189
Two Approaches to English Language
Learning 189 • Research on Bilingual
Education 189 • Bilingualism for All: Two-Way
Immersion 189
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What Is the Best Way to Teach
English Language Learners? 190
Sheltered Instruction 191
Affective and Emotional/Social Considerations 194
Increasing Self-Esteem for English Language
Learners 195
Working with Families: Using the Tools of the
Culture 196
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Welcoming All Families 197
Special Challenges: English Language Learners with
Disabilities and Special Gifts 197
English Language Learners with Disabilities 197
Reaching Every Student: Recognizing Giftedness in Bilingual
Students 198
Summary and Key Terms 199
Connect and Extend to Licensure 201
Teachers’ Casebook—Culture Class in the Classroom:
What Would They Do? 202
CHAPTER 6
Culture and
Diversity 204
Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What Would
You Do? 204
Overview and Objectives 205
Today’s Diverse Classrooms 206
American Cultural Diversity 206
Meet Four More Students 207
Cautions: Interpreting Cultural Differences 210
Cultural Conflicts and Compatibilities 210 • Dangers in
Stereotyping 210
Economic and Social Class Differences 211
Social Class and SES 211
Poverty and School Achievement 211
Health, Environment, and Stress 213 • Low Expectations—
Low Academic Self-Concept 213 • Peer Influences
and Resistance Cultures 213 • Home Environment and
Resources 214 • Summer Setbacks 214
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Tracking an Effective
Strategy? 215
Tracking: Poor Teaching 215
GUIDELINES: Teaching Students Who Live in
Poverty 216
Ethnicity and Race in Teaching and Learning 216
Terms: Ethnicity and Race 216
Ethnic and Racial Differences in School
Achievement 217
The Legacy of Discrimination 219
What Is Prejudice? 220 • The Development of
Prejudice 220 • Continuing Discrimination 221
 CON TEN TS xix

Stereotype Threat 222 Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical

Short-Term Effects: Test Performance 222 • Long-Term
Effects: Disidentification 223 • Combating Stereotype
Threat 224
Gender in Teaching and Learning 224
Sex and Gender 224
Sexual Orientation 225
Gender Roles 225
Gender Bias in Curriculum Materials 227
Gender Bias in Teaching 228
GUIDELINES: Avoiding Gender Bias in
Teaching 229
Multicultural Education: Creating Culturally
Compatible Classrooms 230
Culturally Relevant Pedagogy 231
Fostering Resilience 233
Resilient Students 233 • Resilient Classrooms 233
• Self-Agency Strand 234 • Relationship Strand 234
Diversity in Learning 234
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS
GUIDELINES: Building Learning
Communities 235
Social Organization 235 • Cultural Values and Learning
Preferences 236 • Cautions (Again) About Learning Styles
Research 236 • Sociolinguistics 237 • Sources of
Misunderstandings 237
Lessons for Teachers: Teaching Every Student 237
Know Your Students 238 • Respect Your
Students 238 • Teach Your Students 238
GUIDELINES: Culturally Relevant Teaching 239
Summary and Key Terms 240
Connect and Extend to Licensure 241
Teachers’ Casebook—White Girls Club: What
Would They Do? 242
PART II LEARNING AND
Conditioning 248
GUIDELINES: Applying Classical Conditioning 249
Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses 250
Types of Consequences 250
Reinforcement 250 • Punishment 252
Reinforcement Schedules 252
Extinction 254
Antecedents and Behavior Change 254
Effective Instruction Delivery (EID) 255 • Cueing 255
• Prompting 255
Applied Behavior Analysis 256
Methods for Encouraging Behaviors 256
Reinforcing with Teacher Attention 256
GUIDELINES: Using Praise Appropriately 257
Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle 257
• Shaping 258 • Positive Practice 259
Handling Undesirable Behavior 259
Negative Reinforcement 259
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Positive Behaviors 260
Reprimands 261 • Response Cost 261 • Social
Isolation 261 • Some Cautions About Punishment 262
Putting It All Together: Behavioral Approaches
to Teaching and Management 262
Group Consequences 262
GUIDELINES: Using Punishment 263
Contingency Contracts and Token
Reinforcement 264
Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior
Problems 266
Functional Behavioral Assessment and Positive
Behavior Supports 267
Discovering the “Why”: Functional Behavioral
Assessments 267 • Positive Behavior Supports 268
Self-Management 269
Goal Setting 269 • Monitoring and Evaluating
Progress 270 • Self-Reinforcement 270

MOTIVATION FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:

Student Self-Management 271
Challenges, Cautions, and Criticisms 271
CHAPTER 7 Beyond Behaviorism: Bandura’s Challenge 271
Enactive and Observational Learning 272 • Learning and
Behavioral Views Performance 272
of Learning 244 Criticisms of Behavioral Methods 272
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Students
Be Rewarded for Learning? 273
Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would Ethical Issues 274
You Do? 244 Goals 274 • Strategies 274
Overview and Objectives 245 Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers 275
Understanding Learning 246 Summary and Key Terms 275
Neuroscience of Behavioral Learning 246 Connect and Extend to Licensure 277
Learning Is Not Always What It Seems 247 Teachers’ Casebook—Sick of Class: What Would They Do? 278
xx C ON T EN T S
CHAPTER 8
Cognitive
Views of
Learning 280
Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics:
What Would You Do? 280
Overview and Objectives 281
Elements of the Cognitive Perspective 282
Comparing Cognitive and Behavioral Views 282
Views of Learning 282 • Goals 282
The Brain and Cognitive Learning 283
The Importance of Knowledge in Cognition 283
General and Specific Knowledge 284
Cognitive Views of Memory 284
Sensory Memory 286
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Sensory
Memory 286 • Perception 286 • The
Role of Attention 287 • Attention and
Multitasking 288 • Attention and Teaching 288
Working Memory 288
GUIDELINES: Gaining and Maintaining Attention 289
The Central Executive 291 • The Phonological Loop 291
• The Visuospatial Sketchpad 291 • The Episodic
Buffer 292 • The Duration and Contents of Working
Memory 292
Cognitive Load and Retaining Information 292
Three Kinds of Cognitive Load 292 • Retaining Information
in Working Memory 293 • Forgetting 294
Individual Differences in Working Memory 294
Developmental Differences 294 • Individual Differences 295
Long-Term Memory 296
Capacity, Duration, and Contents of Long-Term
Memory 296
Contents of Long-Term Memory: Declarative, Procedural, and
Self-Regulatory Knowledge 296
Explicit Memories: Semantic and Episodic 298
Propositions and Propositional Networks 298 • Images 298
• Two Are Better Than One: Words and Images 299
• Concepts 299 • Prototypes, Exemplars, and Theory-
Based Categories 299 • Schemas 300 • Episodic
Memory 301
Implicit Memories 302
Storing and Retrieving Information in Long-Term
Memory 303
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Organizing Learning 304
Imagery 304 • Levels of Processing Theory 306 • Retrieving
Information from Long-Term Memory 306 • Spreading
Activation 306 • Reconstruction 306 • Forgetting and
Long-Term Memory 307
Individual Differences and Long-Term
Memory 307
Becoming Knowledgeable: Some Basic
Principles 307
Reaching Every Student: Development of
Declarative Knowledge 307
Making It Meaningful 308 • Mnemonics 308 • Rote
Memorization 309
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: What’s Wrong with
Memorizing? 310
Development of Procedural Knowledge 310
Automated Basic Skills 311 • Domain-Specific Skills 311
GUIDELINES: Helping Students Understand and
Remember 312
Summary and Key Terms 312
Connect and Extend to Licensure 314
Teachers’ Casebook—Remembering the Basics:
What Would They Do? 314
CHAPTER 9
Complex Cognitive
Processes 316
Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would
You Do? 316
Overview and Objectives 317
Metacognition 318
Metacognitive Knowledge and Regulation 318
Individual Differences in Metacognition 319
Lessons for Teachers: Developing Metacognition 319
Metacognitive Development for Younger Students 319
• Metacognitive Development for Secondary and College
Students (Like You) 320
Learning Strategies 321
Being Strategic About Learning 321
Deciding What Is Important 322 • Summaries 323
• Underlining and Highlighting 323 • Taking
Notes 323
Visual Tools for Organizing 325
Reading Strategies 326
Applying Learning Strategies 326
Appropriate Tasks 326 • Valuing Learning 326
GUIDELINES: Becoming an Expert Student 327
Effort and Efficacy 327
Reaching Every Student: Learning Strategies for
Struggling Students 328
Problem Solving 328
Identifying: Problem Finding 329
Defining Goals and Representing the Problem 330

Focusing Attention on What Is Relevant 330 • Understanding
the Words 330 • Understanding the Whole
Problem 331 • Translation and Schema Training: Direct
Instruction in Schemas 332 • Translation and Schema
Training: Worked Examples 333 • The Results of Problem
Representation 334
Exploring Possible Solution Strategies 334
Algorithms 335 • Heuristics 335
Anticipating, Acting, and Looking Back 335
Factors That Hinder Problem Solving 336
Some Problems with Heuristics 336
Expert Knowledge and Problem Solving 337
Knowing What Is Important 337 • Memory for Patterns and
Organization 337
GUIDELINES: Problem Solving 338
Procedural Knowledge 338 • Planning and Monitoring 339
Creativity and Creative Problem Solving 339
Defining Creativity 339
Assessing Creativity 339
What Are the Sources of Creativity? 340
Creativity and Cognition 340 • Creativity and Diversity 341
Creativity in the Classroom 342
The Big C: Revolutionary Innovation 342
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Creativity 343
Critical Thinking and Argumentation 343
Developing Critical Thinking 343
Critical Thinking in Specific Subjects 344
Argumentation 344
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Should Schools Teach Critical
Thinking and Problem Solving? 345
Teaching for Transfer 346
The Many Views of Transfer 347
Teaching for Positive Transfer 348
What Is Worth Learning? 348 • How Can Teachers Help? 348
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Promoting Transfer 349
Stages of Transfer for Strategies 349
Summary and Key Terms 350
Connect and Extend to Licensure 351
Teachers’ Casebook—Uncritical Thinking: What Would
They Do? 352
CHAPTER 10
The Learning
Sciences and
Constructivism 354
Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate:
What Would You Do? 354
Overview and Objectives 355
CON TEN TS xxi
The Learning Sciences 356
What Are the Learning Sciences? 356
Basic Assumptions of the Learning Sciences 356
Embodied Cognition 357
Cognitive and Social Constructivism 358
Constructivist Views of Learning 359
Psychological/Individual/Cognitive Constructivism 359
• Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism 361
• Constructionism 361
How Is Knowledge Constructed? 362
Knowledge: Situated or General? 363
Common Elements of Constructivist Student-Centered
Teaching 363
Complex Learning Environments and Authentic Tasks 364
• Social Negotiation 364 • Multiple Perspectives and
Representations of Content 364 • Understanding
the Knowledge Construction Process 365 • Student
Ownership of Learning 365
Applying Constructivist Perspectives 365
Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 366
Examples of Inquiry 366 • Problem-Based Learning 367
• Research on Inquiry and Problem-Based Learning 369
Cognitive Apprenticeships and Reciprocal
Teaching 369
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are Inquiry and Problem-Based
Learning Effective Teaching Approaches? 370
Cognitive Apprenticeships in Reading: Reciprocal
Teaching 370 • Applying Reciprocal Teaching 371
Collaboration and Cooperation 372
Collaboration, Group Work, and Cooperative Learning 372
• Beyond Groups to Cooperation 373 • What Can Go
Wrong: Misuses of Group Learning 374
Tasks for Cooperative Learning 374
Highly Structured, Review, and Skill-Building Tasks 374
• Ill-Structured, Conceptual, and Problem-Solving
Tasks 375 • Social Skills and Communication Tasks 375
Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning 375
Setting Up Cooperative Groups 376 • Giving and Receiving
Explanations 376 • Assigning Roles 376
Designs for Cooperation 379
Reciprocal Questioning 379 • Jigsaw 380 • Structured
Controversies 380
Reaching Every Student: Using Cooperative Learning
Wisely 381
GUIDELINES: Using Cooperative Learning 382
Dilemmas of Constructivist Practice 382
Service Learning 383
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIP GUIDELINES:
Service Learning 384
Learning in a Digital World 385
Learning Environments and Technology 385
Virtual Learning Environments 386
xxii C O N T EN T S
Developmentally Appropriate Computer Activities
foe Young Children 387
Computers and Older Students 388
Media/Digital Literacy 388
GUIDELINES: Using Computers 389
GUIDELINES: Supporting the Development
of Media Literacy 390
Summary and Key Terms 391
Connect and Extend to Licensure 392
Teachers’ Casebook—Learning to Cooperate:
What Would They Do? 393
CHAPTER 11
Social Cognitive Views
of Learning and
Motivation 396
Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate:
What Would You Do? 396
Overview and Objectives 397
Social Cognitive Theory 398
A Self-Directed Life: Albert Bandura 398
Beyond Behaviorism 398
Triarchic Reciprocal Causality 399
Modeling: Learning from Others 400
Elements of Observational Learning 401
Attention 401 • Retention 401 • Production 402
• Motivation and Reinforcement 402
Observational Learning in Teaching 402
Directing Attention 403 • Fine-Tuning Already-Learned
Behavior 403 • Strengthening or Weakening
Inhibitions 403 • Teaching New Behaviors 403
GUIDELINES: Using Observational Learning 404
Arousing Emotion 404
Self-Efficacy and Agency 404
Self-Efficacy, Self-Concept, and Self-Esteem 405
Sources of Self-Efficacy 406
Self-Efficacy in Learning and Teaching 406
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Efficacy 407
Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy 408
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Are High Levels of Teacher
Efficacy Beneficial? 409
Self-Regulated Learning 409
What Influences Self-Regulation? 410
Knowledge 410 • Motivation 411 • Volition 411
• Development of Self-Regulation 411
Models of Self-Regulated Learning and Agency 412
An Individual Example of Self-Regulated Learning 413
Two Classrooms 414
Writing 414 • Math Problem Solving 415
Technology and Self-Regulation 415
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Supporting Self-Regulation at Home and in School 416
Reaching Every Student: Families and Self-Regulation 416
Another Approach to Self-Regulation: Cognitive
Behavior Modification 416
Emotional Self-Regulation 418
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Emotional Self-Regulation 419
Teaching Toward Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated
Learning 420
Complex Tasks 420
Control 421
Self-Evaluation 422
Collaboration 422
Bringing it All Together: Theories of Learning 422
Summary and Key Terms 424
Connect and Extend to Licensure 426
Teachers’ Casebook—Failure to Self-Regulate:
What Would They Do? 426
CHAPTER 12
Motivation in
Learning and
Teaching 428
Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students
When Resources Are Thin: What Would
You Do? 428
Overview and Objectives 429
What Is Motivation? 430
Meeting Some Students 430
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 431
Five General Approaches to Motivation 432
Behavioral Approaches to Motivation 433 • Humanistic
Approaches to Motivation 433 • Cognitive Approaches
to Motivation 433 • Social Cognitive Theories 433
• Sociocultural Conceptions of Motivation 433
Needs 434
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 434
Self-Determination: Need for Competence, Autonomy,
and Relatedness 435
Self-Determination in the Classroom 435 • Information and
Control 436 • The Need for Relatedness 436
GUIDELINES: Supporting Self-Determination
and Autonomy 437
Needs: Lessons for Teachers 437
Goal Orientations 438
Types of Goals and Goal Orientations 438
Four Achievement Goal Orientations in School 439 • Wait—
Are Performance Goals Always Bad? 439 • Beyond
Mastery and Performance 440 • Goals in Social
Context 441

Feedback, Goal Framing, and Goal Acceptance 441
Goals: Lessons for Teachers 441
Beliefs and Self-Perceptions 442
Beliefs About Knowing: Epistemological Beliefs 442
Beliefs About Ability 443
Beliefs About Causes and Control: Attribution Theory 444
Attributions in the Classroom 444 • Teacher Actions and
Student Attributions 445
Beliefs About Self-Worth 445
Learned Helplessness 445 • Self-Worth 446
GUIDELINES: Encouraging Self-Worth 447
Beliefs and Attributions: Lessons for Teachers 447
Interests, Curiosity, Emotions, and Anxiety 448
Tapping Interests 448
Catching and Holding Interests 449
Curiosity: Novelty and Complexity 449
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Does Making Learning
Fun Make for Good Learning? 450
GUIDELINES: Building on Students’ Interests and
Curiosity 451
Emotions and Anxiety 451
Neuroscience and Emotion 451 • Achievement
Emotions 452 • Arousal and Anxiety 453 • Anxiety in
the Classroom 453 • How Does Anxiety Interfere with
Achievement? 453
Reaching Every Student: Coping with Anxiety 454
Curiosity, Interests, and Emotions: Lessons for
Teachers 454
Motivation to Learn in School: On TARGET 454
GUIDELINES: Coping with Anxiety 455
Tasks for Learning 456
Task Value 456 • Beyond Task Value to Genuine
Appreciation 457 • Authentic Tasks 457
Supporting Autonomy and Recognizing
Accomplishment 458
Supporting Choices 458 • Recognizing Accomplishment 459
Grouping, Evaluation, and Time 459
Grouping and Goal Structures 459 • Evaluation 460
Time 460 • Putting It All Together 460
Diversity in Motivation 460
Lessons for Teachers: Strategies to Encourage
Motivation 463
Can I Do It? Building Confidence and Positive Expectations 463
• Do I Want to Do It? Seeing the Value of Learning 464
• What Do I Need to Do to Succeed? Staying Focused on
the Task 465 • Do I Belong in This Classroom? 465
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
Motivation to Learn 465
Summary and Key Terms 465
Connect and Extend to Licensure 468
Teachers’ Casebook—Motivating Students
When Resources Are Thin: What Would
They Do? 468
C ON TEN TS xxiii
PART III TEACHING AND
ASSESSING
CHAPTER 13
Creating Learning
Environments 470
Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What
Would You Do? 470
Overview and Objectives 471
The Need for Organization 472
The Basic Task: Gain Their Cooperation 472
The Goals of Classroom Management 473
Access to Learning 473 • More Time for Learning 474
• Management for Self-Management 474
Creating a Positive Learning Environment 476
Some Research Results 476
Routines and Rules Required 476
Routines and Procedures 476
GUIDELINES: Establishing Class Routines 477
Rules 478 • Rules for Elementary School 478 • Rules for
Secondary School 478 • Consequences 479 • Who Sets
the Rules and Consequences? 479
Planning Spaces for Learning 481
Personal Territories 481 • Interest Areas 481
GUIDELINES: Designing Learning Spaces 482
Getting Started: The First Weeks of Class 482
Effective Managers for Elementary Students 483 • Effective
Managers for Secondary Students 484
Maintaining a Good Environment for Learning 484
Encouraging Engagement 484
GUIDELINES: Keeping Students Engaged 485
Prevention Is the Best Medicine 485
Withitness 485 • Overlapping and Group Focus 486
• Movement Management 486 • Student Social Skills
as Prevention 486
Caring Relationships: Connections with School 487
School Connections 487 • Creating Communities of Care for
Adolescents 488
Dealing with Discipline Problems 488
Stopping Problems Quickly 488
GUIDELINES: Imposing Penalties 489
Bullying and Cyber-Bullying 490
Victims 490 • Bullying and Teasing 490 • Changing
Attributions 490 • Cyber-Bullying 491
Special Problems with High School Students 491
POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Zero Tolerance a Good
Idea? 493
xxiv C O N T EN T S

GUIDELINES: Handling Potentially Explosive GUIDELINES: Teaching Effectively 522

Situations 494 Seatwork and Homework 523
The Need for Communication 494 Seatwork 523 • Homework 524
Message Sent—Message Received 494 Questioning and Discussion 524
Diagnosis: Whose Problem Is It? 495 POINT/COUNTERPOINT: Is Homework a Valuable
Counseling: The Student’s Problem 496 Use of Time? 525
Confrontation and Assertive Discipline 496 FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES:
“I” Messages 497 • Assertive Discipline 497 Homework 526
• Confrontations and Negotiations 498 Kinds of Questions 526 • Fitting the Questions to the
Reaching Every Student: Peer Mediation and Negotiation 498 Students 527 • Responding to Student Answers 528
Research on Management Approaches 499 • Group Discussion 529
Integrating Ideas 499 GUIDELINES: Productive Group Discussions 530
FAMILY AND COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS GUIDELINES: Fitting Teaching to Your Goals 530
Classroom Management 500 Differentiated Instruction 531
Communicating with Families About Classroom Within-Class and Flexible Grouping 531
Management 500 The Problems with Ability Grouping 531 • Flexible
Diversity: Culturally Responsive Management 500 Grouping 531
Summary and Key Terms 501 GUIDELINES: Using Flexible Grouping 532
Connect and Extend to Licensure 503 Adaptive Teaching 532
Teachers’ Casebook—Bullies and Victims: What Reaching Every Student: Differentiated Instruction
Would They Do? 504 in Inclusive Classrooms 534
Technology and Differentiation 534
CHAPTER 14 GUIDELINES: Teachers as Mentors 537
Mentoring Students as a Way of Differentiating Teaching 537
Teaching Every Teacher Expectations 537
Student 506 Two Kinds of Expectation Effects 538
Sources of Expectations 538
Do Teachers’ Expectations Really Affect Students’
Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching Achievement? 539
Every Student: What Would You Do? 506 Instructional Strategies 539
Overview and Objectives 507 GUIDELINES: Avoiding the Negative Effects of
Research on Teaching 508 Teacher Expectations 540
Characteristics of Effective Teachers 508 Teacher–Student Interactions 541
Clarity and Organization 508 • Warmth and Enthusiasm 508 Lessons for Teachers: Communicating Appropriate
Knowledge for Teaching 509 Expectations 541
Recent Research on Teaching 509 Summary and Key Terms 541
The First Step: Planning 512 Connect and Extend to Licensure 543
Research on Planning 512 Teachers’ Casebook—Reaching and Teaching
Objectives for Learning 513 Every Student: What Would They Do? 544
An Example of Standards: Technology 513 • Classrooms:
Instructional Objectives 514 • Mager: Start with the CHAPTER 15
Specific 514 • Gronlund: Start with the General 514
Flexible and Creative Plans—Using Taxonomies 515 Classroom
The Cognitive Domain 515 • The Affective Domain 516 Assessment, Grading,
• The Psychomotor Domain 517 and Standardized
GUIDELINES: Using Instructional Objectives 518
Planning from a Constructivist Perspective 518
Testing 546
Teaching Approaches 519 Teachers’ Casebook—Giving Meaningful Grades:
Direct Instruction 519 What Would You Do? 546
Rosenshine’s Six Teaching Functions 520 • Advance Overview and Objectives 547
Organizers 520 • Why Does Direct Instruction Work? 521 Basics of Assessment 548
• Evaluating Direct Instruction 521 Measurement and Assessment 548
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
consider themselves citizens, and think worthy thoughts. So that in a
short time these forces became the best in the North.
By order of the regency, General Steinbock put himself at the
head of 8,000 veteran troops and 12,000 recruits, to pursue the
Danes, who were ravaging all the country round Elsingburg, and had
already put some places far inland under contribution.
There was neither time nor money to get uniforms for the
soldiers; most of the country labourers came dressed in their linen
smocks, with pistols tied to their girdles by cords. Steinbock, at the
head of this extraordinary army, came up with the Danes three
leagues from Elsingburg, on the 10th March, 1710. He intended to
rest his troops some days, to entrench, and to give his raw recruits
time to get accustomed to the enemy; but the peasants clamoured to
fight directly they arrived.
Some officers who were there told me that they saw them almost
all foaming with rage, so great is the Swede’s hatred of the Dane.
Steinbock took advantage of this disposition, which is almost as
effective in war as military discipline. The Danes were attacked, and
the strange sight was seen—of which there are, perhaps, no two
other instances—of raw forces equalling in bravery a veteran corps
at the first attack. Two regiments of these undisciplined peasants cut
the Danish army to pieces, and left only ten survivors.
The Danes, entirely routed, retreated under the cannon of
Elsingburg. The passage from Sweden to Zeeland is so short that
the King of Denmark heard of the defeat of his army in Sweden the
same day at Copenhagen, and sent his fleet to bring off the remnant
of his army. The Danes hastily left Sweden five days after the battle,
but, being unable to bring away their horses, and not wishing to
leave them to the enemy, they killed them all and fired their
provisions, burning their corn and baggage, and leaving 4,000
wounded in Elsingburg. The majority of these died from the infection
from the large number of dead horses, and from lack of food, which
even their own countrymen deprived them of, lest they should fall
into Swedish hands.
 At the same time the peasants of Delecarlia, having heard in the
depths of their forests that the King was prisoner in Turkey, sent a
deputation to the Regency at Stockholm, offering to go, at their own
expense, to rescue their master from the enemy’s hands with a force
of 20,000 men. This proposal, useless as it was, was heard with
pleasure, because it proved the courage and loyalty of the
proposers, though it was rejected; and they gave the King an
account of it, when they sent him word about Elsingburg. King
Charles received this cheering news in his camp near Bender, in July
1710, just after another event which confirmed him in his hopes.
The Grand Vizir Couprougli, who was opposed to his plans, was
turned out of office after he had been in the ministry two months.
Charles XII’s little Court, and his adherents in Poland, boasted that
he made and removed vizirs, and was governing Turkey from his
retreat at Bender. But he had no hand in the ruin of this favourite.
The rigid justice of the Vizir, it was said, was the only cause of his
fall; his predecessor had been accustomed to pay the janissaries,
not out of the Imperial treasury, but from the money he got by
extortion. Couprougli, on the other hand, paid them from the
treasury. For this Achmet accused him of putting the subjects’
interest before that of the Emperor. “Your predecessor, Chourlouli,”
he said, “managed to find other ways of paying my troops.” The
Grand Vizir replied, “If he had the art of enriching your Highness by
theft, it is an art of which I am proud to be ignorant.”
The great secrecy observed in the seraglio rarely lets such
stories leak out, but this got known at the time of Couprougli’s fall.
The Vizir’s courage did not cost him his head, because real
goodness often forces even those whom it offends to respect. He
had leave to retire to the island of Negropont.
After this the Sultan sent for Baltagi Mahomet Pasha of Syria,
who had been Grand Vizir before Chourlouli. The Baltagis of the
seraglio, so called from balta, meaning an axe, are slaves employed
to cut wood for the use of princes of the blood and the Sultana. This
Vizir had been baltagi in his youth, and had always retained the
name, according to the custom of the Turks, who are not ashamed to
bear the name of their first profession, their father, or their birthplace.
While Baltagi was a servant in the seraglio he was fortunate enough
to do Prince Achmet some trifling service, that Prince being then a
prisoner of State in the reign of his brother Mustapha. Achmet gave
one of his female slaves, of whom he had been very fond, to Baltagi
Mahomet, when he became Sultan. This woman made her husband
Grand Vizir by her intrigues; another intrigue deposed him, while a
third made him Grand Vizir again. Baltagi had no sooner received
the seal of the Turkish empire than he found the party of the King of
Sweden dominant in the seraglio. The Sultana Valida, the Sultan’s
favourite, the chief of the black eunuchs, and the aga of the
janissaries, were all in favour of war against the Czar. The Sultan
had decided on it, and the very first order he gave the Grand Vizir
was to go and attack the Russians with 200,000 men. Baltagi had
never been in the field, but was no idiot, as the Swedes, out of pure
malice, have represented him to be. When he received from the
Sultan a sabre set with precious stones, “Your Highness knows,” he
said, “that I have been brought up to use an axe and fell wood, and
not to wield a sword, or to command armies. I will do my best to
serve you; but if I fail, remember that I have begged you not to lay it
to my charge.” The Sultan assured him of his favour, and the Vizir
prepared to carry out his orders. The Ottoman Porte’s first step was
to imprison the Russian ambassador in the castle of seven towers.
It is the custom of the Turks to begin by seizing those ministers
against whom they declare war. Strict observers of hospitality in
every other respect, in this they violate the most sacred of
international laws. They act thus unfairly under the pretext of
fairness, persuading themselves and trying to persuade others that
they never undertake any but a just war, because it is consecrated
by the approbation of their Muphti. Thus they look upon themselves
as armed to chastise the violation of treaties (which they often break
themselves), and argue that the ambassadors of kings at variance
with them are to be punished as accomplices of their masters’
treachery. Besides this, they affect a ridiculous contempt towards
Christian princes and their ambassadors, whom they regard as only
consuls and merchants.
 The Kan of Crimean-Tartary had orders to be ready with 400,000
Tartars. This Prince rules over Nagai, Bulziac, part of Circassia and
all the Crimean district called by the ancients the Tauric Chersonese,
whither the Greeks carried their commerce and their arms, building
large cities there; and whither the Genoese afterwards penetrated,
when they were masters of the trade of Europe.
In this country there are the ruins of Grecian cities, and some
Genoese monuments still subsisting in the midst of desolation and
savagery. The Kan is called Emperor by his own subjects, but in
spite of this grand title he is a mere slave to the Porte. The fact that
they have Ottoman blood in their veins, and the right they have to
the Turkish Empire on the extinction of the race of the Sultan, make
their family respected and their persons formidable even to the
Sultan himself: that is why the Sultan dare not destroy the race of the
Kans of Tartary; but he hardly ever allows them to continue on the
throne to an advanced age. The neighbouring pashas spy on their
conduct, their territories are surrounded by janissaries, their wishes
thwarted by the Grand Vizir, and their designs always suspected. If
the Tartars complain of the Kan, this is an excuse for the Porte to
depose him; if he is popular among them it is regarded as a crime,
for which he will be even more readily punished. Thus all of them
leave the throne for exile, and finish their days at Rhodes, which is
generally both their place of exile and their grave.
The Tartars, their subjects, are the most dishonest folk in the
world; yet, at the same time (inconceivable as it seems), the most
hospitable. They go a fifty leagues’ journey to fall upon a caravan
and to destroy towns, but if any stranger happens to pass through
their country, he is not only received and lodged everywhere, and his
expenses paid, but everywhere the inhabitants strive for the honour
of having him as guest.
The master of the house, his wife and daughters vie with one
another in his service. Their ancestors, the Scythians, transmitted to
them this inviolable regard for hospitality; and they still retain it,
because the scarcity of strangers in their country, and the cheapness
of provisions, makes this duty in no way burdensome to them. When
the Tartars go to war with the Ottoman army they are maintained by
the Sultan, but receive no other pay but their booty; this makes them
more ardent at pillage than at regular warfare.
The Kan, bribed by the presents and intrigues of the King of
Sweden, got permission to have the general rendezvous of troops at
Bender, under the King’s eye, that he might realize that the war was
being made for him. The new vizir, Baltagi, not being bound in the
same way, would not flatter a foreign prince so far. He
countermanded the order, and the great army was collected at
Adrianople.
The Turkish troops are not so formidable now as they were when
they conquered so many kingdoms in Asia, Africa and Europe. Then
they triumphed over enemies less strong and worse disciplined than
themselves by physical strength, courage and the force of numbers.
But now that Christians understand the art of war better, they seldom
failed to beat the Turks in a drawn battle, even when their forces are
inferior in number. If the Ottoman empire has lately gained some
success, it is only in a contest with the Republic of Venice, reputed
more wise than warlike, defended by strangers, and ill supported by
Christian princes, who are always divided among themselves.
The janissaries and spahis attack in disorder, and are incapable
of action under command, or of a rally; their cavalry, which should be
excellent, considering the good breed and agility of their horses, is
unable to sustain the shock of German cavalry; their infantry were
not yet able to use the fixed bayonet; besides this, the Turks have
had no great general since Couprougli, who conquered Candia. A
slave brought up in the idleness and the silence of the seraglio,
made a vizir through favouritism, and a general against his own
inclinations, headed a raw army, without experience and without
discipline, against Russian troops, with twelve years’ experience in
war, and proud of having conquered the Swedes.
The Czar, according to all appearances, must have vanquished
Baltagi, but he made the same mistake with regard to the Turks as
the King of Sweden was guilty of in his own case; that is, he had too
poor an opinion of his enemy. Upon the news of the Turkish
preparations he left Moscow; and having given orders to change the
siege of Riga into a blockade, he drew up his army of 24,000 men on
the Polish frontier. With this army he marched to Moldavia and
Wallachia, formerly the country of the Daci, but now inhabited by
Greek Christians, tributary to the Sultan.
Moldavia was then governed by Prince Cantemir, a Greek by
birth, who had the talents of the ancient Greeks together with a
knowledge of letters and of arms. He was reputedly descended from
the famous Timur, famous under the name of Tamberlain: this
genealogy seemed more distinguished than a Greek one. They
proved it from the name of the conqueror; Timur, they said, is like
Temir: the title Kan, which Timur had before his conquest of Asia,
appears again in the name Cantemir: thus Prince Cantemir is a
descendant of Tamberlain; that is the sort of basis on which most
genealogies are built.
To whatever house Cantemir belonged, he owed all to the
Ottoman Porte. Scarcely had he been invested with his principality
than he betrayed the Emperor his benefactor for the Czar, from
whom he had greater expectations. He believed that the conqueror
of Charles XII would easily triumph over an obscure vizir, with no
military experience, who had appointed as his lieutenant the chief
customs officer of Turkey; he reckoned on all Greece joining his
faction, and the Greek priests encouraged him in his treachery. The
Czar made a secret treaty with him, and having received him into his
army, marched up country, and arrived in June 1711 on the northern
side of the river Hierasus, now Pruth, near Jazy, the capital of
Moldavia.
As soon as the Grand Vizir heard that Peter had arrived, he left
his camp at once, and following the course of the Danube, was going
to cross the river on a bridge of boats near Saccia, at the same spot
where Darius had built the bridge that bore his name. The Turkish
army marched so rapidly that they soon came in sight of the
Russians, with the river Pruth between them.
The Czar, sure of the Prince of Moldavia, never expected that the
subjects might fail him; but the Moldavians often oppose their
interests to those of their masters. They liked the Turkish rule, which
is never fatal except to the grandees, and pretends a leniency to its
tributaries; they were afraid of the Christians, especially the
Russians, who had always used them ill.
Those who had undertaken to furnish the Russians with
provisions made with the Grand Vizir the same bargain they had
made with the Czar, and brought all their provisions to the Ottoman
army. The Wallachians, neighbours of the Moldavians, showed the
same care for the Turks, for to such a degree the remembrance of
former cruelties had alienated their minds from the Russians.
The Czar, thus frustrated of his hopes, which he had perhaps
indulged too readily, found his army suddenly destitute of food and
without forage.
In the meantime the Turks crossed the river, cut off the Russians,
and formed an entrenched camp in front of them.
It is strange that the Czar did not dispute the passage of the river,
or at least repair this fault by engaging the Turks at once, instead of
giving them time to tire out his army with fatigue and famine. But that
Prince seems, in this campaign, to have acted in every way for his
own ruin; he was without provisions, with the river Pruth behind him,
and about 4,000 Tartars continually harassing him to right and left. In
these extremities he said publicly, “I am at least in as bad a case as
my brother Charles at Pultawa.”
Count Poniatowski, indefatigable agent to the King of Sweden,
was in the Grand Vizir’s army with some Poles and Swedes, who all
thought the Czar’s ruin inevitable.
As soon as Poniatowski saw that the armies must inevitably
meet, he sent word to the King of Sweden, who, eager for the
pleasure of attacking the Russian Emperor, started that moment
from Bender, with forty officers. After many losses, and several
destructive marches, the Czar was driven back on Pruth, and had no
cover left but some chevaux de frise and some wagons. A party of
the janissaries and spahis fell immediately on his army in that
defenceless condition, but they attacked in disorder, and the
Russians defended themselves with an energy inspired by the
presence of their Prince and despair.
The Turks were twice driven back. Next day M. Poniatowski
advised the Grand Vizir to starve out the Russians, for they lacked
all necessaries, and would be obliged to surrender at discretion in
one day.
The Czar has since then repeatedly acknowledged that he never
felt anything so acutely as the difficulties of his position that night: he
turned over in his mind all that he had been doing for so many years
for the glory and good of his people, so many great plans, always
interrupted by war, were perhaps about to perish with him, before
having reached completion. He must either die of hunger or attack
nearly 200,000 men with feeble troops, reduced by half from their
original number, a cavalry with scarcely a horse between them, and
infantry worn out by hunger and fatigue.
He called General Czeremetoff at nightfall, and ordered him
peremptorily to have all ready by daybreak for an attack on the Turks
with fixed bayonets.
He gave strict orders also that all baggage should be burned, and
that no officer should keep more than one wagon, so that in case of
defeat the enemy might not have the booty they expected.
Having made all arrangements with the general for the battle, he
withdrew into his tent overcome by grief, and seized with
convulsions, to which he was subject, and which worry brought on
with redoubled violence. He forbade any one to enter his tent during
the night on any pretext whatever, not wanting to receive
remonstrances against a desperate but necessary resolve, and
much less that any should witness the wretched state he was in. In
the meantime they burned the greater part of the baggage as he had
ordered; all the army followed this example with much regret, and
some buried their most cherished treasures. The generals had
already given orders for the march, and were trying to give the army
the confidence which they did not feel themselves; the men,
exhausted by fatigue, and starving, marched without spirit or hope.
The women, of whom there were too many in the army, uttered cries
which further unnerved the men; every one expected that death or
slavery would be their portion next morning. This is no exaggeration,
it is the exact account of officers who served in the army.
There was at that time in the Russian camp a woman as
extraordinary as the Czar himself. She was then known only by the
name of Catherine. Her mother was an unfortunate country woman
called Erb-Magden, of the village of Ringen in Estonia, a province
held in villeinage, which was at that time under the rule of Sweden.
She had never known her father, but was baptized by the name of
Martha. The priest of the parish brought her up out of pure charity till
she was fourteen, then she went into service at Mariemburg, in the
house of a Lutheran minister whose name was Gluk.
In 1702, at the age of eighteen, she married a Swedish dragoon.
The day after her marriage part of the Swedish troops were beaten
by the Russians, and the dragoon was in the action. But he never
returned to his wife, and she could never learn whether he had been
taken prisoner, nor later could she get any news of him.
Some days after she was taken prisoner herself, and was servant
to General Czeremetoff, who gave her to Menzikoff, a man who had
known fortune’s extremes, for he had become a general and a prince
from being a pastry-cook’s boy, and then was deprived of everything
and banished to Siberia, where he died in misery and despair. The
Czar was at supper with this prince when he first saw her and fell in
love with her. He married her secretly in 1707, not fascinated by
womanly charms, but because he found that she had the strength of
mind to second his designs, and even to continue them after him. He
had long since put away his first wife Ottokefa, daughter of a boyard,
on a charge of opposition to certain political reforms he had made.
This was the greatest of all crimes in the Czar’s eyes. He would
have none in his family who differed from him. In this foreign slave
he expected all the qualities of a sovereign, though she had none of
the virtues of womanhood. For her sake he scorned the petty
prejudices which would have hampered an ordinary man, and had
her crowned Empress. The same capacity which made her Peter’s
wife gave her the empire after her husband’s death. Europe was
amazed to see a bold woman, who could neither read nor write,
supply her lack of education and her weakness by spirit and
courage, and fill the throne of a legislator gloriously.
When she married the Czar she left the Lutheran faith for that of
the Russian Church; she was baptized again according to the
Russian rite, and instead of the name of Martha she took that of
Catherine, by which she has been known ever since. This woman
was in the camp at Pruth, and held a private council with the
generals and the Vice-Chancellor while the Czar was in his tent.
They agreed that it was necessary to sue for peace, and that the
Czar must be persuaded to this course. The Vice-Chancellor wrote a
letter to the Grand Vizir in his master’s name, which the Czarina, in
spite of the Emperor’s prohibition, carried into the tent to him, and
after many prayers, tears and argument, she prevailed on him to
sign it; she then took all her money, all her jewels and valuables, and
what she could borrow from the generals, and having collected by
this means a considerable present, she sent it with the Czar’s letter
to Osman Aga, lieutenant to the Grand Vizir.
Mahomet Baltagi answered proudly, with the air of a vizir and a
conqueror, “Let the Czar send me his first minister, and I will see
what can be done.” The Vice-Chancellor came at once, loaded with
presents, which he offered publicly to the Grand Vizir; they were
large enough to show they needed his help, but too small for a bribe.
The Vizir’s first condition was that the Czar, with all his army, should
surrender at discretion. The Vice-Chancellor answered that the Czar
was going to attack him in a quarter of an hour, and that the
Russians would perish to a man, rather than submit to such
shameful conditions. Osman seconded him by remonstrances.
Baltagi was no soldier. He knew that the janissaries had been
repulsed the day before, and was easily persuaded by Osman not to
risk certain advantages by the hazard of a battle. He therefore
granted a suspension of hostilities for six hours, during which the
treaty could be arranged.
During the discussion an incident occurred, proving that the word
of a Turk is often more reliable than we think.
 Two Italian noblemen, related to a M. Brillo, colonel of a regiment
of grenadiers in the service of the Czar, going to look for forage,
were taken by the Tartars, who carried them off to their camp, and
offered to sell them to an officer of the janissaries. The Turk, enraged
at such a breach of the truce, seized the Tartars and carried them
before the Grand Vizir, together with the two prisoners. The Vizir sent
them back at once to the Czar’s camp, and had the two Tartars who
had carried them off beheaded. In the meantime the Kan of Tartary
opposed the conclusion of a treaty which robbed him of all hopes of
pillage. Poniatowski seconded him with urgent and pressing
reasons. But Osman carried his point, notwithstanding the
impatience of the Tartar and the insinuations of Poniatowski.
The Vizir thought it enough for his master the Sultan to make an
advantageous peace; he insisted that the Russians should give up
Asoph, burn the galleys that lay in that port, and demolish the
important citadels on the Palus-Mæotis; that all the cannon and
ammunition of those forts should be handed over to the Sultan; that
the Czar should withdraw his troops from Poland; that he should not
further disturb the few Cossacks who were under Polish protection,
nor those that were subject to Turkey, and that for the future he
should pay the Tartars a subsidy of 40,000 sequins per annum—an
irksome tribute which had been imposed long before, but from which
the Czar had delivered his country.
At last the treaty was going to be signed, without so much as a
mention of the King of Sweden; all that Poniatowski could obtain
from the Vizir was the insertion of an article by which the Russians
should promise not to hinder the return of Charles XII, and, strangely
enough, that a peace should be made between the King and the
Czar if they wished it, and could come to terms.
On these terms the Czar got liberty to retreat with his army,
cannon, artillery, colours and baggage. The Turks gave him
provisions, and there was plenty of everything in his camp within two
hours of the signing of the treaty, which was begun on the 21st July,
1711, and signed on the 1st of August.
 Just as the Czar, rescued from his dangerous position, was
drawing off with drums beating and colours flying, the King of
Sweden, eager to fight, and to see the enemy in his hands, came up;
he had ridden post haste about fifty leagues from Bender to Jazy,
and alighting at Count Poniatowski’s tent, the Count came up to him
sadly and told him how he had lost a chance which would perhaps
never recur.
The King, beside himself with rage, went straight to the tent of the
Grand Vizir, and with flushed face reproached him for the treaty he
had just made.
“I have authority,” said the Grand Vizir, calmly, “to make peace
and to wage war.”
“But,” answered the King, “had you not the whole Russian army
in your power?”
“Our law,” said the Vizir solemnly, “commands us to grant peace
to our enemies when they implore our mercy.”
“Ah,” replied the King, in a rage, “does it order you to make a bad
treaty, when you can impose the terms you please? Was it not your
duty to take the Czar prisoner to Constantinople?”
The Turk, thus nonplussed, answered slyly, “And who would
govern his empire in his absence? It is not fitting that all kings should
be away from home.”
Charles replied with an indignant smile, and then threw himself
down on a cushion, and, looking at the Vizir with resentment mingled
with contempt, he stretched out his leg towards him, and, entangling
his spur with his robe, tore it; then jumped up, mounted, and rode to
Bender full of despair.
Poniatowski stayed some time longer with the Grand Vizir, to see
if he could prevail on him by gentler means to make some better
terms with the Czar, but it was prayer-time, and the Turk, without one
word in answer, went to wash and attend to his devotions.
BOOK VI
 BOOK VI
Intrigues at the Porte—The Kan of Tartary and the Pasha of Bender
try to force Charles to depart—He defends himself with forty
servants against their whole army.

THE fortune of the King of Sweden, greatly changed as it was,

now failed him in the smallest details. On his return he found his little
camp at Bender, and his whole quarters, under water, flooded by the
waters of the Neister. He withdrew to a distance of some miles, near
a village called Varnitza; and, as if he had a secret suspicion of what
was going to happen to him, he had a large stone house built there,
capable, in an emergency, of sustaining some hours’ siege; he
furnished it magnificently, contrary to his usual custom, and in order
to impress the Turks. Besides this he built two more, one for his
Chancery, and the other for his favourite, Grothusen, whom he
supported. While the King was thus building at Bender, as if it was
his intention to stay always in Turkey, Baltagi, being more than ever
fearful of his intrigues and complaints at the Porte, had sent the
resident consul of the German Emperor to Vienna to gain for the
King of Sweden a passage through the hereditary dominions of the
house of Austria. This envoy returned in three weeks with a promise
from the Imperial Regency that they would give Charles all due
honour, and conduct him safely to Pomerania.
The application had been made to the Regency because
Charles, the successor of Joseph, who was then Emperor, was in
Spain as a rival with Philip V for the crown. While the German envoy
was carrying out his mission to Vienna, the Vizir sent three pashas to
the King of Sweden bidding him begone from Turkish territory. The
King, who knew their mission, sent them a message, that if they
were venturing on any dishonourable or disrespectful proposal to
him he would have them hanged forthwith. The pasha who delivered
the message cloaked the harshness of his message in the most
respectful language. Charles dismissed the audience without
deigning a word of reply; but his chancellor, who remained with the
three pashas, signified in few words his master’s refusal, which they
had already concluded from his silence.
But the Grand Vizir was not discouraged. He ordered Ishmael
Pasha, the new serasquier of Bender, to threaten the King with the
Sultan’s displeasure if he did not haste to come to some conclusion.
The serasquier was of an agreeable and tactful disposition, and had
therefore gained Charles’s good-will and the friendship of the
Swedes.
The King held a conference with him, and informed him that he
would only depart from Turkey when the Sultan granted him two
things: the punishment of his Vizir, and 100,000 men with which to
return to Poland. Baltagi was aware of the fact that Charles’s
presence in Turkey meant his ruin, so he placed guards on all the
roads from Bender to Constantinople, with orders to intercept the
King’s letters; he also cut off his “thaim,” the allowance that the Porte
makes to exiled princes in her dominions. The King of Sweden’s was
immense, 500 crowns a day in money, besides all that contributed to
the maintenance of a court in pomp and abundance. As soon as the
King heard that the Vizir had dared to cut off his allowance he turned
to his steward, remarking, “So far you have had only two tables, for
to-morrow prepare four.”
Charles XII’s officers had never found any order of their master’s
impossible, but having neither money nor provision they were forced
to borrow at twenty, thirty, and forty per cent. of the officers’ servants
and janissaries, who had grown rich by the King’s liberality. M.
Fabricius, ambassador from Holstein, Jeffreys, English minister, their
secretaries and their friends, gave what they had; the King, with his
usual pride, and without a thought for the morrow, lived on these
gifts, which would not have long sufficed. They had to go through the
Turkish guard, and send secretly to Constantinople to borrow from
European money-lenders. All refused to lend to a king who seemed
to be powerless to pay; but one English merchant, named Cook, at
last ventured to lend 40,000 crowns, taking the risk of losing them if
the King of Sweden was killed. They took the money to the King’s
camp, just as they were feeling actual want, and were beginning to
despair of supplies.
In the meantime M. Poniatowski wrote actually from the Grand
Vizir’s camp an account of the Pruth campaign, accusing the Vizir of
cowardice and treachery. An old janissary, enraged at the weakness
of the Vizir, and bribed by Poniatowski, undertook the delivery of the
letter, and, having got his discharge, presented it with his own hands
to the Sultan. Some days later Poniatowski set out from the camp
and went to the Ottoman Porte to form intrigues against the Grand
Vizir as usual.
All seemed to favour the design. The Czar, now at liberty, was in
no hurry to carry out his promises; the keys of Azov did not come,
and the Grand Vizir, who was responsible for them, justly fearing his
master’s resentment, dare not appear in his presence.
The seraglio was then more full of intrigues and factions than
ever. These cabals, which exist at all courts, and which, in our case,
generally end in the removal of a minister from office, or at most by a
banishment, always meant more than one execution in
Constantinople.
It ended in the execution of the former Vizir Chourlouli, and of
Osman, the lieutenant of Baltagi, who was the chief author of the
Peace of Pruth, and who since the peace had held a prominent
office at the Porte. Among the treasures of Osman they found the
Czarina’s ring and 20,000 gold pieces, in Saxon, Polish and Russian
coin; this was a proof that it was money alone which had rescued the
Czar from his perilous position, and had ruined the chances of
Charles XII. The Vizir, Baltagi, was exiled to the isle of Lemnos,
where he died three years later. The Sultan did not confiscate his
property either at his exile or at his death; he was not rich, and his
poverty protects his memory.
This Grand Vizir was succeeded by Joseph, whose fortune was
as singular as that of his predecessors. He was a Russian by birth,
and had been taken prisoner by the Turks at six years of age with his
family, and had been sold to a janissary. He was long a valet in the
seraglio, then became the second person in the empire where he
had been a slave. But he was only the shadow of a minister.
The young Ali-Coumourgi had placed him in the slippery post
until he could seize it himself, and Joseph, his creature, had nothing
else to do but affix the Imperial seals to the favourite’s desires. The
policy of the Ottoman Court seemed to be revolutionized from the
very beginning of this Vizir’s ministry. The Czar’s plenipotentiaries,
who lived at Constantinople both as ministers and hostages, were
better treated than ever; the Grand Vizir countersigned the Peace of
Pruth with them. But that which annoyed the King of Sweden more
than all else was the news that the secret alliance made at
Constantinople with the Czar was brought about by the mediation of
the English and Dutch ambassadors.
Since Charles’s retreat to Bender, Constantinople was occupying
the position that Rome had so often held, as the centre of the
business of Christendom. Count Desaleurs, the French ambassador
at the Porte, was supporting the interests of Charles and of
Stanislas; the Emperor of Germany’s minister was opposing them.
The Swedish and Russian factions were falling foul of each other, as
those of France and Spain have long done at the Court of Rome.
England and Holland posed as neutrals, but were not really such;
the new trade of Saint Petersburg attracted the attention of those two
trading powers.
The English and the Dutch are always on the side of the prince
who most favours their trade, and there was just then much to be
gained from the Czar, so that it is no wonder that the English and
Dutch ministers should work secretly in his interest at the Porte. One
of the conditions of this new alliance was that Charles should at once
be driven from the Turkish dominions.
Perhaps the Czar thought him less formidable at home than in
Turkey, where he was always on the spot ready to raise the Ottoman
arms against the Russian empire, or perhaps he hoped to seize him
en route. The King of Sweden continued his petitions to the Porte to
send him home through Poland with a large army. The Divan
resolved to send him back, but only with a guard of 7,000 or 8,000
men, not like a King they wished to help, but as a guest they were
anxious to be rid of. With this object in view the Sultan Achmet wrote
him the following letter:
“Most powerful of the Princes that worship Jesus, redressor of
wrongs and injuries, and protector of justice in the ports and
republics of South and North, shining in Majesty, lover of Honour and
Glory, and of our sublime Porte, Charles, King of Sweden, whose
enterprises may God crown with success.
“As soon as the most illustrious Achmet, formerly Chiaoux-
Pasha, shall have the honour to present this letter to you, adorned
with our Imperial seal, be persuaded and convinced of the truth of
our intentions expressed therein, namely, that, although we had
planned to march again against the Czar, yet that Prince, to avoid
our just resentment at his delay in the execution of the treaty
concluded on the banks of the Pruth, and renewed again at our
sublime Porte, having surrendered to us the castle and city of Azov,
and having endeavoured by the mediation of the English and Dutch
ambassadors, our ancient allies, to form a lasting peace with us, we
have granted his request, and given up his plenipotentiaries, who
remain with us as hostages, our Imperial ratification, after having
received his from their hands.
“We have given our inviolable and salutary orders to the right
honourable Delvet Gharai, Khan of Budziac, of Crimea, Nagai, and
Circassia, and to our wise counsellor and noble serasquier of
Bender, Ishmael (whom God preserve and increase in magnificence
and wisdom), for your return through Poland, according to your first
plan which has been again laid before us from you. You must,
therefore, prepare to set out next winter under the guidance of
Providence and with an honourable guard, that you may return to
your own territories, taking care to pass through Poland in a
peaceable and friendly manner.
“You will be provided by my sublime Porte with all that is needed
for your journey, both money, men, horses and wagons. But above
all else we advise and exhort you to give the most express and
detailed orders to the Swedes and other soldiers in your retinue not
to commit any act of disorder, nor be guilty of any action which may
either directly or indirectly tend to the breach of this peace. By that
means you will preserve our good-will, of which we shall endeavour
to give great and frequent proofs as we shall find opportunity. The
troops to attend you shall receive orders to that effect, according to
our Imperial will and pleasure.
“Given at our sublime Porte of Constantinople on the 14th of the
month Rebyul Eureb, 1214. Which corresponds to the 19th April,
1712.”
This letter did not, however, entirely destroy the hopes of the King
of Sweden. He wrote to the Sultan that he was ready to go, and
would never forget the favour he had shown him; but he added that
he believed the Sultan was too just to send him away with nothing
but a flying camp through a country already overrun with the Czar’s
troops. Indeed, the Emperor of Russia, in spite of the fact that the
first article of the Treaty of Pruth obliged him to withdraw his forces
from Poland, had sent recruits thither, and it seemed strange that the
Sultan was ignorant of the fact. The bad policy and vanity of the
Porte in suffering the Christian princes to maintain their
ambassadors at Constantinople, and not keeping one single agent in
any Christian court, gives the former an opportunity of probing and
sometimes of directing the Sultan’s most secret resolutions, while
the Divan is always ignorant of the most public transactions of
Christendom. The Sultan, shut up in the seraglio among his women
and his eunuchs, sees only through the Grand Vizir’s eyes; the latter
is as inaccessible as his master, taken up with the intrigues of the
seraglio, and without any communication with the world outside. He
is therefore generally imposed on himself, or imposes on the Sultan,
who deposes him or has him strangled for his first mistake, in order
to choose another as ignorant or as treacherous as the former, who
behaves in the same way as his predecessors and falls as soon as
they.
Such is, for the most part, the negligence and profound security
of this Court, that if the Christian princes leagued against the Porte
their fleets would be at the Dardanelles and their army at the gates
of Adrianople before the Turks could think of taking the defensive.