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Contents
Preface xxvii
About the Authors xxxii

PART 1 THE CHANGING MEDIA LANDSCAPE

1 Mass Communication and Its Digital Transformation 3

Telephony: Case Study in Convergence 4 Surveillance 26

Three Types of Convergence
Technological Convergence 8
Economic Convergence 9
Cultural Convergence 11
Implications of Convergence
Media Organization Changes 13
Media Type Changes 14
Media Content Changes 15
Media Use Changes 16
Media Distribution Changes 17
Media Audience Changes 18
Media Profession Changes 20
Attitude and Value Changes 21
Mass Communication in
the Digital Age 23
Interpersonal Communication 23
Mass Communication 24
Mass Communication and Convergence 25
Functions of Mass Communication
Correlation 27
8
Cultural Transmission 27
Entertainment 27
Theories of Communication 28
Transmission Models 28
13
Critical Theory and Cultural Studies 30
Television: The Future of Convergence 31
Looking Back and Moving Forward 33
Discussion Questions 34
Further Reading 34
Features
Media Quiz: The Nature of “Intermass”
Communication 5
Media Pioneers: Steve Jobs 10
International Perspectives: Crying in a BMW  12
Convergence Culture: User-Generated Content:
Creativity or Piracy? 19
Ethics in Media: Interactively Mapping Gun
26 Owners 22

2 Media Literacy in the Digital Age 37

Education and Media 38 Semiotics 40

Framing 42
What Is Media Literacy? 38
Early Concerns of Media Effects 44
What Makes Mediated Communication
Different? 40 Media Grammar 44
vii
 viii Contents
Print Media 45
Radio and Recorded Music 46
Film and Television 46
Digital-Media Grammar 47
Implications of Commercial Media
Commercial-Media Debate 49
Concentration of Media Ownership
Media Bias 52
Developing Critical Media-Literacy Skills 55
Looking Back and Moving Forward 57
PART 2 MASS-COMMUNICATION FORMATS
3 Print Media: Books, Newspapers, and Magazines
Functions of Print Media 62
Transmission of Culture 62
Diffusion of Ideas and Knowledge
Entertainment 63
Distinctive Functions of Books 64
History of Books to Today 64
Monastic Scribes 65
Johannes Gutenberg 65
Beginnings of Mass Communication and
Mass Literacy 66
Cheaper and Smaller Books 66
Dime Novels 66
Mass-Market Paperbacks 67
Print-on-Demand 67
Digital Books 68
Current Book-Industry Issues
Sales and Readership of Books
Outlook for Books 71
Distinctive Functions of Newspapers
Local Newspapers 73
National Newspapers 74
History of Newspapers to Today 75
The Commercial Press and
the Partisan Press 75
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Discussion Questions 58
Further Reading 59
Features
Media Quiz: Testing Your Media Literacy 39
48
International Perspectives: Mobile Telephony
in the Developing World 50
51
Ethics in Media: When SNL Parody Gets
Taken Seriously 54
Convergence Culture: Dos and Don’ts When
Evaluating Online Information 56
61
Colonial Readership and Finances 75
The Golden Age of Newspapers 76
62 Current Newspaper-Industry Issues 78
Newspaper Chains 78
Benefits of Chains 79
Problems with Chains 79
Leading Newspaper Chains 79
Declining Number of Daily Newspapers 79
Sales and Readership of Newspapers 82
Circulation and Readership 82
Advertising 83
Outlook for Newspapers 84
Distinctive Functions of Magazines 84
History of Magazines to Today 85
69 Current Magazine Industry Issues 86
70 Sales and Readership of Magazines 87
Outlook for Magazines 89
Looking Back and Moving Forward 90
73 Discussion Questions 90
Further Reading 91
Features
Media Quiz: Print Media 63
International Perspectives: Global Ebook
Marketplace 68

Media Pioneers: Emilie Jacobi 72
Timeline: History (and Pre-History) of
Newspapers 76
4 Audio Media: Music Recordings, Radio
The Recording Industry 94
Distinctive Functions of the Recording
Industry 94
History of Recorded Music 95
From Tin Pan Alley to Hollywood 96
Roots of Rock and Roll 97
Redefining Rock 98
The Recorded-Music Industry Today
Recording-Industry Business Model 103
Creation 103
Promotion 103
Distribution 103
Pricing Structure 104
Outlook for the Recording Industry
Digital Rights Management and Illegal
File Sharing 104
New Business Models Emerging 105
What Is Broadcasting? 106
Radio 107
Distinctive Functions of Radio 107
History of Radio 109
Wireless Telegraphy 109
Exploring Radio’s Early Potential 109
Voice Transmission 109
Radio Before, During, and After WWI 110
5 Visual Media: Photography, Movies, and Television
Photography 124
History of Photography 124
Photographic Industry Today 125
Movies 127
Contents ix
Convergence Culture: Freesheets: Riding
the Rails of Newspapers’ Future? 83
93
Widespread Public Adoption of Radio 111
FM Radio, Edwin Howard Armstrong, and
David Sarnoff 111
Creating a Viable Business Model for Radio 112
The Rise of Radio Networks 113
Consolidation in Radio Station Ownership 113
The Radio Industry Today 115
Radio Station Programming 115
98
Outlook for the Radio Industry 117
Podcasting 117
Satellite Radio 118
Looking Back and Moving Forward 119
Discussion Questions 120
Further Reading 120
104 Media Quiz Answers 121
Features
Media Quiz: The Revolution Will Not Be Televised;
It Will Be Mashed Up 95
Media Pioneers: Amanda Palmer and the Grand
Theft Orchestra 102
Ethics in Media: Prank Calls . . . on the Radio 108
Timeline: Milestones in Early Radio Technology
Development 110
Convergence Culture: NPR and PRI: America’s
Public Radio Networks 112
International Perspectives: Trusting in the Power
of the Airwaves 118
123
History of the Movie Industry 128
Silent Era: New Medium, New Technologies,
New Storytelling 128
Méliès and Griffith 128
Murnau, Flaherty, and Eisenstein 129
 x Contents
Sound and Color 129
Hollywood Movie Moguls 131
Warner Brothers 131
Walt Disney 131
Samuel Goldwyn 132
Marcus Loew 132
Louis B. Mayer 132
Hollywood Star System 132
The Director as Auteur 133
Technological Influences on Movie Genres 134
Other Entertainment Sources for Movies 135
DVDs and Streaming 135
Movie Industry Today 136
Marketing and Distribution for Movies
Movie-Industry Business Model 140
Outlook for the Movie Industry
Television 142
History of Television 143
Seeing the Light: The First Television Systems
Modern Television Takes Shape 144
Programming and Genre Influences 144
Pushing the Programming Envelope 145
Cable Comes of Age 145
Filling the Days 146
Filling the Nights 146
Sports 147
Reality Shows 148
6 Interactive Media: The Internet, Video Games, and Augmented Reality 159
Interactivity Defined 160
Interactive Media vs. Mass Media 161
Historical Development of User
Interfaces 163
Television Interfaces 163
Intuitive Interfaces 164
Keyboards 164
Computer Mouse 165
Touch Screens 165
Natural Input Methods 165
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Digital Television: Preparing the Way
for Convergence 150
The Rise of Flat-Panel Displays 150
Television Distribution 151
Broadcast TV 151
Cable TV 151
Satellite TV 151
Television Industry Today 152
Cable System Structure 153
Satellite vs. Cable 153
Television-Industry Business Model 153
Outlook for the Television Industry 155
139 Looking Back and Moving Forward 155
Discussion Questions 156
Further Reading 157
141 Media Quiz Answers 157
Features
Media Quiz: Eye-Q Test 125
143 Timeline: Development of Photography 126
Ethics in Media: The Photojournalist’s Dilemma:
Trauma and the Photojournalist 126
Timeline: Selected Milestones in Early Motion
Pictures 130
Media Pioneers: Kathleen Kennedy,
Producer 138
Convergence Culture: 3-D Movies: What Will Be
the Impact? 142
Graphical User Interfaces 165
Historical Development of the Internet and
the World Wide Web 166
Internet Protocol 167
World Wide Web 168
Graphical Web Browsers 168
Broadband 169
Distribution Dynamics 169
Video Games 171
Historical Development of Video Games 171
 Contents xi

Types of Video Games 175 Features

Media Quiz: Engaging with Interactive
Video-Game Industry 177
Media 161
Trends in Video Games 179 International Perspectives: The Internet
of Babel 162
Gamification 180
Timeline: Milestones in the Development
Augmented Reality 181 of the Internet 166
Timeline: Development of Video Games 172
Ethics of Interactive Media 182
Media Pioneers: Super Mario 174
Looking Back and Moving Forward 183 Convergence Culture: Is Playing Video Games Bad
Discussion Questions 184 for You? 178
Further Reading 184

PART 3 MEDIA PERSPECTIVES

7 The Impact of Social Media 187

Defining Social Media 188 Privacy 209

Dialogic Commmunication 189 Transparency 210
Participatory Production 191 Social Media: The Good, the Bad,
What Is “Social” About Social Media? 193 and the Ugly 211
Choice 193 Are Social Media Making Us Less Social? 211
Conversation 193 Are Social Media Making Us Dumber? 213
Curation 194 Looking Back and Moving Forward 214
Creation 195 Discussion Questions 215
Collaboration 195 Further Reading 216
Types of Social Media 196
Features
Email 197
Media Quiz: How Connected Are You? 189
Discussion Boards and Web Forums 198
International Perspectives: New Kid on the Social
Chat Rooms 199
Network Block 197
Blogs and Microblogs 199
Media Pioneers: Jack Dorsey 202
Wikis 201
Convergence Culture: Are We Really Separated by
Social-Networking Sites 203
Six Degrees? 206
Producers and Produsers 206 Ethics in Media: Cyberbullying: New Twists on an
Reputation, Ratings, and Trust 208 Old Problem 212

8 Journalism: From Information to Participation 219

What Is News? 220 News Values and the Associated Press 223
The Historical Development of Pulitzer and Hearst: The Circulation Wars,
Journalism 222 Sensationalism, and Standards 225
 xii Contents
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Joseph Pulitzer 225 Journalism in the Digital World 239

William Randolph Hearst 226 Nontraditional Sources 241
The Rise of Electronic Journalism 226 Online User Habits 242
Murrow and News in TV’s Golden Age 227 Personalization 242
Changes in Television News 227 Contextualization 243
Foundations of Journalism 228 Convergence 244
The Hutchins Commission and A Free and Responsible The Business of Journalism 244
Press 228 Salaries 245
Separation of Editorial and Business Diversity in the Newsroom 246
Operations 229
Fairness and Balance in News Coverage 229
Careers in Journalism 246
Framing the News 230 Looking Back and Moving Forward 247
Expert Sources 231 Discussion Questions 247
Further Reading 248
From Event to Public Eye: How News MEDIA QUIZ ANSWERS  249
Is Created 231
Gathering the News 232 Features
Producing the News 232 Media Quiz: A Nose for News 221
Distributing the News 234 Media Pioneers: Mary Ann Shadd Cary and
Types of Journalism 235 the Role of Minority Newspapers 224
Alternative Journalism 236 International Perspectives: Covering Islam 230
Public Journalism 236 Convergence Culture: Platypus Journalism: The
Citizen Journalism 237 Future, or Evolutionary Dead End? 233
An International Perspective 239 Ethics in Media: Do the Ends Justify the
Means? 243

9 Advertising and Public Relations: The Power of Persuasion 251

Strategic Communications 253 Advertising in a Digital World 266

Persuasive Communications 254 Cookies 266
The Role of Media in Persuasion 255 Email Marketing 266
Banner Ads 266
Advertising 256
Pop-Ups and Video 267
The Historical Development of Advertising 256 Classifieds and Auction Sites 267
Advertising Agencies 258 Search-Engine Ads 267
Commercial Television 258 Mobile Media 268
Internet 260 Behavioral Advertising 268
The Rise of Branding 260 Viral Marketing 268
Selling Products, Selling Ideas 262 The Advertising Business 268
Advertising Channels 263 Advertising Agencies 269
Print Media 263
Electronic Media 264 Public Relations 272
Outdoor 265 The Historical Development of Public
Direct Mail 265 Relations 272
 Contents xiii

Trends in the Development of Public Relations 275 Media Quiz Answers 283
PR and Media Relations 276
Pseudo-Events 276 Features
Distributing News to the Media in the Digital Age 276 Media Quiz: The Dynamics of Persuasion 253
Finding Sources Online 277 Media Pioneers: Madam C.J. Walker 257
PR Firms and the PR Industry 277 Convergence Culture: Me 2.0: The Guide to
Branding Yourself 262
Changing Trends in Advertising
International Perspectives: Global Advertising 270
and PR  278
Media Pioneers: Daniel J. Edelman 274
Looking Back and Moving Forward 281
Ethics in Media: Fooling Most of the People Most of
Discussion Questions 282
the Time . . . Digitally 279
Further Reading 282

PART 4 MEDIA AND SOCIETY

10 Media Ethics 285

Ethics, Morals, and Laws 286
Major Systems of Ethical Reasoning
Character, or Virtue Ethics
The Golden Rule 288
The Golden Mean 288
Virtue Ethics in Action 288
Duties 289
The Categorical Imperative 289
Discourse Ethics 289
Duties-based Ethics in Action 290
Consequences 291
Utilitarianism 291
Social Justice 291
Consequence-based Ethics in Action 292
Relationships, or Dialogical Ethics
Ethics of Care 294
Dialogical Ethics in Action 294
Moral Relativism 295
Issues in Ethical Decision Making
Going Undercover 300
Victimizing the Victims 301
286
Society of Professional Journalists Code
287 of Ethics 302
Ethical Issues in Advertising 302
Deceptive Advertising 303
Puffery 303
Conflicts of Interest in Advertising 303
Advertising Codes of Ethics 305
Ethics in Public Relations 305
Conflicts of Interest in PR  305
Public Relations Codes of Ethics 306
Ethics in Entertainment 307
292 Stereotypes in Entertainment 307
Sex and Violence 307
Looking Back and Moving Forward 308
Discussion Questions 309
295 Further Reading 309

The Role of Commercialism in Media

Ethics 297 Features
Media Quiz: How Moral Are You? 287
Media Types Influencing Content 298
International Perspectives: Mistaken Identity: One
Ethics in Journalism 299 Life Lost, Another Ruined 293
Privacy Rights Versus the Public’s Right to Know 299 Convergence Culture: Forbidden Fruit 304
 xiv Contents
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11 Communication Law and Regulation in the Digital Age 311

The Legal Framework 312 Regulating Commercial and Political

Speech 329
The Foundations of Freedom
Commercial Speech 330
of Expression 314
Tobacco and Alcohol Advertising 330
National Security 314
Unclear Regulatory Boundaries 331
Clear and Present Danger 315
Political Speech 331
Prior Restraint 315
Equal-Time Rule 332
Libel 316
Fairness Doctrine 332
New York Times v. Sullivan (1964) 316
Protecting Journalists Against Libel 317 Children’s Programming Protections 332
Shield Laws 317 The Children’s Television Act 333
Censorship 319 Violent and Sexual Programming:
The Censorship of Comics 319 The V-Chip 333
The Hays Code 320 Intellectual Property Rights 334
Indecent Content 321
Fair Use 335
Obscenity 322
Criticism, Ridicule, or Humor 323 Privacy 336
The Evolution of Regulating Legal Issues in the Digital World 336
Electronic Media 323 Digital Rights Management 337
Early Days and the Radio Act of 1912 Privacy 338
(1911–1926) 323 Content Rights and Responsibilities 339
Increasing Regulation and the Federal Radio Looking Back and Moving Forward 339
Commission (1927–1933) 324 Discussion Questions 340
The Communications Act and Spectrum Scarcity Further Reading 340
(1934–1995) 324 Media Quiz Answers 341
The Telecommunications Act and Its Effects
(1996–present) 324 Features
Electronic Media Regulation Media Quiz: Legal Limits 313
Internationally 325 Media Pioneers: Anthony Lewis and Legal
The Federal Communications Journalism 318
Commission (FCC) 327 Convergence Culture: The Great Network
Neutrality Debate 326
Universal Service 328
International Perspectives: The Rise and Fall
The FCC, License Renewal, and
of Russian Media 327
Regulatory Power 328
Ethics in Media: Does the Punishment Fit
Spectrum Auction 329
the Crime? 337

12 Media Theory and Research: From Writing to Text Messaging 343

The Role of Theory and Research 344 Media-Effects Research 345

Mass Society, Mass Communication 344 Propaganda and the Magic Bullet 346

Payne Fund 346
Radio’s Wider Impact 347
Television and Violence 348
Limited Effects 349
Cultivation Analysis 350
Spiral of Silence 351
Third-Person Effect 352
Criticisms of Media-Effects Research
Understanding the Audience 353
Audiences Creating Meaning 353
Uses and Gratifications 353
Encoding/Decoding 354
Reception Analysis 354
Framing 355
Cultural Studies 356
Ideology and the Culture Industry 356
Criticisms of Cultural Studies 358
Sociohistorical Frameworks 358
Information Society 359
Political Economy 359
Media Ecology 360
13 Mass Communication and Politics in the Digital Age 371
Journalism and Political Coverage
Politicians Using the News 374
Sound Bites and Horse Races 375
The Changing Tone of Television
Political Coverage 375
Opinion Polls 376
Political Advertising 377
The Impact of Negative Advertising 377
Negative Advertising Effectiveness 379
Politics and Entertainment 380
Political Campaigns and Entertainment
Political Debates 381
Social Media and Political
Campaigns 383
Changes with Social Media 384
Changing Rules for Politicians 385
Contents xv
Agenda Setting 361
New Directions in Media Research 362
Media Research: What Type of Science
Is It? 364
Quantitative Research 366
Qualitative Research 367
352 Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Working Together 368
Looking Back and Moving Forward 368
Discussion Questions 369
Further Reading 369
Features
Media Quiz: Theory and Practice 345
Convergence Culture: Advertising’s Potential
Negative Effects on Women—
and Men 350
Media Pioneers: danah boyd, Researcher 357
International Perspectives: Theories Old,
Theories New, Theories Borrowed . . . 361
Ethics in Media: Conducting Online Research:
Public, Semipublic, or Private? 364
372 Social Media and Civic Engagement 386
Databases and Government Transparency 387
Smart Mobs 388
Looking Back and Moving Forward 390
Discussion Questions 390
Further Reading 391
Features
Media Quiz: Playing Politics 373
Ethics in Media: Can Imagery Lead
to Action? 379
380
Convergence Culture: Image Is
Everything 382
International Perspectives: Crowdsourcing
Election Monitoring 386
Media Pioneers: Bill Adair and PolitiFact 389
 xvi Contents
14 Global Media in the Digital Age 393
Four Theories of International Mass
Communication 394
Authoritarian Theory 395
Libertarian Theory 396
Social Responsibility Theory 396
Soviet Theory 396
The Public, the Public Sphere, and
Public Opinion 398
Political and Socioeconomic Issues
with Global Media 399
Media in Developing Countries 400
Searching for Truth: Self-Censorship
in China 402
The Digital Divide 402
Global Media, Local Values 404
New Worlds—or Cultural Imperialism? 404
Convergence and Its Discontents 406
Globalization of Media Production 408
Global Media Flow 408
Protecting Local Voices 409
Some Developing Nations 409
A Neighbo(u)ring Nation 410
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Promoting Global Voices 411
Cybersecurity and Media 412
Looking Back and Moving Forward 413
Discussion Questions 414
Further Reading 414
Media Quiz Answers 415
Features
Media Quiz: Global Media 395
Ethics in Media: J-Ethinomics—Teaching Ethics
and Economics in Journalism 397
Convergence Culture: Following a Natural
Disaster 400
Media Pioneers: Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and
Jawed Karim—YouTube Founders 407
Glossary G-1
Notes N-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1
 ACEJMC Learning Goals xvii

Converging Media provides extensive content on the twelve core values and compe-
tencies of the Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Commu-
nications (ACEJMC). As a nationally elected member of the ACEJMC from 2004 to
2007, John V. Pavlik recognized that the ACEJMC-based learning goals provide a
useful benchmark for assessing student learning. By covering the twelve core values
and competencies, this text provides a strong foundation for students to become
well-rounded journalists and experts in mass communication.

ACEJMC Learning Goal How Converging Media Supports

1. FREEDOM OF SPEECH: Understand and apply the
principles and laws of freedom of speech and press
for the country in which the institution that invites
ACEJMC is located, as well as receive instruction in
and understand the range of systems of freedom of
expression around the world, including the rights
to dissent, to monitor and criticize power, and to
assemble and petition for redress of grievances.
• Regulation of journalism and mass communication in the digital age
including libel and censorship (p. 314–323)
• Fairness (p. 332)
• The public’s right to know (p. 299)
• Media systems around the world (pp. 393–415)

2. HISTORY: Demonstrate an understanding of the
history and role of professionals and institutions in
shaping communications.
• Origins of photography, movies, television, and video games (pp. 124,
128, 143, and 171)
• History of journalism (p. 222)
• History of advertising (p. 256)
• History of public relations (p. 272)
• History of media law and the regulation of electronic media (p. 323)
• Early research on media effects (p. 345)
• History of recorded music and radio (pp. 95 and 109)
• History of print media (books, newspapers, magazines) (pp. 64, 75,
and 85)
• History of the Internet (p. 166)

3. GENDER, RACE, AND SEXUALITY: Demonstrate
an understanding of gender, race ethnicity, sexual
orientation, and, as appropriate, other forms of
diversity in domestic society in relation to mass
communications.
• Effects of media and advertising on women and men (p. 350)
• Role of women in the history of magazines (p. 86)
• Diversity in the newsroom (p. 246)
• Minority newspapers (p. 224)

4. GLOBAL SOCIETY: Demonstrate an understanding
of the diversity of peoples and cultures and of the
significance and impact of mass communications in a
global society
• Relationships among various global and local media sources
(pp. 393–415)
• Cultural and socioeconomic impact of global media (pp. 399–413)
• “International Perspectives” boxes throughout (example, p. 12)
• International theories of the press (p. 394)
• Media in a global society appears as a theme in several chapters

5. THEORY: Understand concepts and apply • Photography, movies, and television (pp. 123–157)
theories in the use and presentation of images and • Grammar of media (p. 44)
information. • Information overload in the digital age (p. 57)
• Major media theories and research (pp. 343–369)

(Continued)
xviii ACEJMC Learning Goals
ACEJMC Learning Goal
6. ETHICS: Demonstrate an understanding of
professional ethical principles and work ethically in
pursuit of truth, accuracy, fairness, and diversity.
7. CRITICAL AND CREATIVE THINKING: Think
critically, creatively, and independently.
8. RESEARCH: Conduct research and evaluate
information by methods appropriate to the
communications professions in which they work.
9. WRITING ABILITY: Write correctly and clearly in
forms and styles appropriate for the communications
professions, audiences, and purposes they serve.
10. EVALUATION OF WORK: Critically evaluate
their own work and that of others for accuracy and
fairness, clarity, appropriate style, and grammatical
correctness.
11. NUMERICAL AND STATISTICAL CONCEPTS:
Apply basic numerical and statistical concepts.
12. TECHNOLOGY: Apply tools and technologies
appropriate for the communications professions in
which they work.
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How Converging Media Supports
• “Ethics in Media” boxes throughout (example, p. 22)
• Chapter on media ethics, including accuracy and the pursuit of truth
(pp. 285–309)
• Chapter on communication law and regulation in the digital age
(pp. 311–341)
• Fairness and diversity (p. 229)
• “Convergence Culture” boxes throughout (example, p. 56)
• “Media Quizzes” in chapter openers (example, p. 39)
• Discussion questions at the end of each chapter (example, p. 282)
• Critical-Thinking Questions in selected image captions
(example, p. 127)
• Foundations for critically examining media presented early in the text
(example, p. 55)
• Chapter on media theory teaches students to evaluate research
methods and findings (pp. 343–369)
• Appropriate writing style for particular media and for the
communities and purposes that media professionals serve
(pp. 235–239)
• Importance of clear and accurate writing in news creation
(pp. 231–235)
• “Convergence Culture” feature “Me 2.0” provides a self-reflective case
study (p. 262)
• Data for students to analyze about newspaper circulation and
readership and advertising impact (pp. 82–84)
• Pricing structure of the recording industry (p. 104)
• Figures and tables throughout apply numerical and statistical
concepts (example, p. 270)
• “US Media Giants” (pullout at the back of the book)
• Social media (pp. 187–217)
• Interactive media (pp. 159–185)
• Role of mobile media, such as the iPad, in delivering video
(pp. 123 and 143)
• Mobile media and digital books (p. 69)
• Impact of touch screens on human–computer interface (p. 165)
• Use of digital technology in journalism (p. 239)
• Impact of digital technology and mobile media on advertising (p. 266)
Features
Convergence Culture
User-Generated Content: Creativity or Piracy? (Chapter 1) p. 19
Dos and Don’ts of Evaluating Online Information (Chapter 2) p. 56
Freesheets: Riding the Rails of Newspapers’ Future? (Chapter 3) p. 83
NPR and PRI: America’s Public Radio Networks (Chapter 4) p. 112
3-D Movies: What Will Be the Impact? (Chapter 5) p. 142
Is Playing Video Games Bad for You? (Chapter 6) p. 178
Are We Really Separated by Six Degrees? (Chapter 7) p. 206
Platypus Journalism: The Future, or Evolutionary Dead End? (Chapter
8) p. 233
Me 2.0: The Guide to Branding Yourself (Chapter 9) p. 262
Forbidden Fruit (Chapter 10) p. 304
The Great Network Neutrality Debate (Chapter 11) p. 326
Advertising’s Potential Negative Effects on Women—and Men
(Chapter 12) p. 350
Image Is Everything (Chapter 13) p. 382
Following a Natural Disaster (Chapter 14) p. 400

International Perspectives
Crying in a BMW (Chapter 1) p. 12
Mobile Telephony in the Developing World (Chapter 2) p. 50
Global EBook Marketplace (Chapter 3) p. 68
Trusting in the Power of the Airwaves (Chapter 4) p. 118
The Internet of Babel (Chapter 6) p. 162
New Kid on the Social Network Block (Chapter 7) p. 197
Covering Islam (Chapter 8) p. 230
Global Advertising (Chapter 9) p. 270
Mistaken Identity: One Life Lost, Another Ruined (Chapter 10) p. 293
The Rise and Fall of Russian Media (Chapter 11) p. 327
Theories Old, Theories New, Theories Borrowed . . . (Chapter 12) p. 361
Crowdsourcing Election Monitoring (Chapter 13) p. 386

Ethics in Media
Interactively Mapping Gun Owners (Chapter 1) p. 22
When SNL Parody Gets Taken Seriously (Chapter 2) p. 54
Prank Calls . . . on the Radio (Chapter 4) p. 108
The Photojournalist’s Dilemma: Trauma and the Photojournalist
(Chapter 5) p. 126

xix
xx Features
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Cyberbullying: New Twists on an Old Problem (Chapter 7) p. 212

Do the Ends Justify the Means? (Chapter 8) p. 243
Fooling Most of the People Most of the Time . . . Digitally (Chapter 9) p. 279
Does the Punishment Fit the Crime? (Chapter 11) p. 337
Conducting Online Research: Public, Semipublic, or Private?
(Chapter 12) p. 364
Can Imagery Lead to Action? (Chapter 13) p. 379
J-Ethinomics—Teaching Ethics and Economics in Journalism
(Chapter 14) p. 397

Media Pioneers
Steve Jobs (Chapter 1) p. 10
Emilie Jacobi (Chapter 3) p. 72
Amanda Palmer and the Grand Theft Orchestra (Chapter 4) p. 102
Kathleen Kennedy, Producer (Chapter 5) p. 138
Super Mario (Chapter 6) p. 174
Jack Dorsey (Chapter 7) p. 202
Mary Ann Shadd Cary and the Role of Minority Newspapers (Chapter
8) p. 224
Madam C.J. Walker (Chapter 9) p. 257
Daniel J. Edelman (Chapter 9) p. 274
Anthony Lewis and Legal Journalism (Chapter 11) p. 318
danah boyd, Researcher (Chapter 12) p. 357
Bill Adair and PolitiFact (Chapter 13) p. 389
Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, Jawed Karim—YouTube Founders
(Chapter 14) p. 407

Timelines
History (and Pre-History) of Newspapers (Chapter 3) p. 24
Milestones in Early Radio-Technology Development (Chapter 4) p. 110
Development of Photography (Chapter 5) p. 126
Selected Milestones in Early Motion Pictures (Chapter 5) p. 130
Milestones in the Development of the Internet (Chapter 6) p. 166
Milestones in the Development of Video Games (Chapter 6) p. 172

Tables
Table 1-1: Traditional Theories or Models of Analog Media p. 24
Table 2-1: Reframing Political Issues for Conservatives p. 43
Table 2-2: Reframing Political Issues for Liberals p. 43
Table 3-1: Top Ten U.S. Paid-Circulation Magazines p. 88
Table 4-1: The Major Record Labels and Their Main Subsidiary Labels and
Artists p. 100
Table 4-2: Top U.S. Radio Groups p. 114
 Features xxi

Table 4-3: Most Popular Radio Programming Genres p. 116

Table 5-1: Ownership Among Major and Subsidiary Film Studios p. 137
Table 5-2: The Wide World of Reality Shows p. 149
Table 5-3: Top Ten Multichannel Video-Programming Distributors in the
United States, 2012 p. 152
Table 6-1: Best-Selling Video Games (to 2013) p. 176
Table 7-1: Most Popular Social-Networking Sites p. 205
Table 8-1: Top Global News Sites p. 240
Table 9-1: Top Six U.S. Companies and Their Brand Valuations p. 261
Table 9-2: Global Ad Spending by Medium p. 269
Table 9-3: World’s Four Largest Advertising and Media-Services
Companies p. 271
Table 9-4: Top Five Independent Public Relations Firms p. 278
Table 13-1: 2012 Presidential Campaign Expenditures p. 378

Figures
Figure 1-1: Three Types of Convergence and Their Influence on Media p. 8
Figure 1-2: “Media Iceberg” p. 9
Figure 1-3: Shannon and Weaver Mathematical Theory p. 29
Figure 1-4: Schramm-Osgood Model p. 30
Figure 2-1: Semiotic Signifier and Signified p. 41
Figure 3-1: Book Publishers’ Net Dollar Sales p. 70
Figure 3-2: Book Publishers’ Units p. 71
Figure 3-3: Top 10 U.S. Newspapers by Circulation, in millions, 2012 p. 74
Figure 3-4: Major Newspaper Chains in the United States p. 80
Figure 3-5: Circulation Numbers of Morning, Evening, and Sunday Papers,
United States 2009 p. 82
Figure 3-6: Newspaper Print Ad Revenue Declines p. 84
Figure 6-1: Client/Server and Peer-to-Peer Networks p. 170
Figure 7-1: Social-Networking Site Launches p. 204
Figure 8-1: Salary Range for Journalists by Experience p. 245
Figure 9-1: Change in Advertising Dollars by Region from 2011 to
2012 p. 270
Figure 9-2: Salaries for Advertising Account Managers by Experience p. 280
Figure 9-3: Salaries for Corporate PR Specialists by Experience p. 280
Figure 10-1: The Potter Box p. 297
Figure 14-1: World Internet Users and Penetration Rates p. 403
 Preface
Media convergence is in many ways a double-edged sword. Digital technologies, in-
cluding mobile and social media, have empowered citizens to access, interact with,
and generate content and stories around the world and on demand. In recent years,
Twitter and similar services have helped citizens throughout the globe organize pro-
tests against government policy and oppressive regimes.
At the same time, these powerful digital tools have enabled governments, cor-
porations, and others to conduct sweeping surveillance of citizens, as the leaks by
former National Security Agency (NSA) employee Edward Snowden have shown.
Privacy may be little more than a memory in an age when ubiquitous high-­definition
cameras, big data analytics, and social media are generating massive databases en-
compassing nearly every man, woman, and child around the globe. “Most of us
have fully identified, high-definition frontal photos of ourselves online,” says Ales-
sandro Acquisti, associate professor of information technology and public policy at
Carnegie Mellon University (in a 60 Minutes interview with Lesley Stahl, 2013). On
Facebook alone, users have posted billions of photos of themselves, their friends,
and their relatives. Facebook continues to refine its facial-recognition technology,
which will make tagging friends easier but which will also help others track you.
The existence of such vast repositories of data, valuable for security and com-
mercial potential (such as individually targeted advertising), raises concerns for
civil liberties, including freedom of speech and the right to privacy. Another issue
concerns who has the right to own and control this information, especially with
the telecommunications companies and Internet giants contributing to the NSA’s
surveillance program.
Meanwhile, the transformation of media into digital form and the convergence
of media formats and industries have continued unabated. Research indicates that we
now spend more time using digital devices than we do with any other medium, includ-
ing television. Digital content is more likely to be viewed on a tablet or a smartphone
than it is on a laptop or a desktop computer. Digital distribution is now the dominant
format for music, television, and radio, whether delivered terrestrially, by satellite, or
via the Internet. Thanks to tablets and e-readers, ebooks have seen a dramatic surge in
popularity. Newspapers and magazines, which have experienced significant declines
in print circulation, are nonetheless seeing growth in tablet, smartphone, and online
distribution. Digital movies, television, and video-game distribution is now main-
stream, with companies such as Netflix and Amazon producing and streaming their
own original television shows. Tablets and other mobile devices are blurring the lines
between Internet, movies, and television while allowing technology companies like
Google, Apple, and Amazon to challenge traditional media distributors.
Our engagement with media has also changed, becoming more active as mass
and interpersonal communications converge. Any person can broadcast his or her
opinion on Twitter or via other social media, and increasingly people do so while
consuming traditional media, such as television. They post comments and engage
in conversation about popular shows. Interactive media, including video games,
constitute an increasingly popular form of entertainment.
Convergence also operates on a global scale today. The globalization of media in-
dustries and distribution has produced a cultural convergence that, at best, e­ nables
diverse local viewpoints to be heard and, at worst, smothers local culture in a homoge-
xxii
 Preface xxiii

neous Westernized culture. Yet the impact of other viewpoints is beginning to shape
the content of new Hollywood blockbusters and other forms of Western media.
Rarely have there been such differences in media usage between the digital
natives and those who grew up in a pre-Internet era of mass communication. One
group may enjoy reading a printed newspaper over breakfast; the other group may
get their news on a tablet—if they get any news at all. One group may have impres-
sive collections of CDs and DVDs; the other group may have their music and movie
collections in the digital, online “cloud” and accessible from any location or on their
portable devices. The younger group may worry how increased product placement
may affect the type of shows that are produced; the older group may wonder what
product placement is and why it matters. One group may believe that it is nobody’s
business what their relationship status is; the other group may publicly post that
and much more personal information on social-networking sites.
Interestingly, this media divide is often represented in the college classroom,
where college students are the digital natives and their professors are from an older
mass-media tradition. Yet the two parties converge, just like the media discussed in
this book, to form a greater understanding of where media have been, where they
are today, and where they are going.
One way to look at the state of mass communication today is that convergence is
bringing us the kinds of tools that audiences have long wanted with their media—the
ability to have greater control over what they watch, read, or listen to and the ability
to share their stories and their lives with others. But with that greater control also
comes greater responsibility and a greater need for us to understand how our media
work and how they may affect our society and political systems. A double-edged sword
cuts both ways, but which way it cuts depends largely on who is wielding it.

Converging Media, Fourth Edition: An Updated

Introduction to Mass Communication
Change is a constant in the mass-communication industry, and in recent years this
transformation has rocketed forward with surprising speed. Students are chang-
ing. The field is changing. The world is changing. Yet these changes go largely unno-
ticed in most textbooks. An introductory textbook should provide a foundation of
knowledge for students learning a new field. But when the foundation sits on a bed
of shifting sand, the introduction needs to be revised continually.
Converging Media: A New Introduction to Mass Communication embraces the
metamorphosis of today’s mass-communication system and examines the changes
even as it prepares students for what comes tomorrow. This book represents the be-
ginning of a third wave in mass-communication textbooks, building on the earlier
waves of case studies and critical-cultural approaches. This new approach demands
a more balanced and nuanced understanding of the role that technology and digital
media have played in our mass-communication environment.
The fourth edition of Converging Media follows the class-tested formula of the
previous edition by offering:
· A Fresh Perspective. Through the lens of convergence, our book shows
how different aspects of media are parts of a whole and how they influence
each other. Digital media are not relegated to special features or an isolated
chapter; they are integrated throughout every chapter. This reflects better
xxiv Preface
www.oup.com/us/pavlik

the world as students live in it and prepares them to understand the changes
that are taking place. This organization invites students and professors to
engage in timely discussions of media within a larger framework of under-
standing traditional mass-communication topics.
· Comprehensive Coverage of Traditional Media. In order to understand
the present, we have to study the past. We cover the development and his-
torical influences of print and electronic media and the issues these media
face today. The communication professions of journalism, advertising, and
public relations are viewed from historical, societal, and career perspectives,
giving students insights into how they interact and influence each other.
· Unique Coverage of Social Media. As the first introductory mass-­
communication textbook to devote a chapter to this emerging area, we place
social media within a larger media and sociocultural context. Today’s popular
social media tools are given a historical context and are connected thematically
to older online communication tools. Social media are such an integral part of
the media mix for so many people that they must be covered in an introductory
course, not introduced in an upper-division media and technology course.
· Cutting-edge Examples. We have chosen examples that are diverse, inter-
esting, and up to date. We have written Converging Media with students always
in mind—understanding the changing world they live in today. Taken from
popular media that are familiar and relevant to undergraduates, the examples
illustrate how the landscape of media has evolved—and is still evolving.
· Cultural Context. Mass communication, media technologies, and conver-
gence take place firmly within a sociocultural milieu that simultaneously
affects and is affected by these forces. Understanding this cultural context
is vital for a complete grasp of convergence and today’s media environment.
The authors emphasize the cultural influences and implications of media
technologies while explaining how they work and how they were developed.
· Emphasis on Ethics. The book has a chapter devoted entirely to ethics (Chap-
ter 10) and continues to thread ethics-related discussions throughout other
chapters, as appropriate. Students should learn that ethical considerations are
tightly linked to a full understanding of mass communication and media. Eth-
ics can also help guide us in the complex and often-confusing world of converg-
ing media, giving a basis for sound and humane decisions on media use and
production and new technologies and the way they affect people.
· International Perspectives. A new chapter on today’s global media en-
vironment (Chapter 14) provides a broad perspective on media in various
countries and the social, economic, and cultural effects of media globali-
zation overseas and domestically. The remaining chapters also highlight
international perspectives in feature boxes and in the text itself. Through
comparisons and contrasts, students obtain an appreciation for different
media systems throughout the world and how they work.

Features for Students

We have kept features limited and focused on a few key areas that will help bring out
interesting and relevant aspects of the content discussed in the book.
· Convergence Culture boxes showcase how media impact our social, politi-
cal, and popular culture in sometimes-dramatic ways.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 I saw the signs of thrift everywhere. Firewood was piled up for
the winter, and in many cases a few cords of pulpwood besides,
sometimes in such a manner as to form fences for the vegetable
gardens. This winter the pulpwood in these fences will be sold. The
chief crops raised are hay, oats, beans, and peas. The latter, in the
form of soup, is served almost daily in the Quebec farmer’s home.
In the villages all the signs are in French, and in one where I
stopped for a time, I had difficulty in making myself understood. The
British Canadian resents the fact that the French do not try to learn
English. On the other hand the French rather resent the English
neglect of French, which they consider the proper language of the
country. Proceedings in the provincial parliament are in both
tongues. French business men and the professional and office-
holding classes can speak English, but the mass of the people know
but the one language and are not encouraged to learn any other.
When the British conceded to Quebec the right to retain the
French language, the French law, and the Catholic Church, they
made it possible for the French to remain almost a separate people.
The French Canadians ask only that they be permitted to control
their own affairs in their own way, and to preserve their institutions of
family, church, and school. They cultivate the land and perform most
of the labour; they own all the small shops, while most of the big
business is in the hands of British Canadians. Any slight, real or
fancied, to the French language or institutions, is quickly resented.
The other day a French society and the Mayor of Quebec made a
formal protest to a hotel manager because he displayed a sign
printed only in English. American moving picture distributors must
supply their films with titles in French. Menu cards, traffic directions,
and, in fact, almost all notices of a public character, are always given
in both languages. Only two of the five daily newspapers are printed
in English; the others are French.
 In the old Lower Town are all sorts of narrow
streets that may end in the rock cliff, a flight of stairs,
or an elevator. Many of them are paved with planks.
 Miles of rail fences divide the French farms into
ribbon-like strips of land that extend from the St.
Lawrence far back to the wooded hills. This is the
result of repeated partition of the original holdings.
Quebec is now capitalizing her assets in the way of scenery and
historic association, and is calculating how much money a motor
tourist from the States is worth each day of his visit. The city of
Quebec hopes to become the St. Moritz of America and the centre
for winter sports. The Canadian Pacific Railroad has here the first of
its chain of hotels that extends across Canada. It is built in the
design of a French castle, and is so big that it dwarfs the Citadel.
The hotel provides every facility for winter sports, including skating
and curling rinks, toboggan slides, and ski jumps. It has expert ski
jumpers from Norway to initiate visitors into this sport, and dog
teams from Alaska to pull them on sleds. Quebec has snow on the
ground throughout the winter season, and the thermometer
sometimes drops to twenty-five degrees below zero, but the people
say the air is so dry that they do not feel this severe cold. Which
reminds me of Kipling’s verse:

There was a small boy of Quebec

Who was buried in snow to his neck.
When they asked: “Are you friz?”
He replied: “Yes I is——
But we don’t call this cold in Quebec.”
 CHAPTER VIII
STE. ANNE DE BEAUPRÉ AND ITS
MIRACULOUS CURES

I have just returned from a visit to the Shrine of the Good Sainte
Anne, where three hundred thousand pilgrims worshipped this year. I
have looked upon the holy relics and the crutches left behind by the
cured and my knees are sore from climbing up the sacred stairway.
The Shrine of Ste. Anne de Beaupré, some twenty miles down
the river from Quebec, is the most famous place of the kind on our
continent. Quebec is the capital of French Catholicism, and Beaupré
is its Mount Vernon, where good Catholics pay homage to the
grandmother of their church. The other day a family of five arrived at
Ste. Anne; they came from Mexico and had walked, they said, all the
way. Last summer two priests came here on foot from Boston, and I
talked this morning with a man who organizes weekly pilgrimages
from New England. Thousands come from the United States and
Canada, Alaska and Newfoundland. I saw to-day a couple just
arrived in a Pennsylvania motor truck.
On Ste. Anne’s day, July 26th, the number of pilgrims is often
twenty thousand and more. Special electric trains and motor busses
carry the worshippers from Quebec to Ste. Anne. For the
accommodation of overnight visitors, the one street of the village is
lined with little hotels and lodging houses that remind me of our
summer resorts. For a week before Ste. Anne’s day, every house is
packed, and sometimes the church is filled with pilgrims sitting up all
night. Frequently parties of several hundred persons leave Quebec
on foot at midnight, and walk to Ste. Anne, where they attend mass
before eating breakfast.
 The story of Ste. Anne de Beaupré goes back nearly two
thousand years. The saint was the mother of the Virgin Mary, and
therefore the grandmother of Christ. We are told that her body was
brought from Bethlehem to Jerusalem, and then to Apt, in France,
which thereupon became a great shrine. In a time of persecution her
bones disappeared, but they were later recovered in a miraculous
manner. According to tradition they were revealed to Charlemagne
by a youth born deaf, dumb, and blind. He indicated by signs an altar
beneath which a secret crypt was found. In the crypt a lamp was
burning and behind it was a wooden chest containing the remains of
the saint. The young man straightway was able to see, hear, and
speak, and the re-discovered shrine became a great source of
healing. This was exactly seven hundred years before Columbus
discovered America.
The first church of Ste. Anne was erected at Beaupré in 1658.
Tradition says it was built by sailors threatened with shipwreck, who
promised Ste. Anne a new church at whatever spot she would bring
them safely to land. Soon after the shrine was established bishops
and priests reported wonderful cures, and since then, as the fame of
the miracles spread, the shrine has become a great place of
worship. Churches, chapels, and monasteries have been built and
rebuilt, and countless gifts have been showered upon them. The first
relic of Ste. Anne brought here was a fragment of one of her finger
bones. In 1892, Pope Leo XIII gave the “Great Relic,” consisting of a
piece of bone from the saint’s wrist. This is now the chief object of
veneration by pilgrims.
On March 29, 1922, the shrine suffered a loss by fire. The great
church, or basilica, was completely destroyed, but the sacred relics
and most of the other articles of value were saved. The gilded
wooden statue of Ste. Anne, high up on the roof over the door, was
only slightly scorched by the blaze. It now stands in the gardens
awaiting the completion of the new church. The new building has
been planned on such a large scale that five years have been
allowed for its construction. Meanwhile, the pilgrims worship in a
temporary wooden structure.
 The numerous buildings that now form part of the shrine of Ste.
Anne are on both sides of the village street, which is also the chief
highway along the north bank of the St. Lawrence. On one side the
fenced fields of the narrow French farms slope down to the river. On
the other, hills rise up so steeply that they seem almost cliffs. The
church and the monastery and the school of the Redemptorist
Fathers, the order now in charge of the shrine, are on the river side.
Across the roadway are the Memorial Chapel, the stations marking
“The Way of the Cross,” the sacred stairway, and, farther up the
hillside, the convent of the Franciscan Sisters.
 In the province of Quebec nine tenths of the
people are French-speaking Catholics. Every village
supports a large church, every house contains a
picture of the Virgin Mary, and every road has its
wayside shrine.
 In the heart of the business and financial districts
of Montreal is the Place d’Armes, once the site of a
stockade and the scene of Indian fights. There stands
the church of Notre Dame, one of the largest in all
America.
 One of the Redemptorists, the Director of Pilgrimages, told me
much that was interesting about Ste. Anne and her shrine. He gave
me also a copy of the Order’s advice on “how to make a good
pilgrimage.” This booklet urges the pilgrim to hear Holy Mass as
soon as possible. It says that “the greatest number of miraculous
cures or favours are obtained at the Shrine after a fervent
Communion.”
“After Holy Communion,” the Order’s advices continue, “the act
most agreeable to Sainte Anne and the one most calculated to gain
her favours, is the veneration of her relic.”
The act of veneration is performed by pilgrims kneeling before
the shrine containing the piece of Ste. Anne’s wrist bone. It is then
that most of the cures are proclaimed. The people kneel in prayer as
close to the shrine as the number of worshippers will permit. Those
who experience a cure spring up in great joy and cast at the feet of
the saint’s statue their crutches or other evidence of their former
affliction. In the church I saw perhaps fifty crutches, canes, and
sticks left there this summer by grateful pilgrims. At the back of the
church I saw cases filled with spectacles, leg braces, and body
harnesses, and even a couple of wheel chairs, all abandoned by
pilgrims. One rack was filled with tobacco pipes, evidence of
promises to give up smoking in return for the saint’s favours.
The miraculous statue of Ste. Anne, before which the pilgrims
kneel, represents the saint holding in her arms the infant Christ. On
her head is a diadem of gold and precious stones, the gifts of the
devout. Below the statue is a slot marked “petitions.” Pilgrims having
special favours to ask of Ste. Anne write them on slips of paper and
drop them into the box. After three or four months, they are taken out
and burned. On the day of my visit the holy relic was not in its usual
place in the church, but in the chapel of the monastery, a fireproof
building, where it had been moved for safekeeping. It was there that
I gazed upon the bit of bone. The relic is encased in a box of solid
gold and is encircled by a broad gold band, about the size of a
napkin ring, set with twenty-eight diamonds. The box is studded with
gems and inlaid with richly coloured enamels. All the precious stones
came from jewellery given by pilgrims.
 I visited also the “Grotto of the Passion.” This contains three
groups of figures, representing events in the life of Christ. In front of
the central group is a large, shallow pan, partly filled with water and
dotted with the stumps of candles lighted and set there by pilgrims to
burn until extinguished by the water. The Grotto is in the lower part of
a wooden structure that looks like a church, built on the side of the
hill. Above is the “Scala Sancta,” or sacred stairway. Large signs
warn visitors that these stairs, which represent those in Pilate’s
house, are to be ascended only on the knees. There are twenty-eight
steps, and those who go up are supposed to pause on each one and
repeat a prayer. As I reverently mounted the steps, one by one, I
was reminded of the Scala Sancta in Rome, which I climbed in the
same way some years ago. It is a flight of twenty-eight marble steps
from the palace of Pilate at Jerusalem, up which our Saviour is said
to have climbed. It was brought to Rome toward the end of the
period of the crusades, and may be ascended only on the knees.
The stairway at Beaupré is often the scene of miraculous cures,
but none occurred while I was there. At the top the pilgrims kneel
again and make their devotions, ending with the words, “Good
Sainte Anne, pray for us.”
Near the church are stores that sell souvenirs, bead crosses,
and the like, the proceeds from which go toward the upkeep of the
shrine. At certain hours each day articles thus purchased, or those
the pilgrims have brought from home, are blessed by the priests in
attendance. Another source of revenue is the sale of the shrine
magazine, which has a circulation of about eighty thousand.
Subscribers whether “living or dead, share in one daily mass” said at
the shrine. Pilgrims are also invited to join the Association of the
Perpetual Mass, whose members, for the sum of fifty cents a year,
may share in a mass “said every day for all time.”
The Director of Pilgrimages told me that the past summer had
been the best season in the history of the shrine. The pilgrims this
year numbered more than three hundred thousand, their
contributions were generous, and the number of cures, or “favours,”
large. About one third of these, said the Director, prove to be
permanent. The Fathers take the name and address of each pilgrim
who claims to have experienced a miraculous cure, and inquiries are
made later to find out if relief has been lasting. The shrine has
quantities of letters and photographs as evidences of health and
strength being restored here, and I have from eye-witnesses first-
hand accounts of the joyous transports of the lame, the halt, and the
blind when their ailments vanish, apparently, in the twinkling of an
eye.
I have referred to Quebec as the American capital of French
Catholicism. It is not only a city of many churches, but is also
headquarters for numerous Catholic orders, some of which
established themselves here after being driven from France. The
value of their property holdings now amounts to a large sum, and
one of the new real-estate sub-divisions is being developed by a
clerical order. Many of the fine old mansion homes, with park-like
grounds, once owned by British Canadians, are now in the hands of
religious organizations. The Ursuline nuns used to own the Plains of
Abraham, and were about to sell the tract for building lots when
public sentiment compelled the government to purchase it and
convert it into a park. A statue of General Wolfe marks the spot
where he died on the battlefield. It is the third one erected there, the
first two having been ruined by souvenir fiends.
The homes of the Catholic orders in Quebec supply priests for
the new parishes constantly being formed in Canada. They also
send their missionaries to all parts of the world, and from one of the
nunneries volunteers go to the leper colonies in Madagascar. Other
orders maintain hospitals, orphanages, and institutions identified with
the city’s historic past. Before an altar in one of the churches two
nuns, dressed in bridal white, are always praying, night and day,
each couple being relieved every half hour. In another a lamp
burning before a statue of the Virgin has not been extinguished since
it was first lighted, fifteen years before George Washington was born.
Some of the churches contain art treasures of great value, besides
articles rich in their historical associations.
Driving in the outskirts of Quebec I met a party of Franciscan
monks returning from their afternoon walk. They were bespectacled,
studious-looking young men, clad in robes of a gingerbread brown,
fastened with white girdles, and wearing sandals on their bare feet.
All were tonsured, but I noticed that their shaved crowns were in
many instances in need of a fresh cutting. These men alternate
studies with manual labour in the fields. In front of the church of this
order is a great wooden cross bearing the figure of Christ. Before it is
a stone where the devout kneel and embrace His wounded feet.
Near by is also a statue of St. Ignatius, founder of the Jesuit Order,
standing with one foot on the neck of a man who represents the
heretics.
There are in Quebec a few thousand Irish Catholics,
descendants of people who came here to escape the famine in
Ireland. They have built a church of their own. Another church,
shown to visitors as a curiosity, is that of the French Protestants,
who, according to the latest figures, number exactly one hundred
and thirty-five.
Though a city of well over one hundred thousand people,
Quebec has an enviable record for peace and order and for
comparatively few crimes. The credit for this is generally given to the
influence of the Church, which is also responsible, so I am told, for
the success of the French Canadian in “minding his own business.”
The loyalty of the people to their faith is evidenced by the fact that
even the smallest village has a big church. Outside the cities the
priest, or curé, is in fact the shepherd of his flock, and their
consultant on all sorts of matters. I am told, however, that the clergy
do not exercise the same control over political and worldly affairs as
was formerly the case, and not nearly so much as is generally
supposed. It is still true, however, that the Catholic religion is second
only to the French language in keeping the French Canadians
almost a separate people.
 CHAPTER IX
MONTREAL

Following the course of the French explorers, I have come up

the St. Lawrence to the head of navigation, and am now in Montreal,
the largest city of Canada and the second port of North America. It is
an outlet for much of the grain of both the United States and
Canada, and it handles one third of all the foreign trade of the
Dominion. Montreal is the financial centre of the country and the
headquarters for many of its largest business enterprises. In a
commercial sense, it is indeed the New York of Canada, although
totally unlike our metropolis.
In order to account for the importance of Montreal, it is
necessary only to glance at the map. Look first at the Gulf of St.
Lawrence and the broad mouth of the river! See how they form a
great funnel inviting the world to pour in its people and goods. Follow
the St. Lawrence down to Quebec and on by Montreal to the Great
Lakes, which extend westward to the very heart of the continent.
There is no such waterway on the face of the globe and none that
carries such a vast commerce into the midst of a great industrial
empire.
Montreal is the greatest inland port in the world. It ships more
grain than any other city. It is only four hundred and twenty miles
north of New York, yet it is three hundred miles nearer Liverpool.
One third of the distance to that British port lies between here and
the Straits of Belle Isle, where the Canadian liners first meet the
waves of the open sea. The city is the terminus of the canal from the
Great Lakes to the St. Lawrence and of Canada’s three
transcontinental railways. Vessels from all over the world come here
to get cargoes assembled from one of the most productive regions
on the globe. Although frozen in for five months every winter,
Montreal annually handles nearly four million tons of shipping, most
of which is under the British flag. It has a foreign trade of more than
five hundred million dollars. The annual grain movement sometimes
exceeds one hundred and sixty bushels for each of the city’s
population of almost a million.
In the modern sense, the port is not yet one hundred years old,
though Cartier was here nearly four centuries ago, and Champlain
came only seventy years later. Both were prevented from going
farther upstream by the Lachine Rapids, just above the present city.
Cartier was seeking the northwest passage to the East Indies, and
he gave the rapids the name La Chine because he thought that
beyond them lay China.
At the foot of the rapids the Frenchmen found an island, thirty
miles long and from seven to ten miles wide, separated from the
mainland by the two mouths of the Ottawa River. It was then
occupied by a fortified Indian settlement. The presence of the
Indians seemed to make the island an appropriate site on which to
lay the foundations of the new Catholic “Kingdom of God,” and the
great hill in the background, seven hundred and forty feet high,
suggested the name, Mont Real, or Mount Royal.
Although the Indians seemed to prefer fighting the newcomers to
gaining salvation, the religious motive was long kept alive, and it was
not until early in the last century that the city began to assume great
commercial importance. During the first days of our Revolution,
General Montgomery occupied Montreal for a time, and Benjamin
Franklin begged its citizens to join our rebellion. It had then about
four thousand inhabitants. Even as late as 1830 Montreal was a
walled town, with only a beach in the way of shipping
accommodations. The other day it was described by an expert from
New York as the most efficiently organized port in the world.
I have gone down to the harbour and been lifted up to the tops of
grain elevators half as high as the Washington Monument. I have
also been a guest of the Harbour Commission in a tour of the water-
front. The Commission is an all-powerful body in the development
and control of the port. Its members, who are appointed by the
Dominion government, have spent nearly forty million dollars in
improvements. This sum amounts to almost five dollars a head for
everyone in Canada, but the port has always earned the interest on
its bonds, and has never been a burden to the taxpayers.
An American, Peter Fleming, who built the locks on the Erie
Canal, drew the first plans for the harbour development of Montreal.
That was about a century ago. Now the city has its own expert port
engineers, and last summer one of the firms here built in ninety days
a grain elevator addition with a capacity of twelve hundred and fifty
thousand bushels. A giant new elevator, larger than any in existence,
is now being erected. It will have a total capacity of fourteen million
bushels of grain.
 Montreal’s future, like her present greatness, lies
along her water front. Here the giant elevators load
the grain crop of half a continent into vessels that sail
the seven seas.
 On a clear day one may stand on Mt. Royal,
overlooking Montreal and the St. Lawrence, and see
in the distance the Green Mountains of Vermont and
the Adirondacks of New York.
The port handles at times as much as twenty-three hundred
thousand bushels of wheat in a day. It is not uncommon for a lake
vessel to arrive early in the morning, discharge its cargo, and start
back to the head of the lakes before noon. Rivers of wheat are
sucked out of the barges, steamers, and freight cars, and flow at
high speed into the storage bins. There are sixty miles of water-front
railways, most of which have been electrified. Every operation
possible is performed by machinery, and there are never more than
a few workmen anywhere in sight. Yet the grain business is a source
of great revenue to the city, and furnishes a living to thousands of
people. One of the industries it has built up is that of making grain
sacks, of which one firm here turns out two and one half millions a
year.
But let me tell you something of the city itself—or, better still,
suppose we go up to the top of Mount Royal and look down upon it
as it lies under our eyes. We shall start from my hotel, a new eight-
million-dollar structure erected chiefly to accommodate American
visitors, and take a coach. As a concession to hack drivers, taxis are
not allowed on top of Mount Royal.
Our way lies through the grounds of McGill University, and past
one of the reservoirs built in the hillside to supply the city with water
pumped from the river. McGill is the principal Protestant educational
institution in the province of Quebec. Here Stephen Leacock teaches
political economy when he is not lecturing or writing his popular
humorous essays. Besides colleges of art, law, medicine, and
applied science, McGill has a school of practical agriculture. It also
teaches young women how to cook. It has branches at Victoria and
Vancouver in British Columbia. The medical school is rated
especially high, and many of its graduates are practicing physicians
in the United States.
Now we are on the winding drive leading to the top of the hill.
Steep flights of wooden stairs furnish a shorter way up for those
equal to a stiff climb, and we pass several parties of horseback
riders. All this area is a public park, and a favourite spot with the
people of the city. See those three women dressed in smart sport
suits, carrying slender walking sticks. They seem very English. Over
there are two girls, in knickers and blouses, gaily conversing with
their young men. They have dark eyes and dark hair, with a brunette
glow on their cheeks that marks them as French.
Step to the railing on the edge of the summit. If the day were
clear we could see the Adirondacks and the Green Mountains of
Vermont. Like a broad ribbon of silver the St. Lawrence flows at our
feet. That island over there is called St. Helene, bought by
Champlain as a present for his wife. Since he paid for it out of her
dowry, he could hardly do less than give it her name.
That narrow thread to the right, parallel with the river, is the
Lachine Canal, in which a steamer is beginning its climb to the level
of Lake St. Louis. The canal has a depth of fourteen feet, and
accommodates ships up to twenty-five hundred tons. The shores of
the lake, which is really only a widening out of the river, furnish
pleasant sites for summer bungalows and cool drives on hot nights.
Nearer the city the canal banks are lined with warehouses and
factories. Montreal’s manufactures amount to more than five
hundred million dollars a year.
There below us is Victoria Jubilee Bridge, one and three quarters
miles long. Over it trains and motors from the United States come
into the city. Another railroad penetrates the heart of Montreal by a
tunnel under Mount Royal that has twin tubes more than three miles
in length. The Canadian Pacific Railroad has bridged the St.
Lawrence at Lachine.
Most of Montreal lies between Mount Royal and the river, but the
wings of the city reach around on each side of the hill. The French
live in the eastern section. The western suburbs contain the homes
of well-to-do English Canadians. One of them, Westmount, is
actually surrounded by the city, yet it insists on remaining a separate
municipality.
Mark Twain said that he would not dare throw a stone in
Montreal for fear of smashing a church window. If he could view the
city to-day he would be even more timid. Almost every building that
rises above the skyline is a church, and the largest structures are
generally Catholic schools, colleges, hospitals, or orphanages.