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Thermal Food Engineering
Operations
Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Bioprocessing in Food Science
Series Editor: Anil Panghal, PhD
Scope: Bioprocessing in Food Science will comprise a series of volumes covering the entirety of
food science, unit operations in food processing, nutrition, food chemistry, microbiology, biotech-
nology, physics and engineering during harvesting, processing, packaging, food safety, and storage
and supply chain of food. The main objectives of this series are to disseminate knowledge pertaining
to recent technologies developed in the field of food science and food process engineering to students,
researchers and industry people. This will enable them to make crucial decisions regarding adoption,
implementation, economics and constraints of the different technologies.
As the demand of healthy food is increasing in the current global scenario, so manufacturers are
searching for new possibilities for occupying a major share in a rapidly changing food market.
Compiled reports and knowledge on bioprocessing and food products is a must for industry people.
In the current scenario, academia, researchers and food industries are working in a scattered manner
and different technologies developed at each level are not implemented for the benefits of different
stake holders. However, the advancements in bioprocesses are required at all levels for betterment
of food industries and consumers.
The volumes in this series will be comprehensive compilations of all the research that has been
carried out so far, their practical applications and the future scope of research and development in
the food bioprocessing industry. The novel technologies employed for processing different types of
foods, encompassing the background, principles, classification, applications, equipment, effect on
foods, legislative issue, technology implementation, constraints, and food and human safety
concerns will be covered in this series in an orderly fashion. These volumes will comprehensively
meet the knowledge requirements for the curriculum of undergraduate, postgraduate and research
students for learning the concepts of bioprocessing in food engineering. Undergraduate, post
graduate students and academicians, researchers in academics and in the industry, large- and small-
scale manufacturers, national research laboratories, all working in the field of food science, agri-
processing and food biotechnology will benefit.
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Thermal Food Engineering
Operations
Edited by
Nitin Kumar
Anil Panghal
and
M. K. Garg
This edition first published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 9781119775591
Cover image: Wikimedia Commons and the editors

Cover design by Russell Richardson
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
Printed in the USA
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface xvii
1 Novel Thermal Technologies: Trends and Prospects 1
Amrita Preetam, Vipasha, Sushree Titikshya, Vivek Kumar,
K.K. Pant and S. N. Naik
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Novel Thermal Technologies: Current Status and Trends 3
1.2.1 Environmental Impact of Novel Thermal Technologies 6
1.2.2 The Objective of Thermal Processing 8
1.2.3 Preservation Process 9
1.3 Types of Thermal Technologies 11
1.3.1 Infrared Heating 12
1.3.1.1 Principal and Mechanism 12
1.3.1.2 Advantages of IR Heating 13
1.3.1.3 Applications of IR Heating 14
1.3.2 Microwave Heating 14
1.3.2.2 Advantages of Microwave in Food Industry 17
1.3.2.3 Application of Microwave in Food Processing
Technologies 19
1.3.3 Radiofrequency (RF) Heating 24
1.3.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 26
1.3.3.3 Applications 27
1.3.4 Ohmic Heating 28
1.3.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages 31
1.3.4.3 Applications 33
1.4 Future Perspective of Novel Thermal Technologies 36
1.5 Conclusion 36
References 37
v
vi Contents
2 Microbial Inactivation with Heat Treatments 45

Sushree Titikshya, Monalisa Sahoo, Vivek Kumar and S.N. Naik
2.1 Introduction 45
2.2 Innovate Thermal Techniques for Food Reservation 47
2.3 Inactivation Mechanism of Targeted Microorganism 48
2.3.1 Action Approach and Inactivation Targets 49
2.4 Environmental Stress Adaption 50
2.4.1 Sublethal Injury 50
2.5 Resistance of Stress 51
2.5.1 Oxidative Stress 51
2.5.2 Osmotic Stress 52
2.5.3 Pressure 52
2.6 Various Techniques for Thermal Inactivation 52
2.6.1 Infrared Heating 52
2.6.1.1 Principle and Mechanism 52
2.6.1.2 Application for Inactivation in Food Sector 53
2.6.2 Microwave Heating 57
2.6.3 Radiofrequency Heating 59
2.6.4 Instant Controlled Pressure Drop Technology (DIC) 60
2.6.5 Ohmic Heating 62
2.7 Forthcoming Movements of Thermal Practices
in Food Industry 64
2.8 Conclusion 65
References 66
3 Blanching, Pasteurization and Sterilization: Principles
and Applications 75
Monalisa Sahoo, Sushree Titikshya, Pramod Aradwad,
Vivek Kumar and S. N. Naik
3.1 Introduction 76
3.2 Blanching: Principles & Mechanism 76
3.2.1 Types of Blanching 76
3.2.1.1 Hot Water Blanching 76
Contents vii
3.2.1.2 Steam Blanching 80

3.2.1.3 High Humidity Hot Air Impingement
Blanching (HHAIB) 81
3.2.1.4 Microwave Blanching 81
3.2.1.5 Ohmic Blanching 85
3.2.1.6 Infrared Blanching 86
3.2.2 Application of Blanching 89
3.2.2.1 Inactivation of Enzymes 89
3.2.2.2 Enhancement of Product Quality
and Dehydration 90
3.2.2.3 Toxic and Pesticides Residues Removal 90
3.2.2.4 Decreasing Microbial Load 90
3.2.2.5 Reducing Non-Enzymatic Browning
Reaction 91
3.2.2.6 Peeling 91
3.2.2.7 Entrapped Air Removal 91
3.2.2.8 Enhancing Bioactive Extraction
Efficiency 91
3.2.2.9 Other Applications 92
3.3 Pasteurization: Principles & Mechanism 92
3.3.1 Thermal Pasteurization 92
3.3.2 Traditional Thermal Pasteurization 93
3.3.3 Microwave and Radiofrequency Pasteurization 93
3.3.4 Ohmic Heating Pasteurization 94
3.3.5 Application of Pasteurization 98
3.4 Sterilization: Principles, Mechanism and Types
of Sterilization 98
3.4.1 Conventional Sterilization Methods 99
3.4.2 Advanced Retorting 100
3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Thermal Sterilization 101
3.4.4 Pressure-Assisted Thermal Sterilization 103
3.5 Conclusions 104
References 104
4 Aseptic Processing 117
Malathi Nanjegowda, Bhaveshkumar Jani and Bansee Devani
4.1 Introduction 118
4.2 Aseptic Processing 118
4.3 Principle of Thermal Sterilization 121
4.3.1 Effect of Thermal Treatment on Enzymes 123
viii Contents
4.3.2 Effect of Thermal Treatments on Nutrients

and Quality 123
4.3.3 Effect of Thermal Treatments on the Cooking
Index (C0) 124
4.3.4 Effect of Heat Treatments on Chemical Reactions
in Food 124
4.4 Components of Aseptic Processing 124
4.4.1 Equipment Used in Aseptic/UHT Processing 124
4.4.1.1 Indirect Heat Exchanger 125
4.4.1.2 Direct Heat Exchanger 126
4.4.1.3 Ohmic Heating (OH) 126
4.5 Aseptic Packaging 127
4.5.1 Types of Packaging Materials Used in Aseptic
Processing 127
4.5.2 Methods and Requirements of Decontamination
of Packaging Materials 128
4.6 Applications of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 128
4.6.1 Milk Processing 133
4.6.2 Non-Milk Products Processing 135
4.7 Advantages of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 136
4.8 Challenges of Aseptic Processing and Packaging 137
4.9 Conclusion 137
References 138
5 Spray Drying: Principles and Applications 141
Sukirti Joshi, Asutosh Mohapatra, Lavika Singh
and Jatindra K Sahu
5.2 Concentration of Feed Solution 142
5.3 Atomization of Concentrated Feed 143
5.3.1 Principle of Atomization 143
5.3.2 Classification of Atomizers 143
5.3.2.1 Rotary Atomizers 144
5.3.2.2 Pressure Nozzle/Hydraulic Atomizer 144
5.3.2.3 Two‐Fluid Nozzle Atomizer 145
5.4 Droplet‐Hot Air Contact 145
5.5 Drying of Droplets 146
5.6 Particle Separation 148
5.7 Effect of Process Parameters on Product Quality 148
5.7.1 Process Parameters of Atomization 150
5.7.2 Parameters of Spray‐Air Contact and Evaporation 151
Contents ix
5.7.2.1 Spray Angle 151

5.7.2.2 Aspirator Flow Rate 151
5.7.2.3 Inlet Air Temperature 151
5.7.2.4 Outlet Air Temperature 152
5.7.2.5 Glass Transition Temperature 152
5.7.2.6 Residence Time 153
5.8 Classification of Spray Dryer 153
5.8.1 Open-Cycle Spray Dryer 153
5.8.2 Closed-Cycle Spray Dryer 154
5.8.3 Semi‐Closed Cycle Spray Dryer 154
5.8.4 Single‐Stage Spray Dryer 154
5.8.5 Two‐Stage Spray Dryer 154
5.8.6 Short‐Form Spray Dryer 154
5.8.7 Tall‐Form Spray Dryer 154
5.9 Morphological Characterization of Spray-Dried
Particles 155
5.10 Application of Spray Drying for Foods 156
5.11 Wall Materials 157
5.11.1 Carbohydrate-Based Wall Materials 158
5.11.1.1 Starch 158
5.11.1.2 Modified Starch 158
5.11.1.3 Maltodextrins 158
5.11.2 Cyclodextrins 159
5.11.3 Gum Arabic 159
5.11.4 Inulin 159
5.11.5 Pectin 160
5.11.6 Chitin and Chitosan 160
5.11.7 Protein-Based Wall Materials 160
5.11.7.1 Whey Protein Isolate 161
5.11.7.2 Skim Milk Powder 161
5.11.7.3 Soy Protein Isolate (SPI) 161
5.12 Encapsulation of Probiotics 162
5.12.1 Choice of Bacterial Strain 162
5.12.2 Response to Cellular Stresses 163
5.12.3 Growth Conditions 164
5.12.4 Effect of pH 164
5.12.5 Harvesting Technique 165
5.12.6 Total Solid Content of the Feed Concentrate 165
5.13 Encapsulation of Vitamins 165
5.14 Encapsulation of Flavours and Volatile Compounds 166
5.14.1 Selective Diffusion Theory 166
x Contents
5.15 Conclusion and Perspectives 170

References 170
6 Solar Drying: Principles and Applications 179
Baher M. A. Amer
6.2 Principle of Solar Drying 180
6.3 Construction of Solar Dryer 181
6.4 Historical Classification of Solar Energy Drying Systems 182
6.5 Storing Solar Energy for Drying 185
6.6 Hybrid/Mixed Solar Drying System 186
6.7 Solar Greenhouse Dryer 188
6.8 Solar Drying Economy 188
6.9 New Applications Related to Solar Drying 190
References 192
7 Fluidized Bed Drying: Recent Developments and Applications 197
Praveen Saini, Nitin Kumar, Sunil Kumar and Anil Panghal
7.2 Principle and Design Considerations of Fluidized
Bed Dryer 198
7.2.1 Spouted Bed Dryer 201
7.2.2 Spout Fluidized Bed Dryer 202
7.2.3 Hybrid Drying Techniques 205
7.2.3.1 Microwave-Assisted FBD 205
7.2.3.2 FIR-Assisted FBD 206
7.2.3.3 Heat Pump–Assisted FBD 207
7.2.3.4 Solar-Assisted FBD 207
7.3 Design Alterations for Improved Fluidization Capacity 208
7.3.1 Vibrated Fluidized Bed 208
7.3.2 Agitated Fluidized Bed 209
7.3.3 Centrifugal Fluidized Bed 210
7.4 Energy Consumption in Fluidized Bed Drying 211
7.5 Effect of Fluidized Bed Drying on the Quality 212
7.6 Applications of Fluidized Bed Drying 215
7.7 Concluding Remarks 215
References 215
8 Dehumidifier Assisted Drying: Recent Developments 221
Vaishali Wankhade, Vaishali Pande, Monalisa Sahoo
and Chirasmita Panigrahi
8.2 Absorbent Air Dryer 222
Contents xi
8.2.1 Working Principle of Adsorption Air Dryer 223

8.2.2 Design Considerations and Components
of the Absorbent Air Drier 223
8.2.2.1 Desiccant Drying System 223
8.2.3 Performance Indicators of Desiccant Air
Dryer System 226
8.2.3.1 Low Temperature Drying With No
Temperature Control and Air Circulation
System 227
8.2.3.2 Low Temperature Drying With Air
Circulation and Temperature Control 228
8.3 Heat Pump–Assisted Dehumidifier Dryer 228
8.3.1 Working Principles of a Heat Pump–Assisted
Dehumidifier Dryer 229
8.3.2 Performance Indicators of Heat Pump–Assisted
Dehumidifier Dryer 231
8.4 Applications of Dehumidifier-Assisted Dryers
in Agriculture and Food Processing 233
8.5 Concluding Remarks 234
References 234
9 Refractance Window Drying: Principles and Applications 237
Peter Waboi Mwaurah, Modiri Dirisca Setlhoka
and Tanu Malik
9.2 Refractance Window Drying System 239
9.2.1 History and Origin 239
9.2.2 Components and Working of the Dryer 240
9.2.3 Principle of Operation 242
9.3 Heat Transfer and Drying Kinetics 244
9.3.1 Drying Rate and Moisture Reduction Rate 245
9.4 Effect of Process Parameters on Drying 245
9.4.1 Effect of Temperature of the Hot Circulating Water 245
9.4.2 Effect of Product Inlet Temperature and Thickness 246
9.4.3 Effect of Residence Time 247
9.4.4 Effect of Ambient Air Temperature
(Air Convection) 247
9.5 Comparison of Refractance Window Dryer
with Other Types of Dryers 247
9.6 Effect of Refractance Window Drying on Quality
of Food Products 248
xii Contents
9.6.1 Effects on Food Color 249

9.6.2 Effects on Bioactive Compounds 250
9.6.2.1 Carotene Retention 251
9.6.2.2 Ascorbic Acid Retention 252
9.6.2.3 Anthocyanin Retention 252
9.7 Applications of Refractance Window Drying in Food
and Agriculture 253
9.7.1 Applications of Refractance Window Drying
in Preservation of Heat-Sensitive and Bioactive
Compounds 253
9.7.2 Applications of Refractance Window Drying
on Food Safety 254
9.8 Advantages and Limitations of Refractance Window Dryer 255
9.9 Recent Developments in Refractance Window Drying 255
9.10 Conclusion and Future Prospects 256
References 257
10 Ohmic Heating: Principles and Applications 261
Sourav Misra, Shubham Mandliya and Chirasmita Panigrahi
10.2 Basic Principles 263
10.3 Process Parameters 265
10.3.1 Electrical Conductivity 265
10.3.2 Electrical Field Strength 266
10.3.3 Frequency and Waveform 267
10.3.4 Product Size, Viscosity, and Heat Capacity 267
10.3.5 Particle Concentration 267
10.3.6 Ionic Concentration 267
10.3.7 Electrodes 268
10.4 Equipment Design 268
10.5 Application 270
10.5.1 Blanching 276
10.5.2 Pasteurisation/Sterilization 276
10.5.3 Extraction 277
10.5.4 Dehydration 278
10.5.5 Fermentation 279
10.5.6 Ohmic Thawing 280
10.6 Effect of Ohmic Heating on Quality Characteristics
of Food Products 280
10.6.1 Starch and Flours 280
Contents xiii
10.6.1.1 Water Absorption Index (WAI)

and Water Solubility Index (WSI) 280
10.6.1.2 Pasting Properties 280
10.6.1.3 Thermal Properties 281
10.6.2 Meat Products 282
10.6.3 Fruits and Vegetable Products 282
10.6.3.1 Electrical Properties 282
10.6.3.2 Soluble Solids Content and Acidity 282
10.6.3.3 Vitamins 283
10.6.3.4 Flavor Compounds 284
10.6.3.5 Phenolic Compounds 284
10.6.3.6 Colour Properties 284
10.6.3.7 Change in Chlorophyll Content 285
10.6.3.8 Textural Properties 285
10.6.3.9 Sensory Properties 286
10.6.4 Dairy Products 286
10.6.5 Seafoods 290
10.7 Advantages of Ohmic Heating 290
10.8 Disadvantages of Ohmic Heating 291
10.9 Conclusions 291
References 292
11 Microwave Food Processing: Principles and Applications 301
Jean-Claude Laguerre and Mohamad Mazen Hamoud-Agha
11.2 Principles of Microwave Heating 302
11.2.1 Nature of Microwaves 302
11.2.1.1 Propagation of EM Waves
in Free Space 302
11.2.1.2 Propagation of EM Waves in Matter 306
11.2.2 Mechanism of Microwave Heating 309
11.2.2.1 Dielectric Characteristic of a Material 309
11.2.2.2 Waves-Product Interactions 312
11.2.3 Transmission and Absorption of a Wave
in a Material 316
11.2.3.1 Expression of Transmitted Power 316
11.2.3.2 Penetration Depths 317
11.2.3.3 Power Dissipation 319
11.3 Applications 320
11.3.1 Microwave Baking 320
xiv Contents
11.3.2 Microwave Blanching 323

11.3.3 Microwave Tempering and Thawing 326
11.3.4 Microwave Drying 328
11.3.4.1 Microwave-Assisted Hot Air Drying 329
11.3.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Vacuum Drying 330
11.3.4.3 Microwave-Assisted Freeze-Drying 330
11.3.5 Microwave Pasteurization and Sterilization 331
References 334
12 Infrared Radiation: Principles and Applications
in Food Processing 349
Puneet Kumar, Subir Kumar Chakraborty and Lalita
12.2 Mechanism of Heat Transfer 351
12.2.1 Principles of IR Heating 351
12.2.1.1 Planck’s Law 352
12.2.1.2 Wien’s Displacement Law 352
12.2.1.3 Stefan–Boltzmann’s Law 352
12.2.2 Source of IR Radiations 353
12.2.2.1 Natural Source 354
12.2.2.2 Artificial Sources 354
12.3 Factors Affecting the Absorption of Energy 356
12.3.1 Characteristics of Food Materials 357
12.3.1.1 Composition 357
12.3.1.2 Layer Thickness 357
12.3.2 IR Parameters 357
12.3.2.1 Wavelength of IR Rays 358
12.3.2.2 IR Intensity 358
12.3.2.3 Depth of Penetration 358
12.3.3 Advantages of IR Heating Over
Conventional Heating Methods 359
12.4 Applications of IR in Food Processing 359
12.4.1 Drying 360
12.4.2 Peeling 361
12.4.4 Microbial Decontamination 364
12.5 IR-Assisted Hybrid Drying Technologies 366
12.5.1 IR-Freeze-Drying 366
12.5.2 Hot Air-Assisted IR Heating 367
Contents xv
12.5.3 Low-Pressure Superheated Steam Drying with IR 368

12.6 Conclusion 368
References 369
13 Radiofrequency Heating 375
Chirasmita Panigrahi, Monalisha Sahoo, Vaishali Wankhade
and Siddharth Vishwakarma
13.2 History of RF Heating 377
13.3 Principles and Equipment 378
13.3.1 Basic Mechanism of Dielectric Heating 378
13.3.1.1 Basic Mechanism and Working
of Radiofrequency Heating 379
13.3.1.2 Basic Mechanism and Working
of Microwave Heating 380
13.3.2 Factors of Food Affecting the Performance
of RF Processing 380
13.3.2.1 Permittivity and Loss Factor 380
13.3.2.2 Power Density and Penetration Depth 381
13.3.2.3 Wave Impedance and Power Reflection 382
13.3.3 Comparison of RF Heating With Other Methods 383
13.3.4 Lab Scale and Commercial Scale
of RF Equipment 385
13.3.4.1 Radiofrequency Processing of Food
at Lab Scale 386
13.3.4.2 Radiofrequency Processing of Food
at Industrial Scale 387
13.4 Applications in Food Processing 388
13.4.1 Drying 388
13.4.2 Thawing 393
13.4.3 Roasting 394
13.4.4 Baking 394
13.4.5 Disinfestation 395
13.4.7 Pasteurization/Sterilization 396
13.5 Technological Constraints, Health Hazards,
and Safety Aspects 399
13.6 Commercialization Aspects and Future Trends 402
13.7 Conclusions 404
References 404
xvi Contents
14 Quality, Food Safety and Role of Technology in Food Industry 415

Nartaj Singh and Prashant Bagade
14.1.1 Food Quality 417
14.1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Food
Processing 419
14.1.1.2 Historical Trends in Food Quality 421
14.1.1.3 Food Quality Standards
and its Requirements 423
14.1.1.4 Role of Technology in Building
Food Quality Within the Industry 440
14.1.1.5 Regulations and their Requirements 444
14.1.2 Food Safety 445
14.1.2.1 Primary and Secondary
Food Production 445
14.1.2.2 Historical Trends in Food Safety 446
14.1.2.3 Food Safety Standards
and its Requirements 447
14.1.2.4 Role of Technology in Building
Food Safety Within Industry 450
14.2 Future Trends in Quality and Food Safety 451
14.3 Conclusion 453
References 453
Index 455
Preface
Thermal processing is a significant component of the undergraduate and

postgraduate degrees in agriculture engineering, food engineering and
food science technology throughout the world. Thermal food engineering
operations are considered one of the core competencies for these programs
and in industries as well. Researchers will be able to use the informa-
tion as a guide in establishing the direction of future research on thermo-
physical properties and food processing. The audience for this volume will be
the student preparing for a career as a food engineer, practicing engineers in
the food and related industries, and scientists and technologists seeking infor-
mation about processes and the information needed in design and develop-
ment of thermal food engineering processes and operations. Simultaneously,
improving food quality and food safety are continue to be critical issues
during thermal processing. So, quality, food safety and role of technology in
food industry are discussed to cover these areas of food industry.
A great variety of topics is covered, with the emphasis on the most
recent development in thermal operations in food industry. The chapters
presented in this volume throw light on a number of research subjects that
have provided critical information on different thermal processes, their
impact on different food components, and their feasibility in food indus-
try. Each chapter also provides background information of the changes in
different thermal operations which changed drastically over the years. The
authors emphasis on newer thermal technologies which are making a great
impact on the industry and the resulting finished products. The adoption
of modern technology has increased efficiency and productivity within
the factory. Most importantly, utilizing the newer thermal operations has
greatly improved product quality. All chapters are supported with a wealth
of useful references that should prove to be an invaluable source for the
reader. Self-explanatory illustrations and tables have been incorporated in
each chapter complimentary to the main text.
Thanks are due to all authors for contributing their knowledgeable chap-
ters in this volume and helping us to complete the book. We also thank the
xvii
xviii Preface
authorities of Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University,

Hisar for their help and support. Finally, we also express indebtedness and
thankfulness to Scrivener Publishing and Wiley team for their unfailing
guidance and helpful assistance.
Nitin Kumar
Anil Panghal
M.K. Garg
1
Novel Thermal Technologies:
Trends and Prospects
Amrita Preetam1*, Vipasha1, Sushree Titikshya1, Vivek Kumar1, K.K. Pant2
and S. N. Naik1
1
Centre for Rural Development and Technology, IIT Delhi, Delhi, India
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Delhi, Delhi, India
Abstract
Heating is possibly the most traditional way of processing foods. The technologies
involved in heating have been continuously developing for the past many years as
per consumer need, satisfaction and demand. Techniques such as dielectric heat-
ing, ohmic heating, and infrared heating are evolving and can substitute for the
conventional heating methods for improving quality and shelf life, and providing a
faster production rate. The conventional technologies are primarily based on con-
vective, conductive, and radiative heat transfer. But the new novel thermal meth-
ods are mainly relying on the electromagnetic field or electrical conductivity and
are having cleaner environmental impacts such as energy saving, water savings,
improved efficiencies, fewer emissions, and eventually decreasing dependency
on non-renewable resources. The chapter discusses novel thermal technologies.
Definitions, basic principles, environmental impacts, current trends, and future
perspectives are described along with the mechanism and advantages of the novel
thermal technologies. The novel thermal technologies are continuously emerging
and evolving as per consumer requirements and need.
Keywords: Novel thermal technologies, infrared heating, ohmic heating,
microwave heating, radiofrequency heating
1.1 Introduction
The primary goal for food processors is quality and safety assurance. To
ensure microbiological food safety, the use of heat by thermal operation
*Corresponding author: amritapreetam92@gmail.com
Nitin Kumar, Anil Panghal and M. K. Garg (eds.) Thermal Food Engineering Operations, (1–44)
© 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
2 Thermal Food Engineering Operations
involving drying, sterilization, evaporation, and other methods are com-

mon practices. The conventional heating methods rely on principles such
as convection, radiation, and conduction [36] that primarily rely on heat
generation exterior of the product to be warmed up. But there are limita-
tions attached to it. These conventional ways of processing, due to the
decrease in efficiency of heat transfer, by excessive heating because of time
reach the thermal center of foods for conducting sufficient heat or losses
because of the heat on the surface of equipment and installation. Some of
these problems can be resolved by technical solutions such as heat recy-
cling or advanced designing and installation methods but at high expense.
Therefore research has been made for raising the quality and safety and
economic aspects of food through technological development. The novel
thermal technologies in which the main processing factor is temperature
change as the main parameter responsible for food processing can be con-
sidered as the promising alternative in food processing as compared to the
traditional process. Unlike traditional technologies, novel thermal tech-
nologies are based on electromagnet field (EMI) or electric conductivity.
Novel thermal technologies are based on the heat generations directly
inside the food. The novel thermal technologies have successfully helped
in enhancing the effectiveness of heat processing along with ensuring food
safety and maintaining nutritional food properties. Infrared heating has
also evolved for the processing of food. The thermal technologies involve
the equipment plotted to heat the food to process it, whereas in non-
thermal techniques the food is virtually processed without the involvement
of food. The general definition of common technologies involved in novel
thermal techniques and their basic differences are discussed below.
Ohmic heating is also called Joule heating, electrical residence heating. It
is a method of heating the food by the passage of an electric current, so heat
is generated due to the electrical current. It is a direct method, as the heat
energy is directly dissipated into the food. It is primarily used to preserve
food. Electric energy is dissipated into heat, which results in quick and uni-
form heating followed by maintaining the nutritional value and color. The
key variable in electrical conductivity is designing of an effective ohmic
meter. Ohmic heating uses a normal electrical supply frequency which is
of 50-60Hz. Ohmic heating instantly penetrates directly into the food. The
applications of ohmic heating include UHT sterilization, pasteurization,
and others.
Dielectric heating is another novel process that provides volumetric
heating, for uniform sterilization or preserving of food. It is also a direct
method and is based on the process of heating the material by caus-
ing dielectric motion in its molecule using alternating electric fields,
Novel Thermal Technologies 3
microwave electromagnetic radiation, or radio wave. The intensity of the

electric field and the dielectric properties of the product regulate the volu-
metric power and absorption and the rate of heat generation. Both micro-
wave heating and radiofrequency belong to this category and follow the
principle of dielectric heating. The depth of penetration is directly related
to frequency in the case of dielectric heating. The thermal conductivity is
not so important in dielectric heating. The few application of microwave
and radiofrequency are in freeze-drying, baking, sterilization, rendering,
frying, and many others.
Infrared heating is mainly utilized to modify the eating characteristics
of food by varying its color, texture, flavor, and odor. Radiant heat is less
managed and has a broader range of frequencies. The thermal conduc-
tivity is a limiting factor in infrared heating. It acts as an indirect method
of heating. Infrared is simply absorbed and converted into heat. It has
limited penetration depth in food. It has several advantages over conven-
tional methods such as decreased heating time, reduce quality loss, and
uniform heating, versatility, easy to operate and compact equipment, and
many others. It also has a vast area of application includes drying, frying,
baking, cooking, freeze-drying, pasteurization, sterilization, blanching,
and many others.
The other technique is non-thermal heating technologies which are
based on pulsed light, pulsed electric fields, ultrasound, and gamma radi-
ation, and others, where the temperature may change also but is not the
prime parameter for food processing. The purpose of this chapter is to
deliver a general outlook of novel thermal technologies in the food pro-
cessing sector along with their environmental impact, current trends, and
future perspective.
1.2 Novel Thermal Technologies: Current Status

and Trends
The most common approach for food processing in the last 50 years is ther-
mal processing because a huge amount of microorganisms are removed at
elevated temperatures by killing them. Thermal processing protects food
by pasteurization, hot air drying, and others, induces variations to improve
food quality by baking, blanching, roasting, frying, and cooking. Time and
temperature used are the key variable depending on the application used.
In the case of thermal processing, sometimes the high temperature may
lead to loss of nutrients or bioactive compounds which results in low-
processed food and low-grade food.
So in such a situation, novel thermal techniques or with the combina-

tion of traditional technologies are used to modify the quality and shelf
life while decreasing the change in sensory properties. The food indus-
try is continuously developing in order to fulfill customer demand for
food nutrition, natural flavors, food quality, and taste. Innovation and
research are continuously growing all over the world to maintain and
improve standards. Currently, consumers demand food with the least or
no chemical additives and should be minimally processed [37]. These
developing technologies are called ‘novel’ technologies because they are
successfully fulfilling the needs of consumers and are an improvement
of conventional technologies. Depending upon the principle used, it can
be thermal or non-thermal. Techniques such as microwave, ultrasound,
and pulsed electric field can be an alternative proved by many research-
ers to develop nutritious and safe food [10, 15, 16]. Such techniques are
being used broadly by many innovative food companies [6]. As compared
to traditional technologies these new emerging technologies have many
benefits over traditional techniques such as more heat and mass trans-
fer, improved product quality, short process and residence time, better
functionality, enhanced preservation, and others. The processing of the
food is important for taste, nutritional content, texture, and appearance
[36]. The benefits of novel processing technologies over traditional tech-
niques are improved functional characteristics and retention of sensory
attributes by using the promising next-generation food [62]. The devel-
opment, research, and large-scale set-up of these novel technologies are
taking place internationally. It is evident from the number of publications
on the benefits of novel thermal technologies in food processing in vari-
ous food and agriculture processing research journals [51].
Microwave: The most popular and extensive technology studied world-

wide both domestically and industrially is microwave processing due to
its various advantages such as easy operation, lower maintenance require-
ment, and cleaner environment [77]. But despite all the advantages,
microwave is facing two main hurdles, i.e., irregular distribution of tem-
perature within the food product and high cost of energy regarding this
technique [6]. Furthermore, the set-up operated at 2450 MHz may give
rise to serious boundary and surface overheating of the food to outstretch
the desired elevated temperature in cold spots. For those cases, continuous
microwave systems have been used to provide uniform temperatures for
the heating of foods. Some authors have suggested fusion with water as the
heating medium, pulsed microwave [24, 51]. The most common technol-
ogy is microwave-assisted thermal sterilization system (MATS™) based on
915MHz single-mode cavities using a shallow bed with water food immer-
sion; it penetrates deeper in food and water offers to reduce the edge heat-
ing. It got approval in 2009 by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
[72].
Infrared heating: Proved by many researchers, Infrared heating (IRH)

is an efficient process for the purification of pathogenic microorgan-
isms in food. Many operational variables such as food temperature, size
and kind of food materials, IR power intensity, IR power intensity, and
others are necessary for microbial inactivation. At a commercial scale,
IRH had been found as the replacement or substitute to decrease non-
uniform temperature distribution which occurs in microwave heating
[6]. Internationally, IRH is used for blanching, drying, baking, roasting,
and peeling. At the industrial level IRH has considerable advantages such
as a large heat delivery rate, no medium required, high energy efficiency,
low environmental footprint, and others [39]. But because of less pene-
tration depth, this technology is not successful at the commercial level;
for example, it cannot be utilized in in-packaging food processing. The
major successful large-scale (commercial) applications of IRH is drying
of low-moisture foods (grains, pasta, tea, etc.), also the applications in
baking (e.g., pizzas, biscuits, and others) and in the oven for roasting of
cereals, coffee, etc.
Radiofrequency: Another thermal technology is Radiofrequency heating

(RFH), used from the 1940s. Earlier applications were to warm bread, dry
up and blanch vegetables and others. RFH has a greater industrial interest
because of its unique properties such as deeper penetration due to its lesser
frequencies, uniform electric field distribution, and longer wavelength.
Major applications are in the food-drying sectors for pasta, snacks, and
crackers and sterilization or pasteurization process, treatment of seeds and
disinfection of product [19]. As compared to microwave heating, RF has
the potential to reduce surface overheating and can also give better results
at a commercial scale [81]. On a commercial scale, such as for treating
bulk materials, sterilization of packaged foods is successful because they
are simple to construct, have a more uniform heating pattern, and have
greater penetration depth. Drawbacks of this technology include, at indus-
trial scale, the design equipment is complicated, there is a high investment
cost and technical issues such as dielectric failure and thermal runaway
heating that can damage package and product [1]. Another common ther-
mal technique is ohmic heating (OH) where internal heat generation takes
place by passing a current into the materials.
Ohmic heating (OH): Compared to other technologies, ohmic heating has

advantages such as larger temperature in particles than in liquid, decreased
fouling, energy-efficient, uniform heating (achieved by thermal, physical,
and rheological properties), and lower cost [64]. The drawbacks include
the requirement of aseptic packing after OH heating, the possibility of cor-
rosion, direct exposure of the electrode with food.
Major utilization of OH are blanching, sterilization, evaporation, dehy-
dration, extraction, and evaporation. The basic procedure involved in OH
of microbial inactivation is thermal harm and in some cases by electropo-
ration. In comparison to traditional heating, OH heating can attain lesser
heating times, can keep away from hot surfaces, and can decrease the tem-
perature gradients.
Since the 1990s, OH is now utilized in developing countries and all over
the world. Almost a hundred processing plants have been placed all over
the world. The market is in the developing stage and evolving constantly.
OH equipment is installed all over the world such as in Italy, France, Spain,
Greece, and Mexico [54]. The application of OH is not much commercial-
ized for solid food products. For liquids, viscous liquids, and pumpable
multiphase products, the installed set-ups perform the sterilization and
pasteurization of numerous food products with great characteristics with
main applications in vegetables and fruit areas.
Overall, the major issue involved in commercialization of electromagnetic
techniques for numerous food applications is the lack of heat uniformity,
which has a major impact on key variables of food processing and safety. To
avoid this downside, hybrid systems are proposed, i.e., the combination of
traditional and volumetric heating [54, 63]. The hybrid system offers advan-
tages such as safety, improved process efficiency, and product properties.
Successful hybrid techniques are IR-convective drying, a combination of
IRH, IR-heat pump drying, and microwave heating, and many others are
still in progress because of the magnified energy throughput.
1.2.1 Environmental Impact of Novel Thermal Technologies

The emergence of novel thermal technologies and non-thermal processes
in food processing industries is capable of producing high-quality and stan-
dardized products. Both of them are environmentally sound and efficient
in nature as compared to conventional technologies. Here we will consider
more on the environmental footprints of novel thermal technologies. The
primary objective in the food industry is food safety which requires high
energy consumption, but novel thermal technologies are successfully able
to balance energy saving and energy consumption.
The high value of hygiene and safety of food requires large use of water
in both hot and cold cycles in production which consequently increases the
environmental footprint. Processes such as cooking, sterilization, drying,
and pasteurization require various types of energy. Novel thermal technol-
ogies are promising, attractive, and efficient in nature. They are capable of
providing improved quality and reduced environmental effects which will
eventually reduce environmental footprints. Novel thermal technologies
can reduce processing costs followed by improving and maintaining the
value-added products. Overall the primary types of energy used based on
conventional thermal processing techniques are fossil fuel and electricity,
majorly utilized in refrigeration and mechanical power in pumps. A heat
exchanger is commonly used in the pasteurization of beverages where the
pathogens are killed when heated to a particular residence time. During
thermal treatment, convection and conduction play a major role to trans-
fer heat to the products. For viscous fluids, directing heating process is
applied, e.g., steam injection and steam infusion are utilized for thermal
treatments. In the food and beverages industry, regarding the distribution
of energy in 2002, Denmark suggests that total consumption of energy
(TJ/Year) is 135,200 including the amount of heating and power. Adapted
from [58].
This concludes that major heat is used in frying, evaporation, drying,
and heating for thermal processes. Until the present moment, this trend
is still functioning. Novel thermal technologies such as radio frequency,
ohmic heating, microwave, etc., for food processing being continuously
evolving. These novel thermal technologies have reduced emissions, reli-
ability, improved productivity, high product quality, energy saving, water
saving and consequently have less impact on the environment; [45] inves-
tigated that for Orange juice and cookies manufacturing, radio frequency
drying (RF) can range up to 0 to 73.8 TJ per year in terms of primary
energy saving. The major kinds of gas emissions from food industries are
linked to power and heat production particulate matter and gases such as
SO2, CO2, NO, from combustion processes. The particulate matter and vol-
atile organic compounds (VOCs) and other chemical emissions are from
methods such as size reduction, heating, refrigeration system, and cooking
methods.
Conventionally 33% of the overall energy consumed in food processing
corresponds to the production of steam. The steam is commonly used in
drying, concentrating liquids, cooking, sterilizing, etc., in the processing of
food processes. The generation of steam used in food industries involves
the utilization of boilers. To remove the dissolved solid from the boiler
system a large quantity of water is periodically drained from the bottom,
which is called a blow-down. Inadequate blow-down may lead to the gath-

ering of dirt which reduces the heat transfer rates and increases the loss
of energy. Irregular boiler maintenance can decrease the efficiency of the
boiler up to 20-30%. The efficiency of a boiler is affected by losses of heat by
convection and radiation [58]. Improper boiler maintenance can also emit
large emissions of CO2 and loss of energy. [58] also mentions the losses that
occurred of a boiler or steam generation system composed of: gases from
the combustion of air, or incomplete combustion, radiation losses, boiler
blow-down water, heat convection, and fouling of heat transfer surfaces
from hot boiler surface. Many attempts have been made to evolve a sus-
tainable sector for lowering the emission of gases, e.g., CO2 and enhance
the energy efficiency of devices and methods using renewable energy is
now the main concern for every method. Therefore, using electricity in
food powering systems may show an environmental benefit as compared
to conventional techniques used. Overall novel technologies are consid-
ered sustainable, once they reduce the consumption of boilers or steam
generation systems and eventually decrease the waste-water, heat loss and
increase energy-saving and water-saving as well. Furthermore, the electricity
is produced by an eco-friendly source of renewable energy; after that these
methods will efficiently contribute to decreasing the pollution, assisting
them to protect the environment. [82] shows the balancing by ohmic heat-
ing decreased the extent of solid leaching irrespective of the dimensions of
the product. It is concluded by [65], OH blanching offers benefit in aspects
such as water-saving by maintaining the quality of the processed products.
Novel thermal can efficiently accelerate the drying processes when related
to traditionally heat pre-treated samples allowing exact control of the pro-
cess temperature and eventually it can decrease costs of energy, reduce the
gas consumption and lower combustion-related emissions [53].
So we can conclude that novel thermal technologies are one of the most
novel techniques in food preservation processes. Novel thermal tech-
nologies are quite efficient in all aspects such as the efficiency of energy,
saving of water, and reduced emissions. Most of the processes involved
in novel thermal technologies are green and hence more environmentally
friendly, having the least environmental impact as compared to conven-
tional technologies.
1.2.2 The Objective of Thermal Processing

The major purpose of thermal processing is to maintain certain quality
standards, to reduce enzymatic activities, reduce microbial activities to
enhance its shelf life, increase digestibility, and maintain certain physical
and chemical variations to ensure its characteristic and safety of food. The
objective also includes adding values such as maintaining its texture, flavor,
color, etc., and make varieties of new products; it should also be needed
by the specific section of the population. Over the past several years, con-
sumer demands have improved standard, convenient and varied food
which required the modification and development in existing traditional
process for the new food preservation technologies. For that, the new novel
thermal technologies evolved. Novel thermal technologies are better not
only in terms of their quality improvements of food and heating efficiency
but also in other important aspects such as water-saving, energy-saving,
and reduced emissions. Most of these technologies are green and have less
environmental impact and improve the added value of foods.
1.2.3 Preservation Process

The basic definition of food indicates that food is the materials, formulated
or processed which are consumed orally by living organisms for develop-
ment, pleasure, needs, and fulfillment. The chemical composition of food
includes majorly water, fats, lipids, and carbohydrates with less amount
of minerals and compounds containing organics. The different catego-
ries of food are perishable, synthetic, non-perishable, fresh, medical food,
harvested, manufactured, preserved, and others. The preservation of food
majorly depends on the type of food required to be produced and formu-
lated. Preservation of food is defined as maintaining its properties at the
desired level for long as possible. Safety with sustainability and innova-
tion are the major aspects and priorities to ensure the preservation of food.
In the modern era, the preservation of and processing of food not only
includes the safety of the foods but also maintains sustainable innovation,
economic feasibility, customer satisfaction, nutritional aspects, absence of
chemical preservative, and should be environmental sound [62].
Food preservation is necessary for ensuring desired quality level, con-
sumer satisfaction, to maintain preservation length and also to focus on
the group for whom the products are to be preserved [10]. The reason
for preservation also includes to form the value-added products, provide
modifications in diet, and most importantly to overcome the improper
planning in agricultural sectors. Preservation loss not only results in minor
deterioration of food but also results in the transformation of the food to
a severely toxic state.
After a certain period of time, the quality and characteristics of
food may get deteriorated and become undesirable for consumption
so it becomes the prime factor to study the rate of variations of quality
attributes which indicates its shelf life; this is a very important param-
eter to consider. The quality of products can rely on appearance, yield,
eating characteristics, microbial characteristics, and the consumer’s
overall experience. The deterioration of food depends upon mechanical,
chemical, physical, and microbial reactions. The quality of the product
was maintained at every stage of food production and overall processing
chains such as manufacture, storage, distribution, and sale. Additionally,
the need for preservation must depend on its purpose and use, and
consider the population for whom the preservation is to be done as the
nutritional requirement and food restriction apply differently to different
sections of groups.
There are many measures for food preservation; inhibition, inactivation,
and avoiding recontamination are the common ones. Each method con-
tains several processes of preservation such as inhibition, which includes
a decrease of oxygen, adding preservatives, control of pH, freezing, drying,
surface coating, gas removal, fermentation, and many others. Inactivation
includes irradiation, sterilization, extrusion, and others; avoiding contam-
ination involves packaging, hygienic processing, aseptic processing, and
others.
Thermal technology has been the backbone of food production and pres-
ervation for many years. In this technology, the temperature is assumed
to be the major parameter for preservation and processing mechanism to
make food commercially sterile, i.e., to get rid of pathogens and microor-
ganisms which usually grow in the normal shelf life of the food product.
Thermally processing the food provides real importance to the food by
increasing and preserving its shelf life longer than the chilled food process-
ing technologies.
In novel thermal technologies, preservation is done by the use of elec-
tricity. Various forms of electrical energy are utilized for food preservation
such as ohmic heating, high intensity pulsed electric field, high-voltage arc
discharge, microwave heating, and low electric field stimulation. Ohmic
heating is the most common and is based on volumetric heating which
prevents the overheating of food, provides uniform and quick heating; it
depends on the principle that generation of heat in the food is an outcome
of electrical residence when an electric current is moved through the food
product. Furthermore, ohmic heating prevents thermal damage and pro-
motes the efficiency of energy. Similarly, microwave heating is also very
common and utilized in almost every household and the food industry
but its low penetration depth of microwave into solid provides ther-
mal non-uniformity. The other available methods utilizing electric energy
are also very versatile, useful, and efficient for the preservation of food.
The current electro heating can be used to produce to form new and up-to-
date products with diversified functionality.
1.3 Types of Thermal Technologies

Thermal processings are perhaps most essential in the food sector which
has been used for the past many years; it has been discovered to increase
the quality and shelf life of food with heat treatments. Thermal processing
is the heating of foods at a particular temperature for a specified period
of time. There are several techniques available in thermal technologies
such as radiofrequency heating, ohmic heating, blanching, drying, frying,
chilling, infrared heating, freezing and microwave heating, and extrusion.
Combined high-pressure thermal treatment of food is also a very efficient
prospect for the processing and preservation of food. The most common
among them are microwave heating, ohmic heating, combined micro-
wave vacuum-drying, radiofrequency processing, and new hybrid drying
technologies.
Hybrid technologies are the recent development in engineering in the
operation and design of the dryers to attain dried products with desired
characteristics. In hybrid technologies, the drying technologies are com-
bined with the new drying techniques to achieve a new age drying pro-
cess to reduce energy consumption and enhance product quality. New age
drying technologies would be very helpful for the bioproducts in agricul-
tural sectors for all economic, environmental, and product quality aspects.
Instant infusion is another new process for the heat treatment of food,
depending upon the product requirement providing mild pasteurization
and sterilization. For effective and efficient pasteurization and sterilization,
the following are the needs: rapid and small heating time, accurate, and
small residence time at sterilizing temperature, and rapid cooling time.
For examining the food when it goes under thermal process, nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can
be used as they possess some unique properties for the same. Both of them
can be used to investigate variation in the food during processing. Both of
them are non-invasive and able to detect water mobility. NMR is the most
versatile analytical technique used in modern times. It is capable of reveal-
ing complicated multivariate information inside the optically opaque and
complex food matrix, also the thermal transformation in liquid, suspen-
sion, and gels regarding food samples. NMR and MRI are based on the
magnetic properties of atomic nuclei and many elements have isotopes
with such properties. Both of them are superior to any other instrumental
methods because both are non-invasive, non-destructive, both measure

volumes instead of surfaces, and are able to extract both physical and chem-
ical information. By both techniques, it can extract knowledge about diffu-
sion, flow, water distribution, and others. Furthermore, processes such as
heating, freezing, hydration, dehydration, and salting can be detected and
monitored non-invasively.
1.3.1 Infrared Heating

1.3.1.1 Principal and Mechanism
Infrared was discovered by William Herschel in the 1800s. Infrared
depicted below red (infra: below); red is the longest wavelength of visible
light. IR heating is the transmission of thermal energy in the form of elec-
tromagnetic waves. Wavelength between 0.7 and 1000 micrometer, wave-
length larger than visible light but smaller than those of radio waves are the
infrared waves. Three major types of infrared waves are [39]:
1. Short waves 0.76-2 μm (near IR waves), temperature above

1000°C
2. Medium waves: 2-4 μm (medium IR waves), when the tem-
perature is above 400 - 1000°C
3. Long waves: 4-1000 μm (far IR waves), when the tempera-
ture is below 400°C
The working principle of infrared waves includes: IR energy is electro-

magnetic radiation emitted by hot objects (quartz lamb, quartz tubes, or
metal body) by vibrations and rotation of molecules. When it is absorbed,
the radiation provides up its energy to heat materials. An object is a “black-
body”, if it absorbs (or emits) 100% of incident IR radiation. The quantity
of heat emitted from a perfect radiator (blackbody) is expressed by Stefan-
Boltzmann law equation:
Q = σSB .A.T4
Where Q is defined as the rate of heat emission, σSB is the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, T is defined as the absolute temperature, and A is
defined as the surface area.
When radiant heaters and food products are not perfect absorbers, the
Stefan-Boltzmann equation was modified and the concept of “grey body”
was found:
Q = σSB .ɛ.A.T4
Where ɛ defined as the emissivity of the grey body (ranging from 0 to 1).
This property changes with the wavelength of emitted radiation and
temperature of the grey body.
The heating level depends on the absorbed energy, which then rely on
the composition of food and the radiation frequency.
Mathematically, the transfer of heat rate to food is expressed as,
Q SB . .A. (T 41 T 4 )2
Where T1 depicts the temperature of the emitter and T2 depicts the tem-
perature of the absorber. Heat transfer rate relies on:
1. Surface temperatures of heating and receiving bodies or

materials,
2. Surface characteristics of both bodies or materials,
3. Shapes of the emitting and receiving materials.
Quantities indicate infrared radiations are the perfect source of energy

for heating purposes. They indicate the factors such as larger heat trans-
fer capacity, heat penetration directly into the product, no heating of sur-
rounding air, and fast process control. A perfect balance required for
optimal heating between the body and surface heating is attained with IR.
The parameters that are important to control to achieve optimal heating
results are radiator temperature, infrared penetration characteristics, radi-
ator efficiency, and infrared reflection or absorption properties.
1.3.1.2 Advantages of IR Heating

There are several advantages of IR over traditional heating techniques: [1].
Instant heat: Electric IR system forms heat instantly so there is no need
for heat build-up.
Reduced operating costs: The energy can reach 50%, depending upon
the insulation, types of construction, and other factors. Furthermore,
operations maintenance is limited to the cleaning of reflectors and heat
source changing.
Clean and safe: Operating IR is a low-risk task and there is no produc-
tion of by-products.
Zone control: The IR energy is absorbed only where it is directed and
does not propagate. Other advantages of IR are as follows:
1. Quick heating rate

2. Shorter residence time
3. Uniform drying temperature

4. A high degree of process control
5. Higher thermal efficiency
6. Cleaner work environment
7. Alternate source of energy
The utilization of IR technique in the food sector is still developing; many

attempts are continuously growing for the development of IR technologies
and the future research is focusing on process control and equipment design
development, expanding the areas of applications of IR heating and under-
standing the interaction between heating process and product characteristics.
1.3.1.3 Applications of IR Heating

There are wide applications for IR (infrared radiation) which include medical,
paper industries dye, automobile, and others. Table 1.1 discusses the several
application of IR heating [1]. In industrial applications, medium to long-range
wavelengths seem to be beneficial, for all materials to be heated or dried give
the largest absorption in the 3-10 mm region. Moreover, the applications in
short waves are continuously evolving. Applications of IR are mostly within the
area of food for drying and many other processes during the period from the
1950s to the 1970s from the Soviet Union, the United States, and the Eastern
European countries. During the 1970s, much research was performed about
industrial frying or meat products cooking and the utilization of near-infrared
(NIR) techniques is initiated [28, 43]. In the 1970s and 1980s, several types of
research were carried out to apply this technique in the sector of food, mostly at
[Swedish Institute of Food and Biotechnology] and gained a set of knowledge.
Recent work is experimental in nature and performed in Japan, Taiwan, and
several other countries. Applications are mostly from areas such as dehydration,
drying of vegetables, fish, rice, roasting of coffee, cocoa, and cereals, heating of
floor, frying of meat, baking of pizza, biscuits, and bread, enzymes, and patho-
gens inactivation. Also, for thawing, blanching, sterilization, pasteurization of
packing materials, and surface pasteurization, these techniques have been used.
The major effects on food involve the quick heating of food surfaces
sealed in moisture and aroma compounds. Variation to components of
food surfaces is equivalent to those that happen during baking.
1.3.2 Microwave Heating

With the increasing demand for healthy foods, there is a repeated effort
given to enhance and optimize different processing techniques in food,
Table 1.1 Applications of Infrared heating: [1].

Industry Methods
Agriculture Incubation and warming
Bottling Drying
Glass Drying, curing the varnish or paint on
back—mirrors and tempering layers
Medical- Incubation and warming
applications
Environmental Heating
chambers
Food Toasting, cooking, food warming,
drying, broiling, and melting
Pharmaceutical Drying water from powder—tablets
Metal treatment Preheating—aluminum; steel
Paper Laminating Calendaring—rolls
Adhesive—labels
Drying water from—towels
Paint Primer, topcoat alkyd, acrylic—steel
panels, Drying—bicycles, vehicles
bodies, aluminium
bodies
Textiles Moisture elimination—carpets Latex and
PVC backing
Moisture elimination from dyes
Plastics Laminating Annealing Forming
Embossing
to meet the expectations of consumers. With the advancement of emerg-

ing technologies, microwave energy has become an indispensable part of
every household system. The use of microwave has expanded from heat-
ing and defrosting to thawing, blanching, sterilization, drying, etc., in food
industries [20, 69]. Microwave is electromagnetic waves with a frequency
which ranges from 300 Mhz to 300 GHz. Frequency of microwave used
for domestic purposes is 2.45 GHz, whereas the frequency for industrial
purposes is 915 MHz [8].
Microwave is a varying magnetic field that generates heat on interaction
with, and absorption by, certain dielectric materials, and with the position-
ing of the direction of the electric field, the native thermal motion of the
polarity molecule changes [26]. Water, the dominant polar molecule, con-
sists of separated molecules of an oxygen atom with a negative charge and
hydrogen atom with a positive charge which combinedly structure into an
electric dipole. When these dipoles fluctuate swiftly back and forth from
positive to negative in the direction of the electric field numerous times per
second, these express reversals produce frictional heat. This implies that
the polar molecules in food play a vital role in the heating performance of
food in the microwave system. Due to this frictional rise in the temperature
of the water, food components get heated up by convection and conduc-
tion. The loss factor dielectric constant of the food determines the depth
of penetration of both microwaves and RF energy [49]. This also relies on
the varying temperature and moisture concentration of the sample mate-
rial plus the frequency of the electric field. Overall, with lesser frequency
and loss factors, we get more depth of penetration. Energy distribution var-
ies with food samples which also governs the depth of penetration of the
microwave inside the food. As the food material to be heated in the micro-
wave matches with the wavelength of the material, it becomes difficult to
manage the heat uniformity of microwave heating which can be taken as a
crucial constraint for industrial application of microwave heating. Thus, a
central obligation for microwave energy application and microwave equip-
ment in the food industry is the potential to accurately regulate heating
uniformity. Microorganisms are not affected as a result of microwave radi-
ation but are susceptible to the heat generated because of the radiation.
Microwaves are likely to be a channel through ceramics, thermoplastics,
and glass whereas they are absorbed by carbon and water; reflected by met-
als but conceivably transmitted using metal hollow tubes and on transiting
amongst diverse materials get refracted like the visible light. Microwaves
can also be focused on a beam [77].
The microwave energy is transferred to food through the contactless
transmission of the wave. This system ensures the uniform heating of food
samples during the operation. The equipment comprises a magnetron
which is the generator, guide waves which are the aluminium tubes, and for
a continuous operation, it has a tunnel attached with a conveyor or a metal
compartment for batch operation. These chambers and tunnels are sealed
by absorbers or traps to prevent the microwave from escaping and causing
injury to the operator [11].
In the microwave system, the two oscillating perpendicular fields, i.e.,

electric and magnetic, act directly on the heating material, converting the
part of absorbed energy to thermal energy. The interaction of the micro-
wave radiation with chemically bound water present in the food material
generates high pressure and temperature due to the absorption of the char-
acteristic photonic energy of electromagnetic waves. This process causes
moisture evaporation, resulting in pressure exertion on the plant material
to cellular and subcellular level leading to swell up and rupture eventually
[44].
Microwaves are defined by two mechanisms:
(a) Ionic polarisation: ions present in the solution, when suspended to the
electric field, orient themselves, experiencing acceleration and an upsurged
kinetic energy. When ions collide with each other it gets converted into
heat. This frequent collision increases the density or the concentration of
the solution which is also known as the ionic polarization effect [3], whereas
in gases the collision becomes difficult due to the spacing between the mol-
ecules. In food material, cations are generated by the presence of salts of
sodium, potassium, or calcium whilst chlorine produces anions.
(b) Dipole rotation: When the polar molecule strives to situate itself into
the fluctuating electric field caused by the microwave, the dipole rotation
is created, where the oscillation of the dipolar species leads to the collision
with the surrounding producing heat [80]. With the increase in tempera-
ture, the dipole movement decreases, whereas ionic conduction increases
hence, food samples with both the compounds when heated by the micro-
wave, first governed by the dipole rotation and then with the increase in
temperature governed by ionic conduction. The comparative involvement
of these methods of heating hinges on the concentration and flexibility of
sample ions, plus on the sample’s relaxation time [36].
1.3.2.2 Advantages of Microwave in Food Industry

Microwaves have the capacity of penetrating deep into the food materi-
als which offers a remarkable advantage of the reduction of the process-
ing time for varied different processes like sterilization, drying, etc. (Table
1.2). Microwave heating also provides unvarying temperature gradients,
avoiding charring of surfaces of the food; and when utilized for drying,
the probability of giving case hardening is less during microwave heating
[4]. It could operate both in the continuous and batch process because
of the integration of the microwave energy with the convection process.
Microwave aids in the general energy conservation which is created from
Table 1.2 List of some techniques combined with microwave technology.

Mode Applications Benefits Drawbacks Reference
Ultrasound Enzyme activity Precise - [38]
Drying electronic
Extraction control.
Competent
energy
savings.
Cold Sterilization of Maintained Inappropriate [35]
Plasma microorganisms product for
quality. impenetrable
peels.
Probability
of getting
slenderize.
Infrared Tempering Refining Probability [55]
Heating Baking Drying rehydration of escalating
Properties compactness
and quality. and
Reduced slenderness
processing standards.
time by Manufacturing
95%. constrained
by the
equipment
size and
operating
cost.
Freeze Dehydration Quick energy Tough to control [30]
Drying dissipation. quality at
Energy high MRP.
savings up Lengthier
to 40%. drying time
Advanced at low power.
volatiles
retention
level.
Convective Dehydration Reduce Induces slight [68]
Drying overheating. discoloration
reactions.
the entire plant volume. Microwave heating is also the predominant per-
tinent to food processing since it has the aptitude to evade the charring of
temperature-sensitive resources. A key shortcoming can be the equipment’s
capital rate and consequently most expected to be utilized for top-quality
products [47].
1.3.2.3 Application of Microwave in Food Processing Technologies

The food processing industry utilizes microwaving immensely for different
purposes like cooking, preservation, drying, sterilization, and heating of
foods [26]. These particular applications have several advantages, such as
microwave drying offers lower bulk density and lower shrinkage along with
overhead rehydration ratio and saves power when compared to customary
drying [27]. Similarly, the antioxidant activity and bioactive compounds,
as well as the striking colors of different fruits and vegetables cooked with
or without water, could also be maintained through microwave cooking or
heating. It can also minimize antinutritional aspects, temporarily upsurge
in digestibility of in-vitro protein. And when it comes to microwave steril-
ization, it ensures not only food safety, but also reduces the potential risk
of any microbes’ attack on the food, inactivating enzymes to preserve the
nourishment of food. This section reviews various reports on different
applications of the microwave, their advantages, and effects onthe quality
parameter of food materials.
Microwave Drying
Drying is a complex volumetric heating process that involves heat and
mass transfer [13]. The strong microwave radiation when penetrates inside
the food item generates vapor and a pressure gradient that heats the food
from the inside and outside at the same time with a simultaneous increase
of temperature.
Microwave drying improves the quality of some food products with
minimum drying time. A microwave uses high-frequency electromag-
netic energy and converts it into heat. Wet products manage the energy
absorption strength which carefully heats the interior parts of food sam-
ples selectively. The moisture present in the food vigorously evaporates
and travels towards the surface without affecting the exterior parts of
the sample [41]. The microwave drying process goes through two suc-
cessive stages, i.e., liquid evaporation [26], and three phases of drying
include heating, constant rate, and falling rate [5]. Limiting diffusion
rate during the falling rate drying period results in shrinkage of the
structure of the food. Nevertheless, drying in the microwave generates

vapor inside and develops a core pressure gradient outside the product,
prevents the shrinkage to food material, and therefore, the drying in the
falling rate period is appraised to be very beneficial in microwave dry-
ing. Microwave drying when combined with various other methods for
example microwave-convection, hot air microwave, vacuum-microwave,
and microwave-freeze, microwave-infrared gives more efficient results in
terms of quality of the food products which is not achieved by only micro-
wave drying and other conventional methods [8].
Microwave-assisted Freeze Drying

Heat sensitive foods like tomatoes or berries undergo the freeze-drying
(FD) method for moisture removal which promotes easy rehydration and
prevents chemical decomposition. However, FD takes longer drying time
as well as being expensive, which ultimately leads to excessive energy cost
and lower productivity [18, 29]. Therefore, combining FD with radiation
significantly eases the limitations of FD with shorter processing time,
higher energy saving plus efficient drying in the falling rate period as com-
pared to the convention freezing process [18]. Dehydration of Fuji apple
was stated by [41] using FD merged with Microwave-Vacuum, the study
reported that time for drying is reduced by 40% with nil nutritional change
using this double-step technique.
Microwave-assisted Vacuum Drying

In recent years, with the rapid accepted growth and popularity, this
method comes with the combination of volumetric heating and vacuum
drying. The advantages this combination provides are express mois-
ture evaporation and minimum structural and chemical changes of the
final dried products [7]. The final results revealed that a combination of
both the techniques at 90°C restored the anthocyanins and augmented
antioxidant activity when related to supplementary approaches enlisted
[84].
Microwave-assisted Infrared Drying

IR drying has been utilized in the past years for a varied range of agricul-
tural products due to its acceptance as an alternative technique. However,
because of its low penetrating power into the food material, it is combined
with microwave energy, and their synergistic effect was observed and cor-
related by [57] on the drying attributes of kiwifruit and banana. For both
the samples, they reported a good amount of moisture loss with reduced
drying time up to 98% when related to traditional drying. Similarly, an
alternative study [66] also reported the standard quality of raspberries

with the drying kinetics which showed the superior class final product at
varied vacuum pressures and power levels yielding 17.55% better antho-
cyanin retention, 2.4 times exclusive crispness value, 21.21% advanced
radical-scavenging action, and 25.63% higher rehydration properties than
infrared drying (IRD) at finest settings.
Microwave Heating
Microwave heating relies on volumetric heating of the food material instan-
taneously and can also be combined with the convective and radiant heat-
ing process [33]. The electric field induces the dipole rotation, generating
friction between molecules inside the microwave which assists in heating
the food materials [2]. The penetration depth of the microwave is depen-
dent on the food composition and its accompanying changes related to the
chemical composition of the food, i.e., cook loss, bioactive components,
antioxidant activity, and anti-nutritional factors, comprising phytic acid,
trypsin inhibitor, tannins, and saponins [40]. The chicken streak rigid-
ity was lowered after microwave heating which was not significant when
cooked with grilling or boiling reported by [9]. However, it was observed
differently in the case of beef burgundy which perceived the tougher texture
by microwaving than the convection oven [32]. [52] reported a remark-
able increase in cooking loss with augmenting core temperature and time
of bovine muscle during microwave heating.
Microwave-assisted Infrared Heating

In the food sector infrared (IR) radiation offers a wide range of advan-
tages such as an express regulation response, rapid heating with minimum
changes in product quality. However, as discussed earlier, its weak pene-
tration power makes this technique only used for surface heating. Besides,
there are also chances of unwanted fraction and swelling of the material
due to prolonged exposure to IR radiation. Nevertheless, merging micro-
wave with IR heating becomes profitable and could help to tackle all these
drawbacks which occur during the process on the surface and inside of
food [60].
Microwave-assisted Infrared Baking

Microwave heating combined with IR increases the manufacture of confec-
tioneries which was restricted before due to two major aspects, i.e., uneven
dispersal of moisture inside the food and poor penetration power. Merging
this energy becomes a possible approach to overcome the challenge as the
microwave helps to reclaim the time of processing and administrating an
effective dispersal of temperature within the material, whereas IR heating

remarkably subscribes to crust formation and browning [20]. [55] observed
that the legume cakes hold a better characteristic texture with increased
volume and desirable surface color when treated in a combination of infra-
red and microwave as compared to the only conventional oven. Similarly, a
gluten-free bread was prepared in an MW-IR oven using different con-
centration of flaxseed and gums which was kept at a frozen temperature
at 20°C for 10 days before baking [56]. The results turned out to be much
better as compared to the conventional oven with a darker color, softer
texture, and higher volume.
Microwave-assisted Infrared Roasting

Roasting is considered to be an appropriate method for flavor, texture,
and color enhancement which can be done with limited investment giving
to a high production quantity. However, there are not many reports with
the explored application of MW-IR grouped for roasting. [76] studied the
roasting characteristics of hazelnut using and compared with convention-
ally roasted ones. In the MW-IR oven, the optimum roasting time was 2.5
min at the power level of 90% with lower and upper halogen lamps pow-
ered at 20% and 60%, respectively, whereas conventionally it took 20 min
at 150°C. When it comes to quality, the hazelnuts roasted in both tech-
niques showed similar characteristics attributes concerning moisture con-
tent, color, and fatty acid composition. However, the above results confirm
the reduction of the roasting time significantly which is therefore also rec-
ommended for other food materials.
Microwave Cooking
The foremost usage of microwave is cooking. This section reports various
studies of microwave and effect on the various cooking parameters such as
color retention, quality, and taste for different food materials. [70] studied
the chemical changes associated with skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis)
during the process of boiling at 100°C, frying with sunflower oil at 180°C,
then put through canning and at the end microwave heating for 10, 15 and
20 s. It was found that the health beneficial PUFA loss was minimum with
boiling, 70–85% during frying, 100% with the canning, and 20–55% during
microwave heating. Cholesterol content slightly increased in microwaving
with no increase while cooking whereas the highest content was observed
with canning and it got lowered during the frying process which could be
leaching cholesterol from tuna while frying into the oil. Thus, taking into
account all the methods more fatty acids can be preserved with microwave
heating [70].
Blanching is usually utilized for the inactivation of enzyme and color

retention, for varied fruits and vegetables by immersing it in hot boiling
water or steaming with acids or salts solution. Microwave blanching offered
the extreme retention of color, chlorophyll, and ascorbic acid contents
with better preservation of quality parameters. [17] reported microwave
blanching as a better technique than the traditional blanching for peanuts
in terms of time and energy saving. However, processing at a high tem-
perature in microwave blanching results in ashy off-flavor.
Microwave-assisted Ultrasonication
Ultrasound plays a major role in the food industry and has been applied to
vary processing techniques like extraction, drying, sterilization, and freez-
ing with various advantages like maintaining the food quality parameters,
augmented food preservation, and also assists in thermal treatments. On
the other hand, it also reduces the cost of production by eliminating some
of the purification steps [73]. However, ultrasonication does affect the
physiochemical parameters, degraded the quality, exhibiting off-flavor in
the food material [12]. Therefore, the fusion of microwave and ultrasound
making it the microwave-assisted ultra-sonification technique renders a
collaborative effect eliminating the drawbacks attached to the individual
techniques [13], and therefore, the collective skill has been extensively pre-
meditated for the food sector. The ultrasonication technique with micro-
wave assistance has been verified as an innovative process for rapid and
effectual extraction. The most unique feature which it has is the excep-
tional achievement of weakening the hydrogen bonds and subsequently
augmenting the penetration rate of solvent into the matrix by amplifying
the dipole rotation hence enabling systematic solvation [42].
Microwave Sterilization
The intention of sterilization or pasteurization is usually done to kill or
make inactive all the microorganisms present in the food, ultimately
strengthening the safety and encompassing the serviceable life of the food.
A study was conducted by [17] where the different effect of sterilization was
observed without fluctuation of the microwave conditions (temperature
and power). The log cycle 5.12 reduction of Salmonella typhimurium on
jalapeno pepper was observed using a microwave with water-assistance at
950 W to reach a temperature of 63°C for 25 s. 4.45 log reduction was also
studied on coriander foliage at 3 × 108 CFU/g at 63°C for 10 s. A similar
study was conducted for Salmonella enteritidis in potato omelette which
was treated under varied microwaving conditions to test the inactivation
rate of 6.30 log CFU/g. It is noted that the inactivation of microorganisms
quicker with the increase in power level during microwave sterilization

[78].
Microwave-powered Cold Plasma

As the name suggests it is a non-thermal technique, especially engaged in
the food sector for microbial decontamination. DNA in the chromosomes
inactivate its microbes which are later destroyed through plasma [74]. [83]
examined the effectiveness of the microwave treatment combining with cold
plasma to prevent the growth of Penicillium italicumandim and observe the
storage stability of the mandarin at 4 and 25°C. The outcome presented the
highest inhibition of Penicillium italicumandim i.e., 84% reduction in dis-
ease incidence for 10 mins at a power level of 900 W, combined with nitro-
gen (N2). Besides, no visible differences in titratable acidity, soluble solids,
or weight loss were marked. Likewise, [67] verified that the population of
Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli O157:H7 reduced drastically
up to 2.8 log CFU/g on lettuce using microwave-cold plasma treatment with
nitrogen gas at 400 W. it showed the bactericidal effect with no damage to
the quality and sensory parameter of lettuce.
1.3.3 Radiofrequency (RF) Heating

Radiofrequency (RF) ranges from 300 kHz to 300 MHz in the electromag-
netic spectrum [54]. It comes under dielectric heating in which direct,
in-depth penetration happens inside the food in the range of 1–100MHz
EM waves [31]. Figure 1.1 Illustrates the schematic diagram for radio-
frequency heating [25]. The lower frequency is applied and is more appro-
priate for processing the large volume materials; hence it is observed as a
fast and volumetric heating method [14]. The frequencies used in indus-
tries for heating applications are 13.56 and 27.12 MHz. The food placed
between electrodes is heated using transmitted electromagnetic energy.
The RF energy is transferred over the free space and through the not resis-
tant packaged materials. High field strengths generated provide sufficiently
higher heating rates in foods. Dielectric heating is useful in colder tem-
perature range or even less than the freezing point of foods [54]. The prod-
uct mainly targeted RF heating but not in the surrounding environment.
The heat is generated inside the food material through ionic conductance
and dipole rotation. In the treatment, the moisture got equalized within
the product without any over-drying or heating of the material. Following
the environment-friendly perspective, the more efficient use of dielectric
techniques plays a vital role in the food processing sector.
Top Electrode
1–300 MHz
altering
electric field
Bottom Electrode
Figure 1.1 Illustration of radiofrequency heating [25].
As stated in studies, an excellent depletion in several microbes and pests

achieved by radiofrequency heating in various food products such as eggs
and its products, poultry, meat and its products, fish and shellfish, fruit
juice and jam, canned fruit, starch, soy milk, molasses, pea protein con-
centrates, ready to cook meals, milk, and milk products, sweet desserts,
cereals, and bakery products, spices, etc.
RF energy combining with other different thermal methods shows syn-
ergistic effects, notably making the RF pasteurization efficient particularly
for agricultural materials having less moisture content.
RF uses a uniform and non-ionizing form of electromagnetic energy. RF
system consists of two electrode plates made of metals in which the con-
ducting materials are kept, generating the alternate electromagnetic field
inside.
Electrodes are designed to provide an invariable electric field for dif-
ferent food shapes. Foods containing high moistures use the conventional
layout of electrodes and rod-type electrodes used for dry products, which
provides stray fields on the material on a conveyor belt.
RF is suitable for food materials in bulk with high ionic conductance [79].
According to the federal commission, the assigned RF frequencies
mostly used are 27.12, 13.56, and 40.68 MHz for usage in industries, sci-
ence, and medicine fields [25].
The heating systems used in the industry or R&D field are mainly
free-running oscillators and the 50 ohms RF system.
Food placed between power generated oscillating circuit, consisting of a
coil, condenser plates, a source of energy, and an amplifier [54]. An alternat-
ing electrical field generated between the electrodes causes the materials to
reorient themselves towards the electrode poles of opposite charges.
While the food is heated, the given frequency is consistently monitored
and maintained [54]. The generation of heat is dependent on various mea-
sures which are frequency, twice the value of the voltage applied, product
proportions, and the dielectric loss factor of the material.
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the azure cupola of heaven, to attest by their living beauty, or their
ruined grandeur, the genius and liberality which gave them birth. To
the cultivation and patronage of such noble arts, the vanity, the
hopes, and the holiest affections of man stand irrevocably pledged;
and we should deplore any invention or discovery, or any tide in the
nation’s taste, which should paralyse the artist’s pencil, or break the
sculptor’s chisel, or divert into new channels the genius which wields
them. But instead of superseding the arts of design, photography will
but supply them with new materials,—with collections of costume,—
with studies of drapery and of forms, and with scenes in life, and
facts in nature, which, if they possess at all, they possess
imperfectly, and without which art must be stationary, if she does not
languish and decline.
Sentiments analogous to these have been more professionally
expressed by M. Delaroche, a distinguished French artist,—by Sir
Charles Eastlake, whose taste and knowledge of art is unrivalled,—
and by Mr. Ruskin, who has already given laws to art, and whose
genius is destined to elevate and to reform it. M. Delaroche
considers photography “as carrying to such perfection certain of the
essential principles of art, that they must become subjects of study
and observation, even to the most accomplished artist.”... “The finish
of inconceivable minuteness,” he says, “disturbs in no respect the
repose of the masses, nor impairs in any way the general effect....
The correctness of the lines, the precision of the forms in the designs
of M. Daguerre, are as perfect as it is possible they can be, and yet,
at the same time, we discover in them a broad and energetic
manner, and a whole equally rich in hue and in effect. The painter
will obtain by this process a quick method of making collections of
studies, which he could not otherwise procure without much time and
labour, and in a style very far inferior, whatever might be his talents
in other respects.” In the same spirit, Mr. Ruskin[58] considers “the
art of photography as enabling us to obtain as many memoranda of
the facts of nature as we need;” and long before Mr. Talbot taught us
to fix upon paper the pictures of the camera obscura, the Rev. John
Thomson, one of the most distinguished of our Scottish landscape
painters, studied, in one of these instruments, the forms and colours
of the scenes which he was to represent. Other artists, both in
portrait and in landscape, now avail themselves of photography, both
as an auxiliary and a guide in their profession; but there are certain
difficulties and imperfections in the art itself, and so many
precautions required in its right application, whether we use its
pictures single, as representations on a plane, or take them
binocularly, to be raised into relief by the stereoscope, that we must
draw from the principles of optics the only rules which can be of real
services to the arts of design.
In painting a landscape, a building, a figure, or a group of figures,
the object of the artist is to represent it on his canvas just as he sees
it, having previously selected the best point of view, and marked for
omission or improvement what is not beautiful, or what would
interfere with the effect of his picture as a work of high art. His first
step, therefore, is to fix upon the size of his canvas, or the distance
at which the picture is to be seen, which determines its size. His own
eye is a camera obscura, and the relation between the picture or
image on its retina is such, that if we could view it from the centre of
curvature of the retina, (the centre of visible direction,) a distance of
half an inch, it would have precisely the same apparent magnitude
as the object of which it is the image. Let us now suppose that the
artist wishes to avail himself of the picture in the camera obscura as
received either on paper or ground-glass, or of a photograph of the
scene he is to paint. He must make use of a camera whose focal
length is equal to the distance at which his picture is to be seen, and
when the picture thus taken is viewed at this distance (suppose two
feet) it will, as a whole, and in all its parts, have the same apparent
magnitude as the original object. This will be understood from Fig.
47, in which we may suppose h to be the lens of the camera, rb the
object, and hy′ the distance at which it is to be viewed. The size of
the picture taken with a lens at h, whose focal length is hy′, will be
b′r′, and an eye placed at h will see the picture b′r′ under an angle
b′hr′, equal to the angle rhb, under which the real object rb was
seen by the artist from h. In like manner, a larger picture, byr, taken
by a camera the focal distance of whose lens at h is hy, will be an
accurate representation of the object rb, when viewed from h, and of
the same apparent magnitude. If either of these pictures, b′r′ or br,
are viewed from greater or less distances than hy′, or hy, they will
not be correct representations of the object rb, either in apparent
magnitude or form. That they will be of a different apparent
magnitude, greater when viewed at less distances than hy′, hy, and
less when viewed at greater distances, is too obvious to require any
illustration. That they will differ in form, or in the relative apparent
size of their parts, has, so far as I know, not been conjectured. In
order to shew this, let us suppose a man six feet high to occupy the
foreground, and another of the same size to be placed in the middle
distance, the distance of the two from the artist being ten and twenty
feet. The apparent magnitudes of these two men on the photograph
will be as two to one; and if we look at it at any distance greater or
less than the focal length hy′ of the lens, the same proportion of two
to one will be preserved, whereas if we look at the original figures at
a greater or less distance from them than the place of the artist, the
ratio of their apparent magnitudes will be altered. If the artist, for
example, advances five feet, the nearest man will be five feet distant
and the other fifteen feet, so that their apparent magnitude will now
be as three to one.
Fig. 47.
The same observations apply to a portrait of the human face. In
looking at a human profile let us suppose the breadth of the nose to
be one inch, that of the ear one inch, and that we view this profile at
the distance of three feet from the ear, which is two inches nearer
the observer than the nose. The apparent magnitude of the ear and
nose will be as thirty-eight to thirty-six inches, whereas if we view the
profile from the distance of one foot the ratio will be as fourteen to
twelve, that is, the ear will be increased in apparent size more than
the nose. Hence it follows that all pictures should be viewed under
the same angle of apparent magnitude under which they were seen
by the artist as taken photographically, for if we view them at a
greater or less angle than this we do not see the same picture as
when we looked at the original landscape or portrait, under the same
angle of apparent magnitude.
From the observations made in the preceding Chapter on
photographic and stereoscopic portraiture, the reader must have
already drawn the inference that the same landscape or building,
seen at different distances, varies essentially in its character,—
beauties disclosing themselves and defects disappearing as we
approach or recede from them. The picture in the camera, therefore,
as used by Mr. Thomson, or, what is still better, with the exception of
colour, the photograph obtained by the same instrument, will supply
the artist with all the general materials for his picture. The
photograph will differ considerably from any sketch which the artist
may have himself made, owing to certain optical illusions to which
his eye is subject. The hills and other vertical lines in the distance
will be lower in the photograph than in his sketch.[59] The vertical
lines of buildings will converge upwards in the photograph, as they
ought to do, in receding from the eye; and in the same picture there
will be a confusion, as we shall afterwards shew, in the delineation of
near and minute objects in the foreground, increasing with the size of
the lens which he has employed.
In his admirable chapter “On Finish,” Mr. Ruskin has established,
beyond a doubt, the most important principle in the art of painting.
“The finishing of nature,” he states, “consists not in the smoothing of
surface, but the filling of space, and the multiplication of life and
thought;” and hence he draws the conclusion, that “finishing means,
in art, simply telling more truth.” Titian, Tintoret, Bellini, and Veronese
have, as he has shewn, wrought upon this principle, delineating vein
by vein in the leaf of the vine, petal by petal in the borage-blossoms,
the very snail-shells on the ground, the stripe of black bark in the
birch-tree, and the clusters of the ivy-leaved toad-flax in the rents of
their walls; and we have seen that a modern artist, Delaroche,
considers a finish of inconceivable minuteness as neither disturbing
the repose of the masses, nor interfering with the general effect in a
picture.
The Pre-Raphaelites, therefore, may appeal to high authority for
the cardinal doctrine of their creed; and whatever be their errors in
judgment or in taste, they have inaugurated a revolution which will
release art from its fetters, and give it a freer and a nobler aim.
Nature is too grand in her minuteness, and too beautiful in her
humility, to be overlooked in the poetry of art. If her tenderest and
most delicate forms are worthy of admiration, she will demand from
the artist his highest powers of design. If the living organizations of
the teeming earth, upon which we hourly tread, are matchless in
structure, and fascinating in colour, the palette of the painter must
surrender to them its choicest tints. In the foreground of the highest
art, the snail-shell may inoffensively creep from beneath the withered
leaf or the living blade; the harebell and the violet may claim a place
in the sylvan dell; the moss may display its tiny frond, the gnarled
oak or the twisted pine may demand the recognition of the botanist,
while the castle wall rises in grandeur behind them, and the gigantic
cliffs or the lofty mountain range terminate the scene.
If these views are sound, the man of taste will no longer endure
slovenliness in art. He will demand truth as well as beauty in the
landscape; and that painter may change his profession who cannot
impress geology upon his rocks, and botany upon his plants and
trees, or who refuses to display, upon his summer or his autumn
tablet, the green crop as well as the growing and the gathered
harvest. Thus enlarged in its powers and elevated in its purposes,
the art of painting will be invested with a new character, demanding
from its votaries higher skill and more extended knowledge. In
former times, the minute and accurate delineation of nature was a
task almost impossible, requiring an amount of toil which could
hardly be repaid even when slightly performed; but science has now
furnished art with the most perfect means of arresting, in their most
delicate forms, every object, however minute, that can enter into the
composition of a picture. These means are the arts of photography
and stereoscopic re-combination, when rightly directed, and it is the
object of the present chapter to shew how the artist may best avail
himself of their valuable and indispensable aid.
Every country and district, and even different parts of the same
district, have a Flora and Geology peculiar to themselves; and the
artist who undertakes to represent its beauties owes to truth the
same obligations as the botanist who is to describe its plants, or the
mineralogist its rocks and stones. The critic could not, in former
times, expect more details from his unaided pencil than it has
generally furnished; but with the means now at his command, he
must collect, like the naturalist, all the materials for his subject. After
the camera has given him the great features of his landscape, he
must appeal to it for accurate delineations of its minuter parts,—the
trunks, and stems, and leafage of his trees—the dipping strata of its
sandstone beds—the contortions of its kneaded gneiss, or the ruder
features of its trap and its granite. For the most important of these
details he will find the camera, as at present constructed, of little
service. It is fitted only to copy surfaces; and therefore, when
directed to solid bodies, such as living beings, statues, &c., it gives
false and hideous representations of them, as I have shewn in a
preceding chapter. It is peculiarly defective when applied to parts of
bodies at different distances from it, and of a less diameter than the
lens. The photograph of a cube taken by a lens of a greater
diameter, will display five of its sides in a position, when its true
perspective representation is simply a single square of its surface.
When applied to trees, and shrubs, and flowers, its pictures are still
more unsatisfactory. Every stem and leaf smaller than the lens,
though absolutely opaque, is transparent, and leaves and stems
behind and beyond are seen like ghosts through the photographic
image.
Fig. 48.
This will be understood from Fig. 48, in which ll is the lens of the
camera, ab the breadth of the trunk or stem of a tree less than ll in
width. Draw la, lb, touching ab in the points a, b, and crossing at c.
Objects behind ab, and placed within the angle acb, will not have
any images of them formed by the lens ll, because none of the rays
which proceed from them can fall upon the lens, but objects placed
within the angle ecf, however remote be their distance, will have
images of them formed by the lens. If d, for example, be a leaf or a
fruit, or a portion of a branch, the rays which it emits will fall upon the
portions lm, ln of the lens, determined by drawing dm, dn touching
ab, and an image of it will be formed in the centre of the
photographic image of ab, as if ab were transparent. This image will
be formed by all the portions of the surface of the lens on which the
shadow of ab, formed by rays emanating from d, would not fall. If the
object d is more remote, the shadow of ab will diminish in size, and
the image of the object will be formed by a greater portion of the
lens. If the sun were to be in the direction mn, his image would
appear in the centre of the trunk or stem, corresponding to ab, Fig.
49.
Fig. 49.
If the stem occupies any other position, ab, Fig. 48, in the
landscape, objects, such as d, within the angle ecf, will have images
of them formed within the corresponding portion of the trunk or stem.
Hence, if ab, Fig. 49, represents the shadow of the stem across the
lens ll, the image of any object, which if luminous would give this
shadow, will be formed within the photographic image of the stem,
and as every part of it may have branches, or leaves, or fruit behind
it, its photographs will be filled with their pictures, which will have the
same distinctness as other equidistant parts of the landscape.
These observations are applicable to the limbs and slender parts
of animate and inanimate figures, when they are of a less size than
the lens with which their photograph is taken. They will be
transparent to all objects behind them, and their true forms and
shades cannot be taken with the cameras now in use.[60]
In order, therefore, to collect from nature the materials of his
profession, the artist must use a camera with a lens not much larger
than the pupil of his eye, and with such an instrument he will obtain
the most correct drawings of the trunks and stems of trees, of the
texture and markings of their bark, of the form of their leaves, and of
all those peculiarities of structure and of leafage by which alone the
trees of the forest can be distinguished. In like manner, he will obtain
the most correct representations of the rocks and precipices, and the
individual stones[61] which may enter into his picture,—of the plants
which spring from their crevices or grow at their base, and of those
flowers in their native grace and beauty, which hitherto he has either
drawn from recollection, or copied from the formal representations of
the botanist.
In addition to their correctness as true representations of natural
forms, photographs have a peculiar value, for which no labour or skill
on the part of the artist can compensate. In drawing the sketch of a
landscape, or delineating the trees, rocks, and foliage which are near
him, or the objects in the middle or remote distance, several hours
must be spent. During this period, the landscape and its individual
parts are undergoing no inconsiderable change. A breeze may
disturb the masses of his foliage, and bend his tree stems, and ruffle
his verdure, and throw new reflected lights upon the waving crops,
while every direct light is changing in intensity and direction during
the culmination or descent of the sun. What he has delineated in the
morning will hardly correspond with what he draws at noon, and the
distances which at one time are finely marked in aerial perspective,
will disappear, or even suffer inversion by variations in the intensity
and position of the haze. If cottages, or castles, or buildings of any
kind, enter into the picture, the shadows of their projections, and the
lights upon their walls and roofs will, in sunshine, undergo still
greater variations, and the artist will be perplexed with the
anachronisms and inconsistencies of his choicest materials. The
landscape thus composed in patches will, in its photograph, have a
very different aspect, as much in its forms as in its lights and
shadows. The truths of nature are fixed at one instant of time; the
self-delineated landscape is embalmed amid the co-existing events
of the physical and social world. If the sun shines, his rays throw
their gilding on the picture. If the rain-shower falls, the earth and the
trees glisten with its reflexions. If the wind blows, the partially
obliterated foliage will display the extent of its agitation. The objects
of still life, too, give reality and animation to the scene. The streets
display their stationary chariots, the esplanade its military array, and
the market-place its colloquial groups, while the fields are studded
with the forms and attitudes of animal life. The incidents of time and
the forms of space are thus simultaneously recorded, and every
picture from the sober palette of the sun becomes an authentic
chapter in the history of the world.[62]
But, however valuable photography has become to the artist,
science has recently given him another important auxiliary. In order
to make this available, he must employ a small pocket binocular
camera, to take double pictures to be united in the stereoscope. His
trees will thus exhibit the roundness of their trunks and stems, the
leaves and branches will place themselves at their proper distance,
and he will discover the reason of peculiar effects which in the plane
photograph he has been unable to understand. Seeing that his own
picture is to be upon a plane surface, I can hardly expect to convince
the artist that he will obtain more information by reproducing the
original in relief. It is a fact, however, beyond dispute, that effects are
produced by the stereoscopic union of two plane photographs which
are invisible in the single picture. These effects, which are chiefly
those of lustre and shade, are peculiarly remarkable in
Daguerreotype, and it is by no means easy to explain the cause. In a
Daguerreotype, for example, of two figures in black bronze, with a
high metallic lustre, it is impossible, by looking at the single picture,
to tell the material of which they are made; but the moment they are
united into stereoscopic relief their true character is instantly seen. In
a Daguerreotype of Alexander and Bucephalus, portions of the figure
seem as if shaded with China ink of a nearly uniform tint, but when
seen in relief the peculiar shade entirely disappears. The
stereoscopic combination of two surfaces of different intensities,
though of the same colour, produces effects which have not yet been
sufficiently studied. But, independently of these peculiarities, the
artist will certainly derive more aid from his landscape in relief, and
from the study of its individual parts, in their roundness and relative
distances, than when he examines them in their plane
representations. The shadows which the branches of leaves cast
upon the trunks and stems of his trees he will be able to trace to the
causes which produce them. Effects in outline, as well as in light and
shadow, which may perplex him, will find an explanation in the
relative distances and differences of apparent magnitude of
individual parts; and, after becoming familiar with his landscape in
relief, as it exists in Nature, he cannot fail to acquire new principles
and methods of manipulation. Nature flattened upon paper or metal,
and Nature round and plump, as if fresh from the chisel of the Divine
sculptor, must teach very different lessons to the aspiring artist.
The historical painter, or the more humble artist who delineates
the scenes of common or domestic life, will derive from the
photographic camera and the stereoscope advantages of equal
importance. The hero, the sage, and the martyr, drawn from living
originals, may be placed in the scenes where they suffered, or in the
localities which they hallowed. The lawgiver of Egypt, though he
exists only in the painter’s eye, may take his place beside the giant
flanks of Horeb or the awe-inspiring summit of Mount Sinai; and He
whom we may not name may challenge our love and admiration
amid the sun-painted scenes of his youth, of his miracles, and of his
humiliation. The fragments of ancient grandeur which time and war
have spared, the relics of bygone ages which have resisted the
destructive elements, will, as the materials of art, give reality and
truth to the pictorial history of times past, while the painter of modern
events can command the most accurate representations not only of
the costume, but of the very persons of the great men whose deeds
he is called upon to immortalize. The heroes of the Crimean war,
whether friends or foes, will be descried in the trenches in which they
fought, amid the ranks which they led to victory, or among the
wrecks of the fatal encounter in which they fell. The sun will thus
become the historiographer of the future, and in the fidelity of his
pencil and the accuracy of his chronicle, truth itself will be embalmed
and history cease to be fabulous.
But even in the narrower, though not less hallowed sphere of
domestic life, where the magic names of kindred and home are
inscribed, the realities of stereoscopic photography will excite the
most thrilling interest. In the transition forms of his offspring, which
link infancy with manhood, the parent will recognise the progress of
his mortal career, and in the successive phases which mark the
sunset of life, the stripling in his turn will read the lesson that his
pilgrimage too has a term which must close. Nor are such
delineations interesting only as works of art, or as incentives to
virtue; they are instinct with associations vivid and endearing. The
picture is connected with its original by sensibilities peculiarly tender.
It was the very light which radiated from her brow,—the identical
gleam which lighted up her eye,—the hectic flush or the pallid hue
that hung upon her cheek, which pencilled the cherished image, and
fixed themselves for ever there.
CHAPTER XI.
APPLICATION OF THE STEREOSCOPE TO
SCULPTURE,ARCHITECTURE, AND
ENGINEERING.
To the arts of sculpture and architecture, the processes of

binocular photography and stereoscopic combination are particularly
applicable. The landscape painter has every day within his reach
examples of the picturesque, the wild and the sublime in nature. In
the fields which surround him, in the river, or even in the “brook that
bubbles by,” on the shore, on the heath, or on the mountain side, he
has the choice of materials for every department of his art. The
sculptor has no such advantage. Swathed in impenetrable drapery
the human figure mocks his eager eye, and it is only by stolen
glances, or during angel visits, few and far between, that he can see
those divine forms which it is his business to portray. He must
therefore quit his home and seek for the models of ancient and
modern art. In the British Museum, in the Louvre, in the Vatican, and
in the repositories of art in Berlin, Munich, and other European cities,
he must spend months and years in the study of his profession. He
must copy, day after day, those master triumphs of genius which the
taste of ages has consecrated, and gather from their study the true
principles of his art. Transferred to his own studio, these copies will
be his instructor and his guide. They will exhibit to him forms more
than human, though human still, embodying all that is true and
beautiful in what might be man. The value of these copies, however,
depends on the skill and care with which they have been taken; but
no labour however great, and no power of drawing however
masterly, can give even an approximate idea either of the outline or
round of solid figures, whether single or in groups. Light and shade
can alone evolve those muscular prominences, or those soft and
sphere-like relievos which give such power and beauty to forms,
male and female; but how can an artist catch and fix those lights and
shades which give relief to the parts which they illuminate or
obscure? The light of the sun, even in a cloudless sky, is ever
varying in intensity, and the breadth and direction of the shadows
which he casts are varying from hour to hour. In a cloudy day, the
motion of the clouds, and the varying reflexions within his apartment,
subject the lights and shadows to constant change. The portions of
the drawing executed in the morning will not harmonize with what is
drawn at noon, or during the decline of day. We consider it,
therefore, impossible to execute a drawing of a statue, or of a group
of statues, from which the artist can have anything like an accurate
idea of the forms which compose them.
From all these difficulties the sculptor has been relieved by the
invention of the photographic process. He may thus take copies of
statues in a few minutes, and take them in all their aspects, and as
seen at various distances, and in this manner he will obtain drawings
with the shadows as they existed at a particular instant, so that the
lights and shades, upon every individual part of the statue, will be
correctly related to each other. But valuable as these drawings are,
compared with those executed by the pencil, their value becomes
tenfold greater when they are taken with the binocular camera, and
with small lenses, as already described. When combined in the
stereoscope, he may reproduce the statue in relief, in all its aspects,
and of different sizes, and derive from its study the same advantages
which the statue itself would have furnished. In one respect the
creations of the stereoscope surpass the original. While the artist is
surveying and drawing instruction from the marble prototype, its
lights and shadows, and consequently the delicate forms, convex
and concave, by which they are produced, are constantly changing,
whereas, in the stereoscopic statue, everything is fixed and
invariable.[63] In taking busts and statues from the living subject, the
sculptor will derive great advantage from the stereoscope. Double
pictures of the whole, or of any portion of the subject, may be taken
and raised into relief, and from such binocular pictures, executed on
one side of the globe, an artist, on the other side, may complete an
admirable statue. The dying and the dead may thus be modelled
without the rude contact of a mask, and those noble forms
perpetuated which affection or gratitude has endeared.
We must warn the sculptor, however, against the employment of
binocular pictures taken with large lenses. Not only will the individual
picture be deformed, but a double deformity will be induced by their
union; and whether he copies from a statue or from a living figure,
his work must be defective, even to an ordinary eye.
In architecture, and all those arts in which ornamental forms are
given to solid materials, the binocular camera and the stereoscope
will be found indispensable. The carvings of ancient, or mediæval, or
modern art may be copied and reproduced in relief, whatever be the
material from which they have been cut. The rich forms of Gothic
architecture, and the more classical productions of Greek and
Roman genius, will swell the artist’s portfolio, and possess all the
value of casts. With the aid of the Kaleidoscope the modern artist
may surpass all his predecessors. He may create an infinite variety
of those forms of symmetry which enter so largely into the decorative
arts; and if the individual forms, which constitute the symmetrical
picture, are themselves solid, the binocular-kaleidoscopic pictures,
taken photographically, will be raised into the original relief of their
component parts, or they may be represented directly to the eye in
relief, by semi-lenses placed at the ocular extremities of the
reflecting plates.[64] If the symmetrical forms are taken from lines in
the same plane, no relief will be obtained from the kaleidoscopic
pictures.
But it is not merely to the decorative parts of architecture that the
stereoscope is applicable. The noblest edifices, whether of a civil, a
religious, or a military character, which he could otherwise study only
as a traveller, and represent in hurried and imperfect sketches, will,
when taken binocularly, stand before him in their full relief and
grandeur, reflecting to his eye the very lights and shadows which at a
given hour the sun cast upon their walls.
In the erection of public buildings, hourly or daily photographs
have been taken of them, to shew to the absent superintendent the
progress of his work; but these pictures will be still more expressive
if binocular ones are combined in the stereoscope.
To the engineer and the mechanist, and the makers of
instruments of all kinds, the stereoscope will be of inestimable value.
The difficulty of representing machinery is so great that it is not easy
to understand its construction or its mode of operation from plans
and perspective views of it. The union of one or two binocular
pictures of it, when thrown into relief, will, in many cases, remove the
difficulty both of drawing and understanding it. Photographs of
machinery, however, consisting of a number of minute parts at
different distances from the eye, have, when taken by large lenses,
all the defects which we explained in reference to trees and their
branches and leaves. Supports and axles will be transparent, and
the teeth of the wheels, and the small and distant parts of the
mechanism, will be seen through all the nearer parts whose width is
less than the diameter of the lens.
In taking a binocular picture of a machine or instrument
consisting of various parts, that minute accuracy which is necessary
to give the true form and expression of the human face is not
required; but if it should happen that, in a correct binocular view of
the object, parts are concealed which it would be useful to see, we
must discover the binocular angle which will shew these parts in the
two pictures, or, generally speaking, which will give the best view of
the mechanism, and then adjust the lenses of the camera to give the
desired representations of it. These observations will be found useful
in obtaining stereoscopic views of the structures in carpentry and
ship-building.
CHAPTER XII.
APPLICATION OF THE STEREOSCOPE
TO NATURAL HISTORY.
In treating of those objects of natural history which enter into the

composition of landscape scenery, such as trees, plants, and rocks,
we have pointed out the method of having them accurately drawn for
the stereoscope; but it is to the importance of stereoscopic
photography in natural history as a science that we propose to
devote the present Chapter.
When we reflect upon the vast number of species which have
been described by zoologists, the noble forms of animated nature,
whether wild or domesticated, and the valuable services which many
of them perform as the slaves of man, we can hardly attach too
much importance to the advantage of having them accurately
delineated and raised into stereoscopic relief. The animal painters of
the present day,—the Landseers, the Cowpers, and the Ansdells,
have brought this branch of their art to a high degree of perfection,
but the subjects of their pencil have been principally dogs, horses,
deer, and cattle, and a few other animals, with which they are well
acquainted, and specimens of which were within their reach. To give
accurate representations of giraffes, hyænas, and the rarer animals
which are found alive only in zoological gardens and travelling
caravans, is a more difficult task, and one which has been
necessarily intrusted to inferior hands. In this branch of his art the
photographer is perplexed with the difficulty of arresting his subject
in a position of repose and in the attitude which he requires. But this
difficulty will diminish as his materials become more sensitive to light;
and means may be found for fixing, without constraint, certain
animals in the desired position. We have seen the portrait of a dog
taken with such minute accuracy that the slightest trace of any
motion could not be perceived. Its master directed his attention to a
piece of bread, and he stood firmly waiting for his reward.
Considering truth as an essential element in all photographs, we are
unwilling to counsel the artist to have recourse to a large lens for the
purpose of accelerating his process by seizing his restless object in
a single instant of time; but what cannot be tolerated in the human
form may be permitted in animal portraiture as a necessary evil. The
divine lineaments and delicate forms which in man the intellect and
the affections conspire to mould, are concealed under the shaggy
drapery of the world of instinct; and even if they existed and were
perceived, could hardly be appreciated by those who have not
studied its manners and submitted to its laws. But even in the
present state of photography such a celerity of process has been
attained that a distinguished amateur in Edinburgh has constructed a
portable camera, which, by pulling a trigger, instantaneously records
upon its sensitive retina the surf which is hurrying to the shore, or the
stranger who is passing in the street. With such an instrument, in
such hands, the denizens of the jungle or of the plains may be taken
captive in their finest attitudes and in their most restless moods.
Photographs thus obtained will possess a value of no ordinary kind,
and when taken in the binocular camera and raised into relief by the
stereoscope, will be valuable auxiliaries to the naturalist, and even to
the painters and the poets whose works or whose lyrics may require
an introduction to the brutes that perish.
In representing with accuracy the osteology and integuments of
the zoological world—the framework which protects life, and to which
life gives activity and power, the aid of the stereoscope is
indispensable. The repose of death, and the sharp pencil which
resides in the small lens, will place before the student’s eye the
skeleton, clothed or unclothed, in accurate perspective and true
relief, while he contemplates with wonder, in their true apparent
magnitude, the gigantic Mastodon, the colossal Megatherion, and
the huge Dinornis, or examines the crushed remains of the
lengthened Saurian, or the hollow footsteps which ancient life has
impressed on the massive sandstone or the indurated clay.
In the other branches of natural history, ichthyology, ornithology,
conchology, &c., the stereoscope will be found equally useful. In
entomology, where insects are to be represented, the microscopic
binocular camera must be used; and in order to prevent the legs, the
antennæ, and other small parts of the object from being transparent,
and therefore spotted, with the images of objects or parts beyond
them, as explained in a preceding chapter, the smallest lenses
should be employed.
The roots and bulbs which are raised by the agriculturist and the
horticulturist, the turnip, the beet, the carrot, and the onion; and the
fruits raised in the orchard, on the wall, or in the hothouse, may be
exhibited in all their roundness and solidity in the stereoscope; and
as articles of commerce they might be purchased on the authority of
their pictures in relief. The microscopic stereoscope will, in like
manner, give accurate magnified representations in relief of grains
and seeds of all kinds, and by comparing these with the
representations of those of a standard form and quality, the
purchaser may be enabled to form a better idea of their excellence
than if he saw them with his own eyes, or had them in his own
hands.
CHAPTER XIII.
TO EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES.
The observations contained in the preceding chapters prepare us

for appreciating the value of the stereoscope as an indispensable
auxiliary in elementary as well as in professional education. When
the scholar has learned to read, to write, and to count, he has
obtained only the tools of instruction. To acquire a general
knowledge of the works of God and of man—of things common and
uncommon—of the miracles of nature and of art, is the first step in
the education of the people. Without such knowledge, the humblest
of our race is unfit for any place in the social scale. He may have
learned to read his Bible, and he may have read it after he had
learned to read;—he may have committed to memory every
sentence in the Decalogue;—he may have packed into the
storehouse of his brain all the wisdom of Solomon, and all the divine
precepts of a greater than Solomon, while he is utterly ignorant of
everything above him, around him, and within him,—ignorant, too, of
the form, the magnitude, and the motions of his terrestrial home,—
ignorant of the gigantic structures which constitute the material
universe,—ignorant of the fabrics which industry prepares for his
use, and of the luxuries which commerce brings from the ends of the
earth and places at his door,—ignorant even of the wonderful
operations of that beneficent commissariat, which is every moment,
while he sleeps and dreams, elaborating the materials by which he is
fed and clothed.
Were we to say, though we do not say it, that in our own country
the teachers, so penuriously endowed by the State, are not much in
advance of their pupils, we should err only in stating what is not
universally true; and yet there are men of influence and character
insisting upon the imposition of sectarian tests, and thus barricading
our schools against the admission of the wisest and the fittest
masters! And while every civilized community in the world is eagerly
teaching their people, irrespective of religious creeds, the same
bigots, civil and ecclesiastical, in our own country, have combined to
resist the only system of education which can stem the tide of vice
and crime which is desolating the land.
Missionary labour and reformatory institutions, valuable as they
are, presuppose an educated community. To instruct and reform a
race that can neither read their Bible nor derive knowledge from
books, is a task beyond human achievement. The dearest interests
of society, therefore, call loudly for Secular Education,—the greatest
boon which philanthropy ever demanded from the State. The
minister who, in the face of sectarian factions, dares not identify
himself with a large legislative measure for the education of the
people, and resigns office when he fails to carry it, prefers power to
duty, and, if he ever possessed it, divests himself of the character of
a statesman and a patriot. He may be justified in punishing the law-
breaker who cannot read his statutes, but he is himself the breaker
of laws of a higher order, and sanctioned by a higher tribunal.
If the education of the people is to be attempted either by partial
or comprehensive legislation, the existing system is utterly inefficient.
The teacher, however wisely chosen and well qualified, has not at
his command the means of imparting knowledge. He may pour it in
by the ear, or extract it from the printed page, or exhibit it in
caricature in the miserable embellishments of the school-book, but
unless he teaches through the eye, the great instrument of
knowledge, by means of truthful pictures, or instruments, or models,
or by the direct exhibition of the products of nature and of art, which
can be submitted to the scrutiny of the senses, no satisfactory
instruction can be conveyed.[65] Every school, indeed, should have a
museum, however limited and humble. Even from within its narrow
sphere objects of natural history and antiquities might be collected,
and duplicates exchanged; and we are sure that many a chimney-
piece in the district would surrender a tithe of its curiosities for the
public use. Were the British Museum, and other overflowing
collections, to distribute among provincial museums the numerous
duplicates which they possess, they would gradually pass into the
schools, and before a quarter of a century elapsed, museums would
be found in every proper locality.
As we cannot indulge in the hope that any such boon will be
conferred on our educational institutions, it becomes an important
question how far it is possible to supply the defect by the means
within our reach. The photographic process may be advantageously
employed in producing accurate representations of those objects,
both of nature and of art, which it would be desirable to describe and
explain in the instruction of youth; but as experience has not yet
taught us that such pictures will be permanent, and capable of
resisting the action of time and the elements, it would be hazardous
to employ them in the illustration of popular works. It is fortunate,
however, that the new art of galvanography enables us, by a cheap
process, to give to photographs the permanence of engravings, and
to employ them in the illustration of educational works.[66]
But however much we may value such an auxiliary,
representations or drawings, on a plane, of solids or combinations of
solids at different distances from the eye, are in many cases
unintelligible even to persons well informed; so that, on this ground
alone, we cannot but appreciate the advantages to be derived from
binocular pictures and their stereoscopic relievo, not only in the
instruction of youth, but in the diffusion of knowledge among all
ranks of society.
One of the most palpable advantages to be derived from the
illustration of school-books by pictures in relief, is the communication
of correct knowledge of the various objects of natural history. If, as
we have already shewn, the naturalist derives important assistance
in his studies from correct representations of animated nature, how
much more valuable must they be to the scholar who never saw, and
may never see the objects themselves. In the department of zoology,
the picture might frequently be taken from the living animal, standing
before the camera in vigorous life and transcendent beauty; or when
this cannot be done, from the fine specimens of zoological forms
which adorn our metropolitan and provincial museums. The trees
and plants, too, of distant zones, whether naked in their osteology, or
luxurious in their foliage, would shew themselves in full relief;—the
banyan, clinging with its hundred roots to the ground,—the bread-
fruit tree, with its beneficent burden,—the cow tree, with its
wholesome beverage,—the caoutchouc tree, yielding its valuable
juice,—or the deadly upas, preparing its poison for the arrow of the
savage or the poniard of the assassin.
With no less interest will the schoolboy gaze on the forms of
insect life, which will almost flutter before him, and on the tenants of
the air and of the ocean, defective only in the colours which adorn
them. The structures of the inorganic world will equally command his
admiration. The minerals which have grown in the earth beneath his
feet, and the crystals which chemistry has conjured into being, will
display to him their geometric forms, infinite in variety, and
interesting from their rarity and value. Painted by the very light which
streamed from them, he will see, in their retiring and advancing
facets, the Kohinoor and other diamonds, and the huge rubies, and
sapphires, and emeralds, which have adorned the chaplet of beauty,
or sparkled in the diadem of kings. The gigantic productions of the
earth will appeal to him with equal power,—the colossal granites,
which have travelled in chariots of ice, and the rounded boulders,
which have been transported in torrents of mud; and while he
admires, in their strong relief, the precipices of ancient lava—the
Doric colonnades of basalt—the upheaved and contorted strata
beside them, and the undisturbed beds which no internal
convulsions have shaken, he will stand appalled before the fossil
giants of the primeval world that trod the earth during its preparation
for man, and have been embalmed in stone to instruct and to humble
him.
In acquiring a knowledge of physical geography, in which the
grander aspects of nature arrest our attention, their stereoscopic
representations will be particularly instructive. The mountain range,
whether abrupt in its elevation, or retiring from our view,—whether
scarred with peaks or undulating in outline,—the insulated mountain
tipped with snow or glowing with fire,—the volcano ejecting its
burning missiles,[67]—the iceberg fixed in the shore, or floating on
the deep,—the deafening cataract,—the glacier and its moraines,
sinking gently to the plains,—and even the colossal wave with its
foaming crest, will be portrayed in the binocular camera, and
exhibited in all the grandeur and life of nature.
The works of human hands,—the structures of civilisation, will
stand before the historian and the antiquary, as well as the student,
in their pristine solidity, or in their ruined grandeur,—the monuments
by which sovereigns and nations have sought to perpetuate their
names,—the gorgeous palaces of kings,—the garish temples of
superstition,—the humbler edifices of Christian faith,—the bastions
and strongholds of war, will display themselves in the stereoscope as
if the observer were placed at their base, and warmed by the very
sun which shone upon their walls.
Although few of our village youth may become sculptors, yet the
exhibition of ancient statues in their actual relief, and real apparent
magnitude, cannot fail to give them salutary instruction and rational
pleasure. To gaze upon the Apollo Belvidere,—the Venus de Medici,
—the Laocoon, and the other masterpieces of ancient art, standing
in the very halls which they now occupy; or to see the chef d’œuvres
of Canova, Thorvaldsen, and Chantrey, or the productions of living
artists in their own studio, with the sculptor himself standing by their
side, will excite an interest of no ordinary kind.
From the works of the architect, the engineer, and the mechanist,
as exhibited in full relief, the student, whether at our schools or
colleges, will derive the most valuable instruction. The gigantic
aqueducts of ancient and modern times,—the viaducts and bridges
which span our valleys and our rivers, and the machinery in our
arsenals, factories, and workshops, will be objects of deep interest to
the general as well as the professional inquirer.
There is yet another application of the stereoscope to educational
purposes, not less important than those which have been mentioned.
In the production of diagram representing instruments and
apparatus, which cannot be understood from drawings of them on a
plane, it will be of incalculable use to the teacher to have
stereoscopic pictures of them. In every branch of physical science,
diagrams of this kind are required. When they are intended to
represent apparatus and instruments, either for illustrating known
truths, or carrying on physical researches, binocular pictures can be
easily obtained; but when the diagrams have not been taken from
apparatus, but are merely combinations of lines, we can obtain
binocular photographs of them only from models constructed on
purpose. These models will give binocular representations in various
azimuths, so that the true position of planes at different inclinations,
and lines at various angles with each other, and at different
distances from the eye, will be readily apprehended. Astronomical
diagrams, in which orbits, &c., may be represented by wires, and
optical figures, in which the rays may be formed by threads or wires,
would be thus easily executed.
Among the binocular diagrams, consisting of white lines upon a
black ground, which have been executed in Paris, there is one
representing the apparatus in which a ray of light, polarized by
reflexion from a glass plate, passes through a crystallized film
perpendicular to the plane of the paper, and is subsequently
analysed by reflexion from another plate at right angle to the
following plate. This diagram, when placed in relief by the
stereoscope, gives as correct an idea of the process as the
apparatus itself.
As an auxiliary in the investigation of questions of difficulty and
importance, both in physics and metaphysics, the stereoscope is
peculiarly valuable. It enables us to place in its true light the
celebrated theory of vision on which Bishop Berkeley reared the
ideal philosophy, of which he was the founder, and it gives us
powerful aid in explaining many physical phenomena which have
long baffled the ingenuity of philosophers. It would be out of place to
give any account of these in a work like this, but there is one so
remarkable, and at the same time so instructive, as to merit special
notice. In order to exhibit, by means of three diagrams, a solid in
relief and hollow at the same time, which had not been previously
done, I executed three drawings of the frustum of a cone, resembling
those in Fig. 31, so that the left-hand one and the middle one gave
the hollow cone, while the middle one and the right-hand one gave
the raised cone. Having their summits truncated, as in the figure, the
cones exhibit, in the one case, a circle at the bottom of the hollow
cone, and in the other, a circle on the summit of the raised cone.
When these three diagrams[68] are placed in an open lenticular
stereoscope, or are united by the convergency of the optical axes, so
that we can not only see the hollow and the raised cones, but the flat
drawing on each side of them, we are enabled to give an ocular and
experimental proof of the cause of the large size of the horizontal
moon, of her small size when in the meridian or at a great altitude,
and of her intermediate apparent magnitude at intermediate
altitudes,—phenomena which had long perplexed astronomers, and
which Dr. Berkeley, rejecting previous and well-founded
explanations, ascribed to the different degrees of brightness of the
moon in these different positions.
As the circular summit of the raised cone appears to be nearest
the eye of the observer, the summit of the hollow cone farthest off,
and the similar central circle in the flat drawing on each side, at an
intermediate distance, the apparent distances from the eye of
different and equal circles will represent the apparent distance of the
moon in the zenith, or very high in the elliptical celestial vault,—the
same distance when she is in the horizon, and the same when at an
intermediate altitude. Being in reality of exactly the same size, and at
the same distance from the eye, these circular summits, or sections
of the cone, are precisely in the same circumstances as the moon in
the three positions already mentioned. If we now contemplate them
in the lenticular stereoscope, we shall see the circular summit of the
hollow cone the largest, like the horizontal moon, because it seems
to be at the greatest distance from the eye,—the circular summit of
the raised cone the smallest, because it appears at the least
distance, like the zenith or culminating moon,—and the circular
summits of the flat cones on each side, of an intermediate size, like
the moon at an intermediate altitude, because their distance from the
eye is intermediate. The same effect will be equally well seen by
placing three small wafers of the same size and colour on the square
summits of the drawings of the quadrangular pyramids, or more
simply, by observing the larger size of the square summit of the
hollow pyramid.
This explanation of the cause of the increased size of the
horizontal moon is rigorously correct. If any person should suspect
that the circles which represent the moon are unequal in size, or are
at different distances from the eye, they have only to cut the diagram
into three parts, and make each drawing of the frustum of the cone
occupy a different place in the binocular slide, and they will obtain
the very same results. Hence we place beyond a doubt the
incorrectness of Dr. Berkeley’s theory of the size of the horizontal
moon,—a theory to which the stereoscope enables us to apply
another test, for if we make one or more of these circles less bright
than the rest, no change whatever will be produced in their apparent
magnitude.
CHAPTER XIV.
TO PURPOSES OF AMUSEMENT.
Every experiment in science, and every instrument depending on

scientific principles, when employed for the purpose of amusement,
must necessarily be instructive. “Philosophy in sport” never fails to
become “Science in earnest.” The toy which amuses the child will
instruct the sage, and many an eminent discoverer and inventor can
trace the pursuits which immortalize them to some experiment or
instrument which amused them at school. The soap bubble, the kite,
the balloon, the water wheel, the sun-dial, the burning-glass, the
magnet, &c., have all been valuable incentives to the study of the
sciences.
In a list of about 150 binocular pictures issued by the London
Stereoscopic Company, under the title of “Miscellaneous Subjects of
the ‘Wilkie’ character,” there are many of an amusing kind, in which
scenes in common life are admirably represented. Following out the
same idea, the most interesting scenes in our best comedies and
tragedies might be represented with the same distinctness and relief
as if the actors were on the stage. Events and scenes in ancient and
modern history might be similarly exhibited, and in our day, binocular
pictures of trials, congresses, political, legislative, and religious
assemblies, in which the leading actors were represented, might be
provided for the stereoscope.
For the purpose of amusement, the photographer might carry us
even into the regions of the supernatural. His art, as I have
elsewhere shewn, enables him to give a spiritual appearance to one
or more of his figures, and to exhibit them as “thin air” amid the solid
realities of the stereoscopic picture. While a party is engaged with
their whist or their gossip, a female figure appears in the midst of
them with all the attributes of the supernatural. Her form is
transparent, every object or person beyond her being seen in
shadowy but distinct outline. She may occupy more than one place
in the scene, and different portions of the group might be made to
gaze upon one or other of the visions before them. In order to
produce such a scene, the parties which are to compose the group
must have their portraits nearly finished in the binocular camera, in
the attitude which they may be supposed to take, and with the
expression which they may be supposed to assume, if the vision
were real. When the party have nearly sat the proper length of time,
the female figure, suitably attired, walks quickly into the place
assigned her, and after standing a few seconds in the proper
attitude, retires quickly, or takes as quickly, a second or even a third
place in the picture if it is required, in each of which she remains a
few seconds, so that her picture in these different positions may be
taken with sufficient distinctness in the negative photograph. If this
operation has been well performed, all the objects immediately
behind the female figure, having been, previous to her introduction,
impressed upon the negative surface, will be seen through her, and
she will have the appearance of an aerial personage, unlike the
other figures in the picture. This experiment may be varied in many
ways. One body may be placed within another, a chicken, for
example, within an egg, and singular effects produced by combining
plane pictures with solid bodies in the arrangement of the persons
and things placed before the binocular camera. Any individual in a
group may appear more than once in the same picture, either in two
or more characters, and no difficulty will be experienced by the
ingenious photographer in giving to these double or triple portraits,
when it is required, the same appearance as that of the other parties
who have not changed their place. In groups of this kind curious
effects might be produced by placing a second binocular slide
between the principal slide and the eye, and giving it a motion within
the stereoscope. The figures upon it must be delineated
photographically upon a plate of glass, through which the figures on
the principal slide are seen, and the secondary slide must be so
close to the other that the figures on both may be distinctly visible, if
distinct vision is required for those which are to move.
Another method of making solid figures transparent in a
photograph has been referred to in the preceding chapter, and may
be employed in producing amusing combinations. The transparency
is, in this case, produced by using a large lens, the margin of which
receives the rays which issue from bodies, or parts of bodies,
situated behind other bodies, or parts of bodies, whose images are
given in the photograph. The body thus rendered transparent must
be less in superficial extent than the lens, and the body seen through
it must be so far behind it that rays emanating from it would fall upon
some part of the lens, the luminosity of this body on the photograph
being proportional to the part of the surface of the lens upon which
the rays fall. This will be readily understood from Figs. 48 and 49,
and their description, and the ingenious photographer will have no
difficulty in producing very curious effects from this property of large
object-glasses.
One of the most interesting applications of the stereoscope is in
combining binocular pictures, constructed like the plane picture,
used in what has been called the cosmorama for exhibiting
dissolving views. These plane pictures are so constructed, that when
we view them by reflected light, as pictures are generally viewed, we
see a particular scene, such as the Chamber of Deputies in its
external aspect; but when we allow no light to fall upon it, but view it
by transmitted light, we see the interior of the building brilliantly
lighted up, and the deputies listening to the debate. In like manner,
the one picture may represent two armies in battle array, while the
other may represent them in action. A cathedral in all its architectural
beauty may be combined with the same building in the act of being
burned to the ground; or a winter scene covered with snow may be
conjoined with a landscape glowing with the warmth and verdure of
summer. In the cosmorama, the reflected light which falls upon the
front of the one picture is obtained by opening a lid similar to that of
the stereoscope, as shewn at cd, Fig. 14, while another lid opening
behind the picture stops any light which might pass through it, and
prevents the second picture from being seen. If, when the first
picture is visible, we gradually open the lid behind it, and close the lid
cd before it, it gradually disappears, or dissolves, and the second
picture gradually appears till the first vanishes and the second

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Thermal Food Engineering Operations

1st Edition Nitin Kumar

Thermal Engineering Sadhu Singh

ENTROPY ANALYSIS IN THERMAL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS 1ST

Engineering Plant-Based Food Systems Sangeeta Prakash

Basic Mechanical Engineering 2nd Edition Pravin Kumar

Deepwater drilling : well planning, design,

PGPR Amelioration in Sustainable Agriculture: Food

Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 7th Edition,

An Introduction to Thermal Physics 1st Edition Daniel

Bioprocessing in Food Science

Series Editor: Anil Panghal, PhD

Wiley Global Headquarters

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Cover image: Wikimedia Commons and the editors

Printed in the USA

2 Microbial Inactivation with Heat Treatments 45

3.2.1.2 Steam Blanching 80

4.3.2 Effect of Thermal Treatments on Nutrients

5.7.2.1 Spray Angle 151

5.15 Conclusion and Perspectives 170

8.2.1 Working Principle of Adsorption Air Dryer 223

9.6.1 Effects on Food Color 249

10.6.1.1 Water Absorption Index (WAI)

11.3.2 Microwave Blanching 323

12.5.3 Low-Pressure Superheated Steam Drying with IR 368

14 Quality, Food Safety and Role of Technology in Food Industry 415

Thermal processing is a significant component of the undergraduate and

authorities of Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University,

*Corresponding author: amritapreetam92@gmail.com

involving drying, sterilization, evaporation, and other methods are com-

microwave electromagnetic radiation, or radio wave. The intensity of the

1.2 Novel Thermal Technologies: Current Status

So in such a situation, novel thermal techniques or with the combina-

Microwave: The most popular and extensive technology studied world-

Infrared heating: Proved by many researchers, Infrared heating (IRH)

Radiofrequency: Another thermal technology is Radiofrequency heating

Ohmic heating (OH): Compared to other technologies, ohmic heating has

1.2.1 Environmental Impact of Novel Thermal Technologies

which is called a blow-down. Inadequate blow-down may lead to the gath-

1.2.2 The Objective of Thermal Processing

1.2.3 Preservation Process

1.3 Types of Thermal Technologies

methods because both are non-invasive, non-destructive, both measure

1.3.1 Infrared Heating

1. Short waves 0.76-2 μm (near IR waves), temperature above

The working principle of infrared waves includes: IR energy is electro-

1. Surface temperatures of heating and receiving bodies or

Quantities indicate infrared radiations are the perfect source of energy

1.3.1.2 Advantages of IR Heating

1. Quick heating rate

3. Uniform drying temperature

The utilization of IR technique in the food sector is still developing; many

1.3.1.3 Applications of IR Heating

1.3.2 Microwave Heating

Table 1.1 Applications of Infrared heating: [1].

to meet the expectations of consumers. With the advancement of emerg-

In the microwave system, the two oscillating perpendicular fields, i.e.,

1.3.2.2 Advantages of Microwave in Food Industry

Table 1.2 List of some techniques combined with microwave technology.

1.3.2.3 Application of Microwave in Food Processing Technologies

structure of the food. Nevertheless, drying in the microwave generates