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 Acknowledgments

I want to acknowledge the help of several people: David Dickinson, Michael Graves, Freddy
Hiebert, Bob Jimenez, and Catherine Snow for their informing contributions to the
Researcher Voices; Robin Jocius for her careful reads and timely suggestions; Emily Hurst,
Meredith Jordan, Laura Wilczek, and Jessica Williams for their wonderful Literature Links
additions; and Craig Thomas, Anna Brackett, and the rest of The Guilford Press staff for their
careful shepherding of the manuscript through the publication process. A special thanks to
Paul Gordon for another great cover design; and, finally, a big thank you to the unnamed
teachers and children whose work or photos appear throughout the book.

vi
 Preface

I n many ways it’s hard to believe that it’s been more than a dozen years since the publica-
tion of first edition of Word Journeys: Assessment-Guided Phonics, Spelling, and Vocabulary
Instruction. At the time of that manuscript’s submission, the National Reading Panel report
was not yet out, and the Common Core State Standards were merely idea seeds. During the
intervening years I’ve had many opportunities to observe in classrooms and talk with teach-
ers and curriculum leaders about the book and how to implement effective word study with
students across the grades, especially in grades K–8. I’ve also responded to teachers’ requests
to make the sorts outlined in the first edition available in a ready-to-use format by writing two
additional books, one focused on the emergent, letter name, and within word pattern stages,
and the other on syllable juncture and derivational constancy. With feedback from personal
communications and observations and excellent suggestions from reviewers, I undertook the
momentous task of updating and improving a book for which innumerable professionals over
the years have expressed their appreciation. My passion for words and language drew me into
the work, and the task soon became a labor of love. The result is an updated book that contains
much new and revised information, a Word Journeys that is even more comprehensive and user
friendly than the first edition. Although a new edition, the aim of the text remains the same:
to provide teachers with tools and support so they can make informed instructional decisions
related to word study and engage learners in meaningful word learning to further their reading
and writing and enhance their appreciation of language.
Key changes from the first edition include:

•• A new first chapter that defines word study (it’s much more than just an approach to
spelling) and that contextualizes word study: how it relates to orthographic knowledge, to
reading and writing, and to children’s oral language, and its role in developing learners’ vocab-
ulary, including academic vocabulary. This added first chapter also includes the voices of five
researchers (David K. Dickinson, Michael F. Graves, Elfrieda H. Hiebert, Robert T. Jiménez,
and Catherine E. Snow) who share their current thinking on vocabulary topics.
•• Chapters 2–9 have all been updated. The updating encompasses not only the research
vii
viii Preface

references but also the popular Literature Links that connect children’s literature to specific
orthographic features being studied. The latter now include informational text suggestions as
well. Additional visuals and examples have been incorporated throughout the second edition.
In Chapter 3, which describes the Developmental Spelling Analysis (a dictated word inven-
tory for assessing learners’ orthographic knowledge), I have added feature letters to the answer
sheets to make the process of analyzing student performance even easier. Also included is the
Kindergarten Inventory of Developmental Spelling (KIDS) from Word Sorts and More, a tool
for more novice spellers. Chapter 4 presents the “how-to” of word study. The revised version
contains additional activities and technology ideas, and it reflects my current research and
thinking about the need for the small-group word introductions that typically happen at the
start of a week or cycle to be more like instructional conversations and less like mini-interro-
gations. This is especially important in light of the emphasis placed on discussion in the Com-
mon Core State Standards. Chapters 5–8, which target the stages of letter name, within word
pattern, syllable juncture, and derivational constancy, have also been revised and updated.
One of the updates has been to align the sort progression charts that were in the first edition
with the sorts included in the two later published supplemental books—Word Sorts and More
and Mindful of Words. Teachers who are using those books will find the alignment helpful.
For those who are not, the change is minor: The revised charts still present a progression and
suggestions for contrasts; there are just different key words and, in some cases, slight modifica-
tions to the sequence. In Chapter 9, the Q & A chapter, there are changes in some of the ques-
tions and the addition of two new topics: the Common Core standards and English learners.
•• Several new reproducible materials have been added in Appendix 2, including a Self-
Assessment Checklist, a Linguistic Terminology Survey, and student answer sheets geared to
each spelling developmental stage, with the feature letters included. The Glossary has also been
expanded, as have the lists of additional book resources.

My hope is that your word journeys with students will continue to foster understandings
and enjoyment in even deeper ways.

Note: The Publisher grants nonassignable permission to individual purchasers of this book
to reproduce the forms in Appendix 2. Please contact the Rights and Permissions Manager
at permissions@guilford.com or Guilford Publications, 72 Spring Street, New York, NY
10012, for more information on fees for reproducing the Developmental Spelling Analysis
(DSA) or any other material from this book.
 Contents

Part I
Understanding Word Study Contexts
Chapter 1 Word Study: Reading, Writing, and Language Connections 3
What Is Word Study? 4
The Role of Orthographic Knowledge 7
The Role of Oral Language and Vocabulary Knowledge 8
Reading, Writing, and Spelling Connections 11
Other Reading and Writing Connections 13
Researcher Voices: Language and Vocabulary Development 14
Why Should I Try to Find Time to Teach Vocabulary? 14
(David K. Dickinson)
A Comprehensive Framework for Teaching 50,000 Words 16
(Michael F. Graves)
What Words Should Be the Focus of Vocabulary Instruction That
Gives Students the Foundation They Need for Reading Complex Texts? 18
(Elfrieda H. Hiebert)
Students Learning English and Their Language Strengths 20
(Robert T. Jiménez)
Good Vocabulary Instruction: It’s Not about the Words 22
(Catherine E. Snow)
From Research to Practice 24
Looking Ahead 26

Part II
Understanding Children’s Word Knowledge
Chapter 2 A Developmental Perspective 29
Emergent Spelling 30
Letter Name Spelling 35
ix
x Contents

Within Word Pattern Spelling 37

Syllable Juncture Spelling 41
Derivational Constancy Spelling 47

Chapter 3 Assessing Word Knowledge: 52

The Developmental Spelling Analysis
The Screening Inventory 53
Dictation 55
Scoring 55
The Feature Inventories 57
Dictation and Scoring 59
Analyzing Feature Performance 63
Recording Results 64
Instructional Implications 73
The Assessments: Steps in Brief 76
Step 1: Dictating the Screening Inventory 76
Step 2: Dictating the Feature Inventory, Comprehensive Option,
for Forms A and B 78
Step 3: Completing the Feature Inventory Analysis 78
Step 4: Recording Feature Inventory Results on the Class Record 79
DSA Feature Inventory, Form A 81
DSA Feature Inventory, Form B 91

Part III
Fostering Children’s Word Knowledge

Chapter 4 Planning Appropriate and Engaging Instruction 107

Preparing the Sorts 108
Determining the Categories 110
Selecting Words 112
Establishing a Predictable Structure 114
Introducing the Sort and Building Vocabulary 119
Follow-Up for Practice, Application, and Integration 123
Evaluating a Word Study Cycle 142
Solving Word Problems 144
Syllabication 145
Morphology 146
Context Clues (Balancing Their Use with Letter-Sound Clues) 147
Fostering Word Consciousness and a Love of Words 147
Modeling with Literature 147
Words Have Histories, Too 153
Playing with Words 154
Looking Ahead 156
 Contents xi

Chapter 5 Letter Name Word Study 157

Initial and Final Consonants (DSA Feature A) 161
Same-Vowel Word Families: An Introduction to Short Vowels 165
Initial Consonant Blends and Digraphs (DSA Feature B) 167
Different-Vowel Word Families and Short Vowels (DSA Feature C) 172
Affricates (DSA Feature D) 174
Final Consonant Blends and Digraphs, Including More Word Families
(DSA Feature E) 175

Chapter 6 Within Word Pattern Word Study 177

Long Vowels with VCe (DSA Feature F) 179
r-Controlled Vowels with Short-Vowel Patterns (DSA Feature G) 182
Other Common Long-Vowel Patterns (DSA Feature H) 183
r-Controlled Vowels with Long-Vowel Patterns (DSA Feature G) 185
Complex Consonant Patterns (DSA Feature I) 187
Final /k/ Sound 187
Triple-­Letter Blends 189
Final tch and dge 189
Hard and Soft c and g 190
Silent Consonants 191
Abstract Vowels (DSA Feature J) 191
Other Features for Study 192
Sounds of the ed Inflectional Ending 193
Past Tense with Silent e 194
Plurals 194
Compound Words 195
Contractions 195
Homophones 195

Chapter 7 Syllable Juncture Word Study 199

Compound Words 201
Inflectional Endings (DSA Feature K) 204
Doubling and e-Drop with ed and ing 204
Plurals and Possessives 210
Comparisons 212
Other Syllable Juncture Doubling (DSA Feature L) 212
Across-­Syllable Patterns 212
Syllable Stress 214
Vowel Patterns in the Stressed Syllable (DSA Feature M) 215
r-Controlled Vowels in the Stressed Syllable (DSA Feature N) 216
Abstract Vowels in the Stressed Syllable 217
Unstressed Syllable Vowel Patterns (DSA Feature O) 217
Other Features for Study 219
Consonant Extensions 219
Prefixes and Suffixes 221
xii Contents

Polysyllabic Homophones 222

Homographs 222

Chapter 8 Derivational Constancy Word Study 224

Revisiting Prefixes and Suffixes 227
Consonant Alternations (DSA Features P and Q) 229
Silent and Sounded Consonants 230
Other Consonant Changes 230
Vowel Alternations (DSA Feature R) 232
Latin-­Derived Suffixes (DSA Feature S) 233
Assimilated (Absorbed) Prefixes (DSA Feature T) 235
Other Features for Study 236
More Homographs 236
More Plurals 236
Greek and Latin Word Elements 236

Chapter 9 Questions and Answers 242

A Final Word 254

Appendices
Appendix 1 Supplemental Word Lists 257
Letter Name 259
Within Word Pattern 269
Syllable Juncture 285
Derivational Constancy 315

APPENDIX 2 Reproducible Forms 353

Resources
Children’s Literature 387

Word Play and Word Histories 391

Glossary 393

References 405

Index 413
 Part I
Understanding
Word Study
Contexts
 Chapter 1

Word Study
Reading, Writing,
and Language Connections

3
4 UNDERSTANDING WORD STUDY CONTEXTS

Chapter at a Glance
What Is Word Study?
The Role of Orthographic Knowledge
The Role of Oral Language and Vocabulary Knowledge
Reading, Writing, and Spelling Connections
Other Reading and Writing Connections
Researcher Voices: Language and Vocabulary Development
From Research to Practice

What Is Word Study?

Many people think of word study as spelling. Although spelling plays a critical role in word
study, this view ignores the bigger picture and important factors such as the role of ortho-
graphic knowledge in reading and writing, the importance of oral language and vocabulary
knowledge for reading and writing, and the interrelatedness of reading and writing. In Word
Journeys, word study refers to an instructional approach aimed at developing children’s spell-
ing, vocabulary, and phonic–word recognition knowledge (as well as phonological awareness)
through hands-on learning in ways that build on what students already know and that foster
word consciousness—namely, appreciation and interest in word learning. In word study, stu-
dents are taught to explore the sound, pattern, and meaning relationships among words using
compare-and-­contrast strategies known as word sorts. They discover consistencies that enable
them to generalize their understandings to other words and thereby learn to read, spell, and
write more efficiently.
This view of word study began with observations of the developmental nature of spelling
(e.g., Henderson, 1981; Read, 1971). It is grounded in decades of research and my own and oth-
ers’ experiences in using word study in the classroom, work that has expanded and extended
our understandings of developmental spelling theory and of the value of using a word study
approach. Researchers and scholars have investigated spelling development from preschool
through adulthood and across different languages; they have examined reading, writing, and
spelling connections, sought to understand acquisition of orthographic knowledge by students
who have difficulty acquiring literacy, developed instruction and assessment tools for word
study, and so on (e.g., Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, & Johnston, 2007; Ganske, 1999, 2000; Hel-
man & Burns, 2008; Henderson, 1990; Sawyer, Lipa-Wade, Kim, Ritenour, & Knight, 1997;
Schlagal, 1989; Templeton, 1983; Williams, Philips-­Birdsong, Hufnagel, Hungler, & Lund-
strom, 2009; Worthy & Invernizzi, 1990).
Though it’s only in recent years that the term word study has become commonplace, the
phrase has been around a long time. A colleague once showed me an 1880s book that bore
word study in its subtitle, and while working on this revised edition, I chanced upon another
use from some 70 years ago. The reference to word study was in a copy of Edward Dolch’s
Better Spelling (1942). The name Dolch has become synonymous with the sight word lists he
developed and also is often associated with various of his reading texts, but a text on spelling
took me somewhat by surprise, and the section titled “Spelling as Word Study” (p. 131) particu-
 Word Study 5

larly intrigued me. Although Dolch’s approach to instruction was oriented more toward whole
words than word features, he emphasized the importance of several of the same key elements
described in Word Journeys (2000): vocabulary study as part of spelling; reading–­writing con-
nections; student-­created generalizations rather than rules; the use of logic and thinking rather
than learning that is “hammered into the child’s memory” (p. 130); and student engagement,
including through games and game-like activities.
Word study’s ascendance to everyday use and considerably different interpretations of
what it means to “do word study” led me to create an acronym—THAT’S Word Study (Gan-
ske 2006, 2008)—to highlight the qualities that I believe are essential to effective word study
instruction. A discussion of the mnemonic follows:
T reflects the need for student thinking as part of word study; thinking can enhance learn-
ing and foster engagement. It is “active not passive” and involves lots of “steps and missteps”
(Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1986, p. xi). We might well consider it a kind of strategy that
requires time and practice to develop; this suggests the need for a conscious effort on the part
of teachers to ensure that students are afforded opportunities and time to engage in thinking.
Although many demands are made on time during the school day, it is extremely important
to avoid squeezing thinking into a back corner in favor of more rote activities, which on the
surface may seem to be more time efficient. It also suggests the need for classroom environ-
ments in which risk taking is encouraged and in which students feel free to express their ideas,
even if incorrect. Just as we learn much about children’s spelling knowledge by examining what
they seem to be using and confusing (Invernizzi, Abouzeid, & Gill, 1994), so, too, we can learn
much about learners’ thinking by paying attention to their “steps and missteps.”
H can be thought of in two ways: as hands-on, because during word study learners often
engage in categorization or other active-­learning activities, such as making and breaking words
with letter tiles; and as humor, because the richness of the English language means that words
can be used in entertaining ways, such as through riddles, puns, idioms, oxymora, metaphors,
similes, and other plays on words. Both hands-on activities and humor can increase engage-
ment; the latter can foster word consciousness as well. For instance, consider the following
exchange I had with a van driver:

Kathy: How long have you been driving the van here?
Driver: Just since I lost my job at the orange juice factory.
Kathy: (feeling empathetic) Oh, I’m sorry to hear that.
Driver: Yeah, I was squeezed out; I couldn’t concentrate.

This vignette is humorous because words and their meanings are being used in unexpected
ways. Riddles, such as the three that follow, provide further examples.

Q: Did you hear about the big fight at the candy store?
A: Yeah, a lollypop got licked.

Q: When is a man like a pony?

A: When he’s a little hoarse.
6 UNDERSTANDING WORD STUDY CONTEXTS

Q: When is an operation funny?

A: When it leaves the patient in stitches.

A refers to appropriate instruction. Because word knowledge develops across time and
because its development is influenced by various factors, including cognitive and linguistic
factors and before-­school and in-­school experiences and so forth, learners vary in what they
know about words, even at a given grade level. Therefore, it is important to provide instruction
that is appropriate for the various students within a class, so that the learners can build on what
they know and not be over- or underwhelmed. Assessments, such as the Developmental Spell-
ing Analysis (DSA) described in Chapter 3, as well as ongoing assessment through anecdotal
notes, work samples, and so forth, help teachers know what instruction students need. Small-
group meetings are an avenue for teachers to differentiate instruction and target students’
needs. Although whole-class and one-to-one instruction can meet particular instructional
goals, small-group homogeneous word study instruction is essential in providing appropriate
instruction (Williams et al., 2009).
The second T serves as a reminder that student talk is an intentional part of instruction.
Talk can increase students’ engagement but also, through their talk with peers and the teacher,
students clarify and extend their understandings, and teachers become aware of learners’
insights and misconceptions. These latter understandings can be invaluable in planning next
steps for instruction. The talk needs to be real talk—namely, meaningful interactions in which
students generate questions, as well as answer them, and in which they discuss ideas with
peers, as well as the teacher. If students need opportunities to talk, teachers need to listen—­
provide eye contact and sufficient wait time—and encourage student talk through the kinds of
responses they provide (Denton, 2007).
Finally, the S stands for both systematic and some sorting. Systematic, like word study, has
various interpretations. Here, it is used to mean instruction that is preplanned and purpose-
ful and that builds on what students already know. As teachers, we often solidify, clarify, or
expand students’ understandings through one-to-one “on-the-fly” instruction; but however
valuable these teachable moments may be, students also need opportunities to learn through
more intentional instruction, such as small-group introductions to words and features that are
the targeted focus of study and one-to-one preplanned conferences. Some sorting is also a criti-
cal component of word study for several reasons. Categorization promotes thinking; its hands-
on quality allows learners to experiment and to test out hypotheses about the similarities and
differences among words and affords learners opportunities to easily change their minds. The
activity draws on our natural tendency to make order out of our everyday world. Just consider
the extent to which we use categorization: We’ve classified animals, plants, rocks, automobiles,
genres of books, ice cream flavors, children, dinnerware, clothing, and types of nails, just to
name a few! English is a language that is rich in vocabulary, providing us with wonderful pos-
sibilities for expressing ourselves. However, it is also complex. Helping learners notice patterns
of similarity and difference can enable them to form generalizations that will make their word
learning more efficient. Given that students are exposed to nearly 90,000 different words before
they are out of high school, efficiency is essential.
 Word Study 7

The Role of Orthographic Knowledge

Orthographic knowledge is at the core of word study, and it is knowledge of the underlying
sound (alphabetic), pattern, and meaning relationships in our English spelling system that
enables children to become more fluent readers and writers (Carlisle, 2010; Ehri, 2000; Graham
& Herbert, 2010; Moats, 2005–2006; Snow, Griffin, & Burns, 2005). Their knowledge acts as an
engine to power their reading and writing (Templeton & Morris, 1999). Although complex, the
English orthographic system is far more regular than it first appears. On the surface, because
English has drawn words from many different languages and across time, the pronunciation of
particular letters and letter combinations often varies, making it seem irregular. For example,
notice the sounds of the underlined letter in each of the following words—game, fudge, rough,
resign and pillow, pilot, combination, special. At first glance, teaching children to read and spell
words with such letter–sound variations may seem like a nearly impossible task. Indeed, if
word learning is approached in a word-by-word manner, it may be. However, more is involved
in learning words than just memory. Rather than being based on a simple one-­letter-equals-
one-sound organization, the English spelling system reflects the interplay of sound, pattern,
and meaning relationships. For example, the g in game is pronounced as a hard /g/ rather than
/j/ as in fudge, because a hard g sound is applied when a, o, or u follows g; whereas /j/ is usu-
ally signaled by e, i, or y. Similarly, i is the logical choice to spell the schwa vowel sound in the
second syllable of combination if we consider that combination is related to combine and that
meaning elements generally maintain their spellings.
Through their explorations of words, and with time, students develop understandings of
the three layers of English orthography. Henderson (1990) cautioned: “Those who set out to
remember every letter of every word will never make it. Those who try to spell by sound alone
will be defeated. Those who learn how to ‘walk through’ words with sensible expectations,
noting sound, pattern, and meaning relationships, will know what to remember, and they will
learn to spell English” (p. 70).
The understandings gained by beginning readers and writers reflect attention to sound, the
first tier, and when these are English learners, the attention is likely to reflect the background
knowledge they have of their first language. Beginning readers apply letter–sound correspon-
dences in a letter-by-­letter or sound-by-sound fashion, as when decoding bat as /b/-/a/-/t/ or
writing the word as BT or BAT. More experienced transitional readers and writers rely on their
knowledge of patterns, the second tier of orthography, when trying to decode or encode words.
They think in terms of chunks. So, for example, if faced with reading or writing an unfamiliar
word such as throat, the student might parse the word as: thr + oat or thr + oa + t (during read-
ing) or as /thr/-/ōt/ or /th/-/r/-/ōt/ (during writing). Proficient readers and writers also focus
on chunks, but at the final tier of orthography these are meaning-based and relate to prefixes,
suffixes, and roots of words, as when reading or writing the words redoing or incomprehensible.
Mature readers and writers have sophisticated orthographic knowledge and are able to apply
understandings from all three layers. They can combine this knowledge with their knowledge
of strategies, such as structural analysis and/or context clues, to decipher and represent unfa-
miliar words. Their understandings about how words work, coupled with strong knowledge of
8 UNDERSTANDING WORD STUDY CONTEXTS

sight words and vocabulary, enable them to read and write fluently and, as a result, devote the
bulk of their attention to meaning making. Word study is a means to this end.
The knowledge students acquire about the regularities of English orthography through
word sorts and other activities also aids their learning of individual words. Knowing more
words, in turn, opens up opportunities for students to gain new understandings about how the
spelling system works, which fuels further word learning (Ehri, 1992; Moats, 2005–2006). This
reciprocal relationship works like this: A writer who can spell page, huge, stage, badge, and edge
may deduce that smudge is probably spelled with dge rather than ge because it has a short vowel
sound and because words with short vowels before a final /j/ seem to require the spelling dge.
This realization will not only aid the writer in spelling such similar words as wedge, dredge,
grudge, and pledge but can also facilitate the learner’s reading of words with this feature, even
a polysyllabic word such as curmudgeon. Teachers can make these connections transparent to
students through instructional conversations during small-group word study sessions, as well
as in writing and reading conferences and whole-class demonstrations.
Orthographic knowledge of how to represent sound–letter or sound–­pattern correspon-
dences also aids emergent and beginning readers’ phonological awareness and knowledge of
phonics. Morris, Bloodgood, and Perney (2003) found that children’s recognition of initial
and final consonants was a better predictor of their first-grade reading achievement than was
their ability to segment phonemes. Spelling with beginning and ending consonants was also a
significant predictor at midyear and end of kindergarten in the study. In fact, midyear alphabet
recognition and spelling predicted end-of-first-grade reading with 85% accuracy. Why? Spell-
ing requires application of both alphabet knowledge and phoneme segmentation ability, as in a
child’s renderings of DK for duck and TAM for tame. Morris et al. (2003) speculate that spell-
ing may provide an easier avenue for children to demonstrate their phoneme awareness than
typical oral tasks. In its examination of research, the National Early Literacy Panel (NELP,
2008) also identified invented spelling and writing, or name writing, as 2 of 11 variables that
predicted later literacy achievement for preschoolers and kindergartners. This work supports
the importance of providing even young children with opportunities to write (not just copy)
in journals and other formats; these opportunities enable preschoolers and kindergartners to
exercise what they know about print (for examples, see Figure 2.2 in Chapter 2).

The Role of Oral Language and Vocabulary Knowledge

Orthographic knowledge plays a key role in reading and writing, but learners also need to be
able to retrieve words from memory that correspond to the orthographic information and that
make sense; therefore, the words need to be part of students’ lexicons. And because few sen-
tences are composed of just one word but rather of many words and often of complex syntax,
to understand a text readers have to have a sophisticated grasp of language and well-­developed
background knowledge (Dickinson, Golinkoff, & Hirsh-Pasek, 2010). As we consider word
study instruction, we need to bear in mind the importance not only of developing learn-
ers’ understandings of how words work but also of developing their vocabulary knowledge
and their ability to use language, such as through talk, reading, and writing. It matters little
whether learners can decode or spell effervescent if they don’t know what it means or don’t
 Word Study 9

have occasions on which to use the word. Dickinson et al. (2010) highlight the benefits of lan-
guage for reading, including comprehension, and argue for the development of oral language
and background knowledge as a Tier One intervention. Clearly, many factors influence chil-
dren’s language development—­socioeconomic status, culture, ethnicity, parent interactions,
peer interactions, and so forth, as well as whether the child is multilingual. It is also important
to consider what happens at school, where the amount and quality of language that children
experience affects their language learning (Hoff, 2006, p. 69). One aspect of the language chil-
dren experience is vocabulary.
Vocabulary knowledge is commonly viewed as a predictor of reading comprehension (e.g.,
Graves, August, & Mancilla-­Martinez, 2013; National Reading Panel, 2000). Language minor-
ity students and students from low socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds often have limited
exposure to the kind of vocabulary used in school and in content-area texts (Graves et al.,
2013). As a result, the language and vocabulary that is prevalent in these settings present par-
ticular challenges for students’ learning because knowing academic language enables students
to engage in academic thinking; it provides them entry points for processing discipline-­related
concepts (Nagy & Townsend, 2012). Just how important academic language is can be seen
in the current move to tie teacher candidates’ ability to address learners’ academic language
needs to their evaluations; 24 states have evaluation systems that include an academic language
component (American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 2012).
Numerous terms are related to the concept of academic language. Academic vocabulary,
which is a part of academic language, is one that is sometimes confused with it (see Baumann &
Graves, 2010, for a more complete discussion of the various terms). According to Snow (2010),
academic language is language that is formal, complex, and impersonal. It falls on one end of
a continuum that includes informal, casual conversation at the other end (p. 450). Academic
language is characterized by denseness and conciseness and relies heavily on Greek and Latin
vocabulary and morphologically complex words.
There are two types of academic vocabulary: domain-­specific vocabulary (such words
as parallelogram, amoeba, contrapuntal, expedition, sedimentary, etc.) and general academic
vocabulary (such words as vary, interpret, procedure, estimate, analysis). Domain-­specific
vocabulary words are sometimes called Tier Three words, technical vocabulary, or content-­
specific vocabulary (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2013; Fisher & Frey, 2008; Hiebert & Lubliner,
2008, respectively). By contrast, general vocabulary can be applied across different disciplines,
and unlike domain-­specific vocabulary, these words may not be taught (Hiebert & Lubliner,
2008; Snow, Lawrence, & White, 2009), but they should be. Coxhead (2000) compiled a list of
some 570 academic word families that correspond roughly to the Tier Two words of Beck et
al. (2013), to Fisher and Frey’s (2008) specialized words, and to Hiebert and Lubliner’s (2008)
general academic vocabulary. General academic words often have multiple meanings (e.g., fac-
tors), so words should be taught in context, not in isolation. Pictures can provide additional
support for English learners. Also, instruction should make clear to students how the academic
words are used and what their purpose is, and students should be afforded opportunities to use
the words for these purposes (Nagy & Townsend, 2012). For examples of academic vocabulary
lists see www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist/default.aspx, or Hiebert’s www.
textproject.org/teachers/word-lists, or Marzano (2005).
How can teachers promote students’ knowledge of vocabulary, including academic vocab-
10 UNDERSTANDING WORD STUDY CONTEXTS

ulary? Effective teachers know how to capitalize on teachable moments for vocabulary devel-
opment, whether during a read-aloud or another part of the day. An advantage of teachable
moments, especially for English learners, is that the context connection is usually right there
for students to see. However, teachable moments typically expose learners to words just one
time and in one very specific context, and that may not be sufficient for them to really learn the
word for later use (Neuman & Roskos, 2012). Explicit instruction is also needed. For individual
words, Graves (2006) recommends that teachers

1. Include both definitional and contextual information

2. Involve students in active and deep processing of the words
3. Provide students with multiple exposures to the word
4. Review, rehearse, and remind students about the word in various contexts over time
5. Involve students in discussions of the word’s meaning
6. Spend a significant amount of time on the word (pp. 69–70)

The read-aloud offers one possibility for developing a vocabulary of specific words. Its use
can be especially important in kindergarten and the primary grades, where texts read by chil-
dren often have limited potential for expanding vocabulary. Even simple word explanations,
especially with a second reading of the text, have been found to make a difference (Biemiller &
Boote, 2006). Read-­a louds can be valuable across the grades for fostering vocabulary knowl-
edge (Fisher, Flood, Lapp, & Frey, 2004) and have the potential for developing background
knowledge if informational texts are used (whether from picture books, a chapter, or a news-
paper). August and Gray (2010) recommend several modifications to typical shared reading to
optimize learning for English learners: Read the book interactively first and then again with-
out stopping; include partner talk with questioning so students can use language; build back-
ground knowledge; take advantage of pictures within the text and gesturing or body language
to help convey meaning; and reinforce words and concepts through choral repetition, repeated
exposures, and a brief summary (p. 229).
Vocabulary knowledge can also be fostered during word study. The small-group word
introduction, as described in Chapter 4, is a prime time during which to develop knowledge
of general academic vocabulary as well as some of the sorting words. In addition, teachers can
help learners to use and understand semantically related words; prefixes, suffixes, and roots;
context clues; and dictionaries. For English learners, cognate instruction can also be beneficial
(Carlo et al., 2004; Shanahan & Beck, 2006).
In order to own words, students usually need many rich and varied experiences. These
follow-up activities can be playful encounters, as through application of the words in riddles,
yes/no questions, or other game-like activities. The increasingly more sophisticated vocabulary
of middle and high school may require even more exposures for students to learn the words.
Talk needs to be an integral part of this learning process. It affords English learners and others
opportunity to maximize their language and vocabulary learning potential. Besides occasions
to use language, such as small-group discussions during word introductions, students need the
support of positive role models, whether teachers or expert peers. Vocabulary-rich environ-
ments, in which teachers intentionally use and encourage varied and sophisticated language,
can make a difference in children’s literacy development (Dickinson & Porche, 2011). However,
 Word Study 11

teachers themselves must understand the concepts and vocabulary they are teaching, and they
need to be able to communicate these understandings clearly to students (Dickinson, 2011).
When working with English learners, it is also important that teachers understand the lin-
guistic demands of the lesson and its content. What does the reading or listening require of
the students? What are the particular strengths and needs of the students? How can teachers
leverage students’ cultural and linguistic understandings to assist their learning (Jiménez &
Rose, 2010)?
Because only a limited number of words can be explicitly taught, careful consideration
should be given to their selection. Word sort words with the most instructional potential
include: (1) words with unfamiliar or multiple meanings, (2) words that students have mis-
conceptions about, or (3) words that can be discussed with other words to develop nuances of
meaning, such as the difference between lake and pond. As teachers select additional non-sort
words for study, they should consider which words are essential for understanding the con-
tent or big ideas (domain-­specific academic vocabulary), which words are likely to have broad
utility or appear repeatedly (general academic vocabulary), and which words might promote
word consciousness. An important set of words to choose are those that can be used repeat-
edly in the “talk” of the small-group introduction—for instance, academic vocabulary such
as compare and contrast, disagree, consider, evidence, conclusions, and so forth. A chart with
the chosen words and phrases could be posted in the word study teaching area as a reminder
to students and teachers to strive to use the listed words in their talk. Hiebert’s Text Project
site www.textproject.org includes a wealth of downloadable pictures that can be used to clarify
challenging concepts for those students who have limited vocabulary knowledge. Additional
discussion of language and vocabulary building may be found in the section Researcher Voices
in this chapter, in which five noted language/vocabulary experts—David Dickinson, Michael
Graves, Elfrieda Hiebert, Robert Jiménez, and Catherine Snow—share their thoughts on lan-
guage and vocabulary.

Reading, Writing, and Spelling Connections

Over the years, examinations of children’s spellings have provided strong support for the relat-
edness of reading and spelling (e.g., Ehri, 1997, 2005a; Juel, Griffith, & Gough, 1986; Treiman,
2005; Zutell & Rasinski, 1989). Results indicate that reading and writing should be taught in
an integrated manner and that activities that engage children in looking carefully at words
can benefit their ability to read words, as well as to write them. As previously discussed, ortho-
graphic knowledge is of central importance to both processes. When writing words, students
are trying to map letters to sounds, and when reading they are attempting to match sounds to
letters (Adams, 1990).
Although orthographic knowledge undergirds both reading and writing, there are differ-
ences in how orthographic knowledge is used in reading and writing words. To better under-
stand the relationship, let’s consider one of my favorite professional development activities. I
begin by asking participants to chorally read a word on the count of “1–2–3.” I let them know
that I have altered the word in one of the following three ways to make their reading of it more
challenging: (1) inserted blanks without deleting any letters, (2) deleted letters and inserted
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