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Special Thanks
I am extremely grateful to the many members of the editorial and production staff at John Wiley
and Sons who guided us through the challenging steps of developing this text. Their tireless enthu-
siasm, professional assistance, and endless patience smoothed the path as I found my way. I thank
in particular Alan Halfen, Senior Editor, who expertly launched and directed the revision; Melissa
Edwards Whelan, Development Editor, for coordinating the development and revision process;
Kristine Ruff, Market Development Manager, for a superior marketing effort, and MaryAlice Skid-
more and Alden Ferrar, Editorial Assistants, for their constant attention to detail. I also thank Trish
McFadden, Senior Production Editor, and Jeanine Furino of Furino Production for expertly help-
ing me through the production process. I thank Mary Ann Price, Photo Editor, for her unflagging,
always swift work in researching and obtaining many of our text images. I thank Wendy Lai for the
stunning new cover. Thank you to Petra Recter, Vice President and Director for providing guidance
and support to the rest of the team throughout the revision.

Dedication
This edition is dedicated to Betty Ireland, whose legacy of strength, determination, and intellectual
curiosity I now strive to carry forward with loving support from my husband Jeff, and my sons Greg
and Marc.
 About the Author

Aloha! I was born and raised on the East Coast of the US, where I began my education at Lehigh
University. I went on to graduate with a BS and MS from the University of Alabama, and then
later obtained my PhD from Iowa State. I spent many years on Maui, where I taught, learned to
surf and competed in triathlons. My work experience has been broad, including both applied
and basic research in genetics, cell biology, and human physiology. I have taught at colleges
(Iowa State University, University of Hawaii, Maui, and Arkansas State University) as well as
both private and public high schools. Like all professors I have a long list of societies and
awards to my name; however I prefer to focus on teaching. My favorite teaching experiences
revolve around making a difficult concept accessible to a struggling student. When that light
shines from the student’s eyes, I know I have done my job! This book is an extension of those
moments. I have included tested and proven ways to make this material both interesting and
memorable. When I am not teaching, I can be found riding my bike, stand up paddling, or
hanging out with my husband Jeff and my grown sons, Greg and Marc.
Brief Contents
PREFACE iii 15 Nutrition: You Are What You Eat 322

1 What Is Life? 1 16 The Digestive System 343

2 Where Do We Come from and Where Do 17 The Urinary System 365

We Fit? 16
18 The Endocrine System and Development 383
3 Everyday Chemistry of Life 33 19 The Reproductive Systems: Maintaining the
4 Cells: Organization and Communication 57 Species 407

5 Tissues 77 20 Pregnancy: Development from Conception to

Newborn 439
6 The Skeletomuscular System 97
21 Inheritance, Genetics, and Molecular
7 The Nervous System 127 Biology 464
8 The Special Senses 156 A PPE NDIX A Periodic Table A-1

9 Immunity and the Lymphatic System 173 A PPE NDIX B Measurements B-1

10 Infectious Disease and Epidemiology 200

GLOSSARY GL-1
11 The Human Microbiome 226
INDEX I-1
12 Cancer 245

13 The Cardiovascular System 268

14 The Respiratory System: Movement of Air 297

 Contents
1 What Is Life? 1 6 The Skeletomuscular System 97

1.1 Living Organisms Display Nine Specific Characteristics 2 6.1 The Skeletomuscular System Is Multifunctional and
1.2 Human Biology Is Structured and Logical 4 Dynamic 98
1.3 Scientists Approach Questions Using the Scientific 6.2 Bone Is Strong and Light Tissue 100
Method 9 6.3 The Skeleton Holds It All Together 105
1.4 Scientific Findings Often Lead to Ethical Dilemmas 13 6.4 Skeletal Muscles Exercise Power 114
6.5 Whole-Muscle Contractions Require Energy 120
2 Where Do We Come from and
Where Do We Fit? 16 7 The Nervous System 127

2.1 What Are the Origins of Modern Humans? 17 7.1 The Nervous System Is Categorized by Structure and
2.2 What Does the Human Body Have in Common Function 128
with the World Around It? 23 7.2 Neurons Work Through Action Potentials 132
2.3 We Reflect Our Environment: We Have a Habitat 7.3 The Meninges Protect the Brain’s Delicate Structures 139
and a Niche 29 7.4 The Functions of the Brain and Spinal Cord Are
Related 145
3 Everyday Chemistry of Life 33
7.5 The Peripheral Nervous System Extends the
Central Nervous System 150
3.1 Life Has a Unique Chemistry 34
3.2 Water Is Life’s Essential Chemical 41 8 The Special Senses 156
3.3 Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins Provide Form and
Function 43 8.1 The Special Senses Tell Us About Our Environment 157
3.4 Nucleic Acids Carry Information and Direct Protein 8.2 Vision Is Our Most Acute Sense 163
Formation 50 8.3 The Special Senses Are Our Connection to the Outside
World 169

4 Cells: Organization and

Communication 57
9 Immunity and the Lymphatic
System 173
4.1 The Cell Is Highly Organized and Dynamic 58
4.2 The Cell Membrane Delineates the Cell 60 9.1 How Do We Adapt to Stress? 174
4.3 The Components of a Cell Are Called Organelles 65 9.2 Skin and Mucous Membranes Are the First Line of
4.4 Cell Communication Is Important to Cellular Success 73 Defense 177
9.3 We Have a Second Line of Innate Defense 182

5 Tissues 77
9.4 The Lymphatic System Comprises Our Third Line of
Defense 184
9.5 Specific Immunity Targets Pathogens 189
5.1 Some Tissues Provide Covering, Protection, and
9.6 Immunity Can Be Acquired Actively or Passively 195
Support 78
5.2 Other Tissues Provide Movement, Heat, and
Integration 84 10 Infectious Disease and
5.3 Organization Increases with Organs, Organ Systems, Epidemiology 200
and the Organism 88
5.4 Scientists Use a Road Map to the Human Body 92 10.1 The Study of Epidemics Is Global in Scope 201
10.2 Bacteria Are Single-Celled Wonders That Can Cause
Disease 205
10.3 Viruses Can Reproduce and Kill, but They Are Not Alive 211
10.4 AIDS and HIV Attack the Immune System 217
10.5 Other Pathogens Carry Other Dangers 222
x CON T E N TS

11 The Human Microbiome 226 18 The Endocrine System and

Development 383
11.1 What Is the Human Microbiome? 227
11.2 Our Microbiome Helps Maintain Homeostasis 233 18.1 Hormones Are Chemical Messengers 384
11.3 The Microbiome in Diagnoses and Treatments 238 18.2 The Endocrine Glands Secrete Directly into the
Bloodstream 388
12 Cancer 245 18.3 Maintaining Homeostasis Requires Glands, Hormones,
and Feedback 393
12.1 Cancer Cells Develop in Distinct Ways 246 18.4 Development Takes Us from Infancy to Adulthood 401
12.2 Cancer Has Many Causes 251
12.3
12.4
Cancer Can Strike Almost Any Part of the Body 256
Cancer Can Be Diagnosed and Treated Effectively 261
19 The Reproductive Systems: Maintaining
the Species 407

13 The Cardiovascular System 268 19.1 Survival of the Species Depends on Gamete
Formation 408
13.1 The Heart Ensures Continual, 24/7 Nutrient Delivery 269
19.2 The Male Reproductive System Produces, Stores,
13.2 Blood Transport Involves Miles of Sophisticated
and Delivers Sperm 410
Plumbing 278
19.3 The Female Reproductive System Produces and
13.3 Cardiovascular Disorders Have Life-Threatening
Nourishes Eggs 417
Consequences 281
19.4 Human Reproductive Cycles Are Controlled By
13.4 Blood Consists of Plasma and Formed Elements 285
Hormones 422
13.5 Red Blood Cells and Platelets Help Maintain
19.5 There Are Many Birth Control Choices 428
Homeostasis 290
19.6 Sexual Contact Carries a Danger: Sexually Transmitted
Diseases 435
14 The Respiratory System: Movement
of Air 297 20 Pregnancy: Development from
14.1 The Respiratory System Has an Upper And Lower Tract 298
Conception to Newborn 439
14.2 The Lower Respiratory Tract Exchanges Gases 302
20.1 Days 1 Through 14 Include Fertilization and
14.3 Air Is Moved Into and Out of the Respiratory System 308
Implantation 440
14.4 Respiration Relies on the Cardiovascular System 311
20.2 The Embryonic Stage Is Marked by Differentiation
14.5 Respiratory Health Is Critical to Survival 315
and Morphogenesis 446
20.3 Fetal Development Is a Stage of Rapid Organ Growth 452
15 Nutrition: You Are What You Eat 322 20.4 Labor Initiates the End of Pregnancy 457

15.1 Nutrients Are Life Sustaining 323

15.2 Nutrients Are Metabolized 332
21 Inheritance, Genetics, and Molecular
15.3 Health Can Be Hurt by Nutritional Disorders 336 Biology 464

16 The Digestive System 343

21.1
21.2
Traits Are Inherited in Specific Patterns 465
Modern Genetics Uncovers a Molecular Picture 471
21.3 Genetic Theory Is Put to Practical Use 474
16.1 Digestion Begins in the Oral Cavity 344
21.4 Biotechnology Has Far-Reaching Effects 479
16.2 The Stomach Puts Food to the Acid Test 349
21.5 Biotechnology Assists in Medical and Societal Issues 484
16.3 The Intestines and Accessory Organs Finish the Job 352
16.4 Digestion Is Both Mechanical and Chemical 360
A PPE NDIX A Periodic Table A-1

17 The Urinary System 365

A PPE NDIX B Measurements B-1

17.1 The Kidneys Are the Core of the Urinary System 366 GLOSSARY GL-1
17.2 Urine Is Made, Transported, and Stored 369
17.3 The Urinary System Maintains the Body’s Fluid and INDEX I-1
Solute Balance 375
17.4 Life-Threatening Diseases Affect the Urinary System 378
   CONT ENTS xi

InSight Features Process Diagram

These multipart visual presentations focus on a key concept These series or combinations of figures and photos des­cribe
or topic in the chapter. and depict a complex process.
Chapter 2 Chapter 1
Biogeographic Distribution The Scientific Method
Chapter 3 Chapter 2
The Atom • DNA is composed of nucleotides Energy Flow and Resource Cycling • Photosynthesis/respiration
Chapter 4 Chapter 3
The Animal Cell The Making of a Protein • Transcription and translation
Chapter 5 Chapter 4
The Abdominopelvic Regions Mitochondrial Reactions
Chapter 6 Chapter 6
Skeletomuscular Systems Endochondral Ossification • Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)
Chapter 7 Chapter 7
The Human Brain Neuron Action Potential
Chapter 8 Chapter 8
Human Hearing Photoreceptor Impulse Generation
Chapter 9 Chapter 10
Lymphatic Flow Lysogenic and Lytic Viral Phases • HIV Reproduction
Chapter 10 Chapter 11
Bacteria • Viruses Bacterial Biofilm Actions • Metagenomics Information
Chapter 11 Chapter 12
Microbiome Location and Common Gut Bacteria Benign Tumor Formation
Chapter 12 Chapter 13
Carcinogenesis The Cardiac Cycle • Conduction System of the Heart • Capillary Bed
and Exchange Flow • Clot Formation
Chapter 13
The Adult Heart Chapter 14
Inhalation: The Diaphragm Drops and Volume Increases • Carbon
Chapter 14
­Dioxide Transport in Blood
The Human Lung
Chapter 15
Chapter 15
Glycolysis, the Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport
Saturated and Unsaturated Fats
Chapter 16
Chapter 16
Phases of Gastric Digestion
The Small Intestine
Chapter 17
Chapter 17
Glomerular Filtration
The Kidney
Chapter 19
Chapter 18
The Development of the Follicle in the Ovary • Female Reproductive
The Hypothalamus and the Pituitary Gland
Cycle
Chapter 19
Chapter 20
Sperm Formation (Spermatogenesis) • Egg Formation ­(Oogenesis)
Implantation and the Primary Events of the Second Week of
Chapter 20 Development
Fertilization
Chapter 21
Chapter 21 Mitosis • Meiosis
Let’s Work with DNA: Splitting and Creating the Key Molecule of Life
This page intentionally left blank
Halfpoint / Shutterstock.com
CHAPTER 1

What Is Life?
CHAPTER OUTLINE

Living Organisms Display Nine Specific

­Characteristics 2
• Living Things Must Maintain Homeostasis
Every day there is a new report on how to maintain or improve your health. These Health, Wellness, and Disease: Homeostasis Is a
reports are changing the way we think about our health. As proof of this, look at Way of Life!
the rise in popularity of personal fitness tracking devices. Between Fitbit’s launch
• Homeostasis Helps an Organism Stay Alive
in 2009 and the introduction of four new devices in 2016, Fitbit has become a
multi-­billion dollar industry. Obviously people are interested. Does a monitor- Human Biology Is Structured and Logical 4
ing device that tracks your every movement really help you improve your over- • Organisms Are Structured
all health? That remains to be seen, with current research indicating that activity
• Biological Classification Is Logical
trackers do little to motivate otherwise non-athletic people to take up any form
of exercise. Perhaps the largest benefit of these devices is the interest they have I Wonder… Are Viruses Considered Living
generated in personal health. Organisms?
It is a great idea to try to monitor and improve your fitness, but wading
Scientists Approach Questions Using the
through the incredible amount of literature and propaganda on health-related
Scientific Method 9
issues can be daunting. To really
understand what is being pre- • The Scientific Method Leads to Theories
sented, you must be able to sci- • Critical Reasoning Is Useful in Human Biology
entifically evaluate advertising Ethics and Issues: Why Should Endangered Species
claims, medical breakthroughs, Matter to Me?
and social media hype. Taking
advantage of the critical think- Scientific Findings Often Lead to Ethical
ing guides throughout this book Dilemmas 13
will help you practice the skills
needed to become a knowledge-
able consumer! Daxiao Productions / Shutterstock

1
2 CHA PT E R 1 What Is Life?

1.1 Living Organisms Display Nine Specific Characteristics

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. List the characteristics of life.
2. Define homeostasis and relate it to the study of life.
3. Describe how homeostasis plays a role in everyday activities.
4. Contrast negative and positive feedback systems.
Reflect on the start of your day. It has demonstrated many of the char-
acteristics of life (Table 1.1). Several of these characteristics appeared
during your first minutes of awakening. Life is defined by the ability to
respond to external stimuli (remember waking to the alarm?). Objects
that are alive can alter their environment, as you did by silencing the
dreadful noise. You sensed your environment when you felt the chill
of the morning, then you adapted to your environment by covering
yourself with clothes to maintain your internal temperature. Living
things require energy, which plants get by synthesizing compounds
using solar power and which animals get by ingesting nutrients, aka
breakfast. All of us are proof that living organisms reproduce. On the
average foggy-headed morning, you undoubtedly failed to notice
three other characteristics of life: (1) Life is composed of materials
found only in living objects (your body contains proteins, lipids, car-
bohydrates, and nucleic acids—DNA and RNA); (2) living organisms
maintain a stable internal environment, a property called homeosta-
sis; and (3) life exhibits a high degree of organization, which extends
from microscopic units, called cells, in increasingly complex tissues,
organs, organ systems, and individual organisms.
Living Things Must Maintain Homeostasis
One key element of life is homeostasis, a word that means “stay-
ing the same” (homeo = unchanging; stasis = standing). Humans,

TA BLE 1 .1 Characteristics of life

Respond to external stimuli Adapt to the environment Contain materials found only in living organisms
Joel Sartore / NG
Image Collection

Science Source
Dr. Tim Evans /
Masterfile

Alter the environment Use energy Maintain a constant internal environment

(homeostasis)
Harper / Getty Images, Inc.

Skip Brown / NG Image

Image Source / John

Stacy Gold / NG Image

Collection

Collection

Sense the environment Reproduce Have a high degree of organization

Photodisc / Rubberball /
The Image Works
Joel Sartore / NG
Image Collection

Richard Lord /

Getty Images

cell The smallest unit of life, contained in a membrane or cell wall. organ system A group of organs that perform a broad biological function,
tissue A cohesive group of similar cells performing a specific function. such as respiration or reproduction.
organ A structure composed of more than one tissue having one or more
specific functions.
 Living Organisms Display Nine Specific Characteristics 3

Health, Wellness, and Disease

Homeostasis Is a Way of Life!

We have all felt tired or “out of sorts” at one time or another. Often, when
we experience these episodes, we are functioning under a slight homeo-
static imbalance. One accepted definition of disease is, in fact, a homeo-
static imbalance with distinct signs and symptoms. Symptoms are the
series of complaints we generate when we begin to feel ill. They include
headache, nausea, fatigue, and muscle aches. Signs are the changes in
bodily function that can be detected by a medical professional. Signs
of homeostatic imbalance usually include a full description of the
blood chemistry of the individual as well as tests of hormone levels and
function.
There are many examples of subtle homeostatic imbalances that, if left
unchecked, can lead to serious complications. For example, feeling tired may
be due to a lack of oxygen-carrying capacity in the blood, a condition known
as anemia. Adding iron to your diet might be all that is needed to reduce
chronic fatigue.
Some people require regular food intake to maintain their homeostatic
sugar balance. If they wait too long between meals, they may experience ner-

Design Pics / SuperStock

vousness, sweating, trembling, and inability to concentrate, all caused by low
blood sugar. Hypoglycemia is the clinical diagnosis for this. The brain responds
very strongly to the lack of sugar, and will intensify feelings of hunger so that
blood sugar does not reach critical levels. If there is no food immediately avail-
able, blood sugar may drop below 50 mg/dl causing more serious complica-
tions such as confusion, drowsiness, coma, or seizure.
Recent studies show that the onset of Alzheimer’s disease may be
heightened by an imbalance of the copper, iron, and zinc ions in the brain.
Treatment for early signs of Alzheimer’s disease includes restoring metal
homeostasis. Patients whose metal balance is regulated experience a slower
progression of the disease.

along with other organisms, can function properly only if they stay
within narrow ranges of temperature and chemistry. Homeosta-
sis allows you to respond to changes in your internal environment
by modifying some aspect of your behavior, either consciously or
unconsciously. When you are chilled, you consciously look for ways
to warm yourself. This morning, you clothed yourself in an attempt
to remain warm. If your clothing was not enough, your body would
begin to shiver to generate internal heat through chemical reactions.
Blood vessels near the surface of your skin would constrict and carry
less blood, thereby reducing heat loss through radiation. These
changes are attempts to maintain homeostasis. Each response to the
chill is designed to remove or negate that feeling, in a typical nega-
tive feedback loop. (See Health, Wellness, and Disease: Homeostasis
Is a Way of Life!)
Homeostasis Helps an Organism Stay Alive
Homeostasis helps an organism stay alive, often through the use
of feedback systems, or loops, as shown in Figure 1.1. The most
common type of feedback system in the human is negative feed-
back. Negative feedback systems operate to reduce or eliminate
the changes detected by the stimulus receptor. Negative feed-
back prevents you from breathing fast enough to pass out or from
drinking so much water that your blood chemistry becomes dan-
gerously unbalanced. Positive feedback systems are rare in the
body and include childbirth and blood clotting. The response in a
positive feedback system serves to amplify the original stimulus.
Feedback is so important that we will return to it when we discuss
each organ system.

radiation The transfer of heat from a warm body to the surrounding

atmosphere.
4 CHA PT E R 1 What Is Life?

FIGURE 1.1 Feedback loop A simple homeostatic

feedback loop has three main components that function Concept Check
as a whole to manipulate the environment.
1. How do you display characteristics that indicate you are living?
Some stimulus
2. Why might a biologist want to understand the normal homeostatic ranges
disrupts homeostasis by
increasing or decreasing of her study subject?
a controlled condition
that is monitored by 3. How does homeostasis play a role in everyday activities?
4. What type of feedback is exemplified by the maintenance of blood calcium
levels within a small range?

Receptors
that monitor the environment
and report perceived
changes by sending

Input Nerve impulses or

chemical signals to a

Control center There is a return to

homeostasis when the
response brings the
controlled condition back
that receives the signal from
to normal. The response
the receptor and formulates
in a negative feedback
a response that provides
loop decreases the initial
disruption.

Output Nerve impulses or

chemical signals to

Effectors
that carry out the response
from the control center
bringing about a change.

Response then alters the

initial condition
(negative feedback
negates it, while positive
feedback enhances it).

1.2 Human Biology Is Structured and Logical

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Explain how atoms, and therefore the entire field of
chemistry, relate to the study of life.
2. Describe the organizational pattern of all biology and the
logic of taxonomy.
3. Relate taxonomy to human biology.
4. List the five processes that are most helpful in studying
human physiology.
One of the oldest techniques for dealing with our world is to categorize it
and divide it into manageable chunks. Imagine trying to understand this
paragraph if the sentences were not divided into words through the use
of spaces. Similarly, the natural world seems overwhelming and cha-
otic until we organize it. Biology is organized in steps, from microscopic
to macroscopic: Small units make up larger units, which in turn form
still larger units. We see this in both artificial and natural organization in
biology. In artificial classification (taxonomy), a system of names is used
to identify organisms and show their genetic relationship.
These names identify individual species and also group organisms,
based on similar characteristics. The categories from species through
genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and domain indicate
groups of similar organisms, with each category broader than the last.
Organisms Are Structured
Natural organization emerges from the structure of organisms. Both
natural and artificial organization help us make sense of the living
world. Natural organization appears in the human body as it does in
the rest of the living realm. Natural organization is based on a system
of increasing complexity. Each level in the hierarchy is composed of
 Human Biology Is Structured and Logical 5

groups of simpler units from the previous level, arranged to perform
a specific function. The smallest particles that usually matter in biol-
ogy are atoms, as shown in Figure 1.2. An atom is defined as the
smallest unit of an element that has the properties of that element.
Atoms combine to form molecules−larger units that can have entirely
different properties than the atoms they contain. You already know
some of the molecules we will discuss, such as water, glucose, and
DNA. Molecules combine to form cells, which are the smallest unit of
life. We will take a closer look at cells in Chapter 4. Groups of similar
cells with similar function combine to form tissues.
The human body has four major tissue types: muscular, nervous,
epithelial, and connective. Tissues working together form organs, such
as the kidney, stomach, liver, and heart. Organs with the same general
function combine to form organ systems. For example, the respiratory
system includes organs that work together to exchange gas between
cells and the atmosphere; organs in the skeletal system support the
body and protect the soft internal organs. A suite of organ systems
combine to form the human organism. Notice that each layer of com-
plexity involves a group of related units from the preceding layer. This
type of hierarchy is found throughout biology and the natural world.
Taking a global view of the organization found in the natural
world, we see that the concept of hierarchy does not stop at the indi-
vidual. The individual human organism lives in groups of humans
called populations, as shown in Figure 1.3. Beyond populations are
larger and more inclusive groups called communities, ecosystems,
biomes and the biosphere.

FIGURE 1.2 Hierarchy of organization of life In the hierarchy of biology, each level gains in complex-
ity, and demonstrates new properties. These emergent properties arise as smaller units interact, with
consequences unattainable by the previous level.

1 CHEMICAL LEVEL 2 CELLULAR LEVEL

(cardiac cell)

3 TISSUE LEVEL
(myocardium)

Atoms (carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen
and nitrogen are Molecule (DNA)
the most common
elements in 4 ORGAN LEVEL
biological 5 ORGAN SYSTEM (heart)
organisms) LEVEL (Cardiovascular
system)

6 ORGANISM LEVEL
Homo sapiens

Photodisc / Rubberball / Getty Images

Natural organization: from atom to organism

1  Chemical level: the chemical “­components” that are arranged into cells (atoms to molecules)
2  Cellular level: the smallest unit of life; a component bounded by a membrane or cell wall; in multicellular organisms, cells are
usually specialized to perform specific functions (for example, cardiac muscle cell)
3 Tissue level: an assemblage of ­similar cells (for example, cardiac muscle tissue, myocardium)
4 Organ level: an assemblage of ­tissues that often have several ­functions (for example, heart)
5 Organ system level: the group of organs that carries out a more generalized set of functions (for example, cardiovascular system)
6 Organism level: Homo sapiens

population All representatives of a specific organism found in a defined area.

 6 CHA PT E R 1 What Is Life?

FIGURE 1.3 Hierarchy of life beyond the individual Living organisms are grouped beyond the indi-
vidual, to include populations, communities, ecosystems, and the all-inclusive biosphere.
James L. Stanfield / NG Image Collection

Raga Jose Fuste / Prisma / SuperStock

a. Individual or species b. Human Population
Populations are composed of all individuals of a given species in a specified area.
Dugald Bremner Studio / NG Image Collection

Raymond Gehman / NG Image Collection

c. Biological Community d. Ecosystem
Human populations live in concert with populations of other organ- Communities are united in geographic areas, interacting with one another and the
isms, interacting in a larger concept called the community. physical environment in a biome. Earth has many biomes, such as the open ocean,
high sierra, desert, and tropical rain forest.
Todd Gipstein / NG Image Collection

e. Biosphere
Finally, all Earth’s biomes comprise the biosphere.
 Human Biology Is Structured and Logical 7

Biological Classification Is Logical
Biology tries to make sense of myriad observations of the biosphere
by classifying organisms into groups with similar characteristics.
The branch of science that deals with this organizational scheme is
called taxonomy. One of the best-accepted taxonomic schemes
starts from the most inclusive, with three domains and six kingdoms
(see ­Figure 1.4). The domain Eukarya includes organisms whose
cells contain nuclei and internal membranes. The four kingdoms in
Eukarya are Animalia (the animals), Plantae (the plants), Fungi (the
fungi), and Protista (the one-celled organisms that possess nuclei).
The two remaining kingdoms are the prokaryotic Eubacteria and
­Archaebacteria (the bacteria and other one-celled organisms without
nuclei). It is worth noting that unlike bacteria, viruses are not classi-
fied as ­living−see I Wonder… Are Viruses Considered Living Organisms?
on the next page.
Each kingdom is further classified, based on similar characteris-
tics, into divisions that get ever more narrow: phylum, class, order,
family, genus, and species. Each category defines the organisms
more tightly, resulting in a hierarchy of similarity. The final category,
species, implies reproductive isolation, meaning (with very few excep-
tions) that members of a particular species can produce viable and
fertile offspring only if they breed with each other.
Taxonomists capitalize the first letter of all classification terms
except species (Homo sapiens). The species name is always preceded
by the entire genus name, unless you have just mentioned the genus;
then you can abbreviate it: “In regard to Homo sapiens, we must note
that H. sapiens . . .” Genus and species names are either underlined or
written in italics, as shown in Figure 1.5.
Each successive category refines the characteristics of “human”
to the point where only humans are classified in the final category,
Homo sapiens. Despite the amazingly complex and pervasive cultural

FIGURE 1.4 Domains and kingdoms There are three Domains into which all living organisms are
classified.

Think Critically
Earliest Organisms
This figure indicates that there are basic similarities between fungi and
animals, as well as at least one major difference. What characteristic
might that branch indicate? Make a table of the similarities and differ-
ences between fungi and animals, choose the difference that you believe
to be most important, and defend that choice.

Eubacteria Archaebacteria Eukarya

Domains
(prokaryotes) (prokaryotes) (eukaryotes)

Bacteria Protozoans Animals Fungus Plants

that live + algae
in extreme
Bacteria conditions Protista Animalia Fungi Plantae Kingdoms

From left to right: NIAID / CDC / Science Source; T. Stevens & P. McKinley, PNNL / Science Source; Dr. Richard Kessel / Getty Images;
Beverly Joubert / NG Image Collection; Norbert Rosing / NG Image Collection; Raymond Gehman / NG Image Collection

taxonomy The study of classification, based on structural similarities and species A precise taxonomic classification, consisting of organisms that
common ancestry. can breed and produce offspring capable of breeding.
kingdom A high-level taxonomic classification. viable Capable of remaining alive.
8 CHA PT E R 1 What Is Life?

I Wonder . . .

Are Viruses Considered Living Organisms?

Viruses are among the smallest agents that can cause disease, and they
cause some of the worst diseases around. Scientists think that smallpox,
caused by the variola virus, killed more people in the past few centuries
than all wars combined. HIV, human immunodeficiency virus, is thought to
cause AIDS, whose death toll continues to mount year after year.
Because viruses are less than 1 micron (millionth of a meter) across,
they were not discovered until early in the 19th century. Viruses are much
smaller than bacteria, which are single-celled organisms that are truly alive.
We know viruses can kill. To determine whether they are alive, we
refer to the required characteristics of life, and we observe that viruses lack
many of them, such as:
• Cells (a virus is basically a protein coat surrounding a few genes, made
The colorized blue cells
of either DNA or RNA);
in this photograph are
• The ability to reproduce; surrounded by very small,
• The ability to metabolize or respire; and circular viral particles. The

Dr. Gopal Murti / Getty Images

tremendous size difference
• A mechanism to store or process energy.
between typical cells and
Viruses can reproduce but only if they can slip inside a host cell and seize viruses is evident here. The
control of its internal machinery. Viruses are more complex than prions, the picture shows the corona
distorted proteins that cause bovine spongiform encephalopathy—mad virus, the cause of the com-
cow disease. However, viruses are far simpler than even a bacterial cell. So mon cold, and the magnifi-
although viruses are not alive, they are the ultimate parasite. cation is TEM X409,500.

FIGURE 1.5 Human taxonomy Meet your human taxonomy

Meet your human taxonomy:

KINGDOM PHYLUM CLASS ORDER

Animalia
(all multicellular organisms that
ingest nutrients rather than
synthesize them)
Vertebrata
(all animals with a vertebral col-
umn or dorsal hollow notocord—
a structure along the back of
animals—that protects their
central nervous system)
Mammalia
(all vertebrates with placental
development, mammary glands,
hair or fur, and a tail located
past the anus)
Primates
(mammals adapted to life in
trees, with opposable thumbs)

FAMILY GENUS SPECIES

Hominidae Homo H. sapiens
(primates that move primarily with bipedal— (hominids with large (The only living organisms in our species,
two-footed—locomotion) brain cases, or skulls) with a unique set of combined characteristics
from our family [bipedal], order [opposable
From left to right: George Grall / NG Image Collection; Tim Laman / NG Image Collection; Joel Sartore / NG Image Collection; thumbs], and genus [large brain case])
Karine Aigner / NG Image Collection; Kenneth Garrett / NG Image Collection; Kenneth Garrett / NG Image Collection; Mark Cosslett/
NG Image Collection

differences that exist between populations of humans, we are all
members of the same species.
It is human nature to group similar ideas, processes, and organ-
isms to make sense of the seemingly complex world in which we live.
Just as there are characteristics that can be identified as common to
all life forms in the domain Eukarya, there are basic processes that
can be identified as common to the study of human physiology. There
are arguably five basic processes on which human physiology hinges:
osmosis and diffusion, energy transfer and storage, protein function-
ing, DNA actions, and cellular structure and function.
Osmosis and diffusion appear in Chapter 4. These processes are
integral in the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and nervous systems.
Energy transfer and storage are all about chemical bonds. The flow
of energy through the biological world, introduced in Chapters 2 and
3, relies on this simple process. Humans are composed of both struc-
tural and functional proteins, introduced in Chapter 3. Structural
proteins protect and maintain organ shape, hold our skin in place,
and provide flexibility to bone. Functional proteins are the basis of
digestion, oxygen transport, muscle contraction, immunology, endo-
crinology, and even reproduction. DNA is introduced in Chapter 3
and discussed in greater detail in Chapter 21. Molecular biology is
1.3 Scientists Approach Questions Using the Scientific Method
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. List the steps in the scientific method in order.
2. Define hypothesis and theory.
Science is a field with specific goals and rules. The overall goals are to
provide sound theories regarding the phenomena we observe, using
rules embodied by the scientific method. When a question arises
about the natural world, the scientific method provides the accepted,
logical path to the answer, as shown in Figure 1.6.
A scientific experiment is an exercise in logic: Our goal is to prove
our hypothesis wrong. In the example below, our hypothesis is that
the rooster’s crow causes the sun to rise within the next 20 ­minutes.
How could we test this hypothesis? Could we force the rooster to crow
at midnight and wait 20 minutes for a glow on the eastern horizon?
Could we prevent the rooster from crowing in the morning? In either
case, if the sun rose as usual, our hypothesis would be disproved, and
we would need to find a better hypothesis.
This silly example shows how scientists may manipulate factors
that (according to the hypothesis) seem related to the observation,
all in an attempt to disprove the hypothesis. We develop a hypothe-
sis using inductive reasoning−creating a general statement from our
variable A factor that can be changed in an experiment to test whether
and how it affects the outcome.
Scientists Approach Questions Using the Scientific Method 9
the backbone of inheritance, evolution, and biotechnology. Cellu-
lar structure and function is the topic of Chapter 4. Understanding
how organelles function and what differentiates cell types underlies
every process we will study. As you go through the physiology pre-
sented in this book, the basic underlying process will be indicated.
This will make it easier for you to understand the larger, more com-
plicated processes by allowing you to relate them to their most basic
components.
Concept Check
1. How do atoms relate to the study of life?
2. What is the largest taxonomic group that apes and humans share? What is
the smallest taxonomic group they share?
3. What can you discover about an organism by comparing its full taxonomic
classification to that of a human?
4. How will mastering protein functioning help in understanding other
processes?
observations. We design the experiment, however, with deductive
reasoning, moving from the general hypothesis to a specific situation.
An “if, then” statement is an ideal basis for a scientific experiment:
“If situation A (rooster crows) occurs, then result B (sunrise) will fol-
low.” In our experiment, we changed situation A and monitored any
changes in result B.
When designing and running an experiment, we must control
all potential variables. Otherwise, we cannot draw any valid conclu-
sions. In the rooster example, it would be a good idea to muzzle all
nearby roosters. Otherwise, how would we know whether our bird or
a bird in the next chicken coop had caused the sunrise? Similarly, in
testing new medicines, scientists use a “double-blind” experiment:
Only the scientist knows whether each research participant is getting
real medicine or a fake, called a “placebo.” Neither the patients nor
the prescribing doctor know whether the patient is being given the
drug or a placebo. This prevents expectations that the drug will work
from actually causing a change in the participant’s health. The placebo
effect can be powerful, but the goal is to test the drug, not the research
participant’s expectations.
Finally, our hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable. If we can-
not think of a situation where we could disprove it, there is no experi-
ment to devise. Learning to assess situations with the scientific method
takes some practice, but it’s a skill that can be useful throughout life.
10 CHA PT E R 1 What Is Life?

PROCESS DIAGRAM FIGURE 1.6 The scientific method The scientific method is rooted in logic. If we can show that our
hypothesis does not apply to even one situation, then our hypothesis is wrong. After we analyze the data
and draw conclusions, we may have to throw out our hypothesis or conclude that it applies to a more
limited range of circumstances.

OBSERVE OBSERVE
Recognize problem
or unanswered question.

HYPOTHESIZE
Develop hypothesis
to explain problem. HYPOTHESIZE
Rooster crow
causes sunrise
Make predictions based on hypothesis.

Adapted from Visualizing Environmental Science by Linda R. Berg and Mary

EXPERIMENT

EXPERIMENT
Design and perform
experiment to test hypothesis.

Catherine Hager, John Wiley & Sons Inc. Copyright 2007

No. Yes.

COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA

COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA

Sun rise
10

(days)
Analyze and interpret data
to reach conclusions.
0 Alive Dead
Does hypothesis predict reality? rooster rooster

New knowledge results

in new questions. COMMUNICATE

COMMUNICATE
The sun rises even
Share new knowledge if no rooster crows.
with other scientists.

Let’s take an example from human biology to show the process
of testing a hypothesis. Have you seen those hand lotions that claim
to be “skin firming”? Sounds great, but how would we test this claim?
Under the scientific method, we consider the marketing claim to
be the observation, so we must develop a testable hypothesis from
the observation: “Using this hand cream for one month will cause
measurable tightening of the skin on the back of the hand.” Now we
restate the hypothesis as an “if, then” statement: “If the cream does
firm the skin, then using the cream on the back of the hand for one
month will reduce the skin-fold measurement.” This is a testable
statement that lends itself to controlled experimentation. First, we
will assess each person’s skin tautness by measuring the amount
of skin that can be pulled up on the back of the hand. Then we will
randomly divide the participants into two groups: a control group
and an experimental group. We will treat each group in an identical
manner, except that the control group will use Brand X hand cream
without the firming agent, and the experimental group will get Brand
X with the firming agent. After using the cream for one month, we
will repeat the skin-fold measurements and analyze our data, look-
ing for changes in skin tautness between the two groups as evidence
for either accepting or refuting the hypothesis. If the experimental
group displays an increase in tautness that would occur by chance
in less than 1 experiment in 20, the change is said to have statisti-
cal ­significance, and the hypothesis is supported: The cream does
tighten the skin.
It is important to note that any conclusions drawn from a scien-
tific experiment must be supported by the data. If the results of your
experiment could have happened by chance, you cannot say that the
results were due to the experimental design. In that case, a new exper-
iment must be designed and run.
Because biologists cannot always control all factors, or variables,
that might affect the outcome, they often use observation as a form of

statistical significance An experimental result that would occur by chance

in less than 1 experiment in 20; the accepted level in modern science.

experimentation. If you were interested in the effects of mercury on
the human brain, it would not be ethical to dose people with mercury,
but you could perform an observational study. You could measure
blood levels of mercury, or you could ask your research participants
about past diet. (Food, especially fish, is the major source of mercury
exposure.) Then you would use statistical tests to look for a relation-
ship between mercury exposure and intelligence. Finally, you could
try to confirm or refute your results with controlled experiments in
lab animals. Does mercury make rats faster or slower at negotiating a
maze (a standard test for rat intelligence)? Observational studies are
also a mainstay of field biology.
The Scientific Method Leads to Theories
Observation, experimentation, and analysis are the basis for scien-
tific reasoning. Once a group of related hypotheses have survived
rigorous testing without being disproved, they are accepted as a
theory. Theories are not facts but rather extremely well supported
explanations of the natural world that nobody has disproved. To a
scientist, a theory is much more than a hypothesis or a belief−it’s our
best effort to date to explain nature. Many fields of science may be
involved in supporting a theory. The theory of evolution through nat-
ural selection, for example, is supported by taxonomists, geologists,
paleontologists, geneticists, and even embryologists. Many scientists
have tried, but none has refuted the basic hypothesis first described
by Charles Darwin in 1859. We will discuss another key theory, the
cell theory, in Chapter 4.
Science is not a perfect, set-in-stone answer to questions about
the natural world but rather a dynamic, ever-changing collection of
ideas. New information can change or destroy accepted explana-
tions for the natural world. For example, doctors once blamed con-
tagious disease on ill humors, miasmas, and evil spirits. Through
the work of 19th-century biologist Louis Pasteur, it became clear
that many diseases were caused by microscopic organisms. In his
breakthrough experiment, Pasteur sterilized some grape juice and
showed that it did not ferment into wine. Then he added yeast, and
the juice fermented. When Pasteur showed through experiment that
invisible organisms can also cause disease, he helped establish the
germ theory of disease. Although it’s called a theory, the germ theory
is the universally accepted scientific explanation for infectious dis-
ease. More recently, the accepted role of the cell nucleus has come
into question. Based on experiments, biologists used to consider the
nucleus the cell’s control center, but new evidence suggests that it
actually functions more like a library for genetic data. The actual
control of gene expression and cellular activity seems to reside out-
side the nucleus, in specific RNA molecules. The theory of nuclear
control in the cell is under serious scrutiny, and further experiments
could alter it.
Scientific studies are part of the daily news. As technology
advances, humans confront scientific hypotheses and experimen-
tal results almost every day. We see advertisements for new drugs.
theory A general uniting principle of science, upheld by observation and
many experiments.
Scientists Approach Questions Using the Scientific Method 11
We hear that fossil fuels are warming the globe. We see countless
new technologies in the field of consumer electronics. In medicine,
we hear about a steady stream of new surgeries and wonder drugs.
We are told of many ways in which humans are causing the loss of
rain forests, coral reefs, natural forests, and plains, as well as the
animals that live there. We worry about the causes of animal extinc-
tion (see Ethics and Issues: Why Should Endangered Species Matter
to Me? for a discussion of this). About the only way to wade through
the morass of information in the media is to understand and use
the scientific process. Responsible citizens living in technological
cultures sometimes must make decisions about contested scientific
issues they read about in the media. Some reports have linked the
radiation from cell phones to brain tumors, but other reports find
no connection. A few concerned citizens have demanded that man-
ufacturers produce “safer” cell phones, with lower radiation emis-
sions. Can you think of an experiment that would resolve this issue,
at least in principle? Would this be best answered by an observa-
tional or experimental approach? As you read about scientific stud-
ies on current issues, ask yourself: What types of controlled and
observational experiments underlie the claims being made? Are the
experiments convincing?
Critical Reasoning Is Useful in Human
Biology
The ability to question and criticize−for example, our constantly
changing understanding of obesity or the dangers posed by food
additives or environmental chemicals−is useful in many aspects of
human biology. Critically analyze the data, experiments, and claims
before you accept what you read. There are plenty of opinions out
there; don’t accept any until you consider the evidence and reach an
informed decision. Form your own opinion based on what you under-
stand to be true.
In other words, become a critical reasoner! Critical reasoners are
skeptical, logical, and open to new information, enjoying the way it
changes their previous assumptions and ideas. Critical reasoners
question assumptions and stated facts, using logic to arrive at their
own conclusions. They find good analogies for information that they
find to be true, often helping others make sense of the new informa-
tion. Taking on the role of a critical thinker means recognizing that
you don’t have to settle for a story or a very small sample size when
looking for facts about an issue. You should ask yourself, “Were there
enough trials done to see that the results were repeated consistently?”
Also, critical reasoners know that there are limits to certainty but do
not allow this knowledge to prevent them from seeking as full an
understanding of an issue as possible.
People have the ability not only to communicate in complex ways
but also to record the past. We can consult studies, relate current affairs
to similar historical events, and use statistics to support our reasoning.
In so doing, we understand that the past proves the law of unintended
12 CHA PT E R 1 What Is Life?

Ethics and Issues

Why Should Endangered Species Matter to Me?

About 20 years ago, biologists began to worry that they may
start to run out of things to study due to the accelerating wave
of extinctions shaking the planet. Extinctions occur for many
reasons: Overhunting, destruction of habitat by fire, construc-
tion, ecological change, and invasion of exotic species can all
play roles.
What’s the big deal? Some extinction is natural, after all.

Beverly Joubert / NG Image Collection

Why is it important to prevent endangered species from going
extinct? The answers range from scientific to economic to
spiritual:

• Organisms can be useful. A species of plant called the rosy

periwinkle was the source of a key drug that defeats one
type of leukemia. Scientists are actively looking in many
unusual ecosystems for useful chemicals that organisms
have evolved for specific reasons. Many antibiotics, for
example, were derived from fungi that evolved these
compounds for protection against bacteria.
• Life is unique. As far as we know, this is the only planet
with life. If we respect life, we should respect its myriad forms as well:
the whales, swans, lobsters, and even the endangered fish and mus-
sels in our streams.
• Life has scientific value. To understand the wonders of evolution, we
need to study the results of evolution.
• Life is a web. Organisms in the wild have complex interactions that
we are only beginning to understand. Extinguishing one organism can
have cascading effects throughout an ecosystem.
It’s hard to know exactly how far along we are in the current wave of
extinction because biologists are not even sure how many species
inhabit Earth. So far, about 1.9 million species have been described, but
it is estimated that the total number is several times that. The World
Conservation Union reports that 748 species are already extinct, and
another 16,119 are threatened with extinction. These threatened organ-
isms include one in three amphibians, one in four coniferous trees
and mammals, and one bird in eight. The group also notes that “56%
of the 252 endemic freshwater Mediterranean fish are threatened with
extinction.”
Critical Reasoning Issues
Different organizations and governmental agencies may use different data
to define endangered. For some, the term may refer to species of which
fewer than 500 breeding pairs are known in a certain country; for others,
the data set may encompass the whole continent. Knowing the expertise
and motives of an organization or agency may be crucial to understanding
how it uses and presents data. However, regardless of technical definitions
of endangered, some of the organisms that are currently becoming extinct
are ones we have not even yet identified, let alone studied. Their beauty
and utility will go completely unrecognized as they fade from existence.
Although evolution may eventually restore biodiversity to its current lev-
els, that will take millions of years. Thus, in biodiversity, as in so many other
things, a gram of prevention is worth a kilo of cure!
Think Critically
1. What examples can you find of a government agency or organization
that does not specify its definition of “endangered” and “threatened
with extinction”?
2. What are some other reasons to value biodiversity besides the ones
mentioned?

consequences—that actions often have unexpected effects. For exam- between the body and its external environment. Studying human biol-
ple, using naturally cool stream water as an industrial plant coolant ogy is the perfect way to practice your critical reasoning skills, as you
saves money and seems to be a good use of the available resources. will be investigating the most complex system we know—ourselves
However, the practice dramatically increases the temperature of these and our relationship to our environment.
streams below the plant. The temperature increase, in turn, changes
the population of organisms that are able to survive there and often
alters the productivity of the entire watershed below the plant.
Critical reasoning is not the kind of thinking illustrated by the fact
Concept Check
that 87% of people rate themselves above average in intelligence. It is
1. Why must scientists constantly refine their hypotheses when conducting
also not illustrated by the notion that because a woman was cured of
experiments?
her epilepsy after being bitten by a rattlesnake, the venom caused the
cure. Rather, critical reasoning is the best way to understand complex 2. What is the difference between a hypothesis and theory?
interactions such as those that take place within the human body and
 Scientific Findings Often Lead to Ethical Dilemmas 13

1.4 Scientific Findings Often Lead to Ethical Dilemmas

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Define altruistic behavior.
2. Briefly describe why a basic knowledge of science is
essential to being a productive citizen.
Humans have evolved as social animals, following the rules and expec-
tations that make life possible in groups. This cultural structure that
overlies the biological structure of human life certainly adds interest
to our study of human biology. Culture generally requires that people
accept responsibility for other individuals within the population rather
than merely surviving and protecting their young. Although a ­ ltruistic
behavior does appear among some primates, it helps distinguish
humans from other life-forms and creates one basis for the govern-
ments and laws people have established.
When individuals must make judgments and act for the good
of the group rather than the individual, they must make ethical
­decisions, and ethical decisions should be informed decisions. Where
does that information come from? Scientific research provides our
basic understanding of the natural world. Although humans can and
do add their interpretations and values to the results of science, sci-
ence itself is judgment free. Scientific results are neither good nor bad;
they are just the best current idea of how the material world operates.
The discovery by Pasteur and his peers that germs cause many dis-
eases was neither good nor bad−it was just true. The ability to analyze
scientific issues is essential in an informed society and turns out to
be more important as scientifically based issues become even more
common and complex. Science seeks to explain the natural world, but
the uses of science, both beneficial and harmful, grow from human
choices. Sometimes people choose to use scientific discoveries to
improve the environment and the human condition, and sometimes
they use them to carry out seemingly evil designs. One example of this
can be seen in Figure 1.7. Another example of this dual edge is the
understanding that germs cause disease. Pasteur’s germ theory of dis-
ease can be used to help cure disease—or to invent biological warfare.
Many ethically charged scientific issues−such as stem cell research,
environmental conservation, and genetically modified food−have both

FIGURE 1.7 Nuclear power Nuclear power poses an interesting mix of scientific and political issues.
Atomic fission can provide a large amount of energy, and it does not create greenhouse gases, which warm
the globe and threaten harm to the biosphere. However, radioactive waste is dangerous, and nuclear plants
can suffer accidents causing meltdowns that spew radiation. The decision to use nuclear power is a p ­ olitical
­decision, not a scientific one, so it is imperative that each member of society understands the scientific data
on nuclear reactors, as well as the social ramifications of that information. Nuclear power has pluses and
minuses. To take a position, you should know about global warming, radioactive waste, and the costs and
benefits of other technologies for making electricity—all scientific issues.
Raymond Gehman / National Geographic Creative

REUTERS / Alamy Stock Photo

altruistic Putting the needs of others ahead of, or equal to, personal ethical decision A decision based on the principles of right and wrong
needs. rather than on financial, personal, or political gain.
14 CHA PT E R 1 What Is Life?
personal and political ramifications. Each of these requires an under-
standing of the science and the societal issues. An informed voting
public requires that each individual draw logical and defensible con-
clusions from scientific information.
Summary
1 Living Organisms Display Nine Specific
Characteristics 2
• Cell biology is the study of life. One characteristic of life is organization.
Living things are organized from microscopic to macroscopic. All life is
also composed of cells and is r­ esponsive to the environment. Life adapts,
uses energy, and reproduces.
• Living organisms are composed of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids. In order to maintain life, these organisms must maintain
a relatively constant internal environment, called “homeostasis.” This is
accomplished through a feedback system, including a receptor, a control
center, and an effector. The usual feedback system in the body is a nega-
tive feedback system.
2 Human Biology Is Structured and Logical 4 • Communication of the findings: preparing a paper, presenting a
• The natural organization of life on Earth is based on a system of increasing
complexity. The base of this hierarchy is the atom, meaning that the basis of
biology is actually chemistry. Atoms combine to form molecules. Molecules
join together to form cells. Similar cells form tissues; tissues with a common
function form organs; organs with similar functions form organ systems;
and a group of organ systems all functioning together form an organism.
• Taxonomy is the study of classification. Organisms are classified based
on shared characteristics. Each successive level gets more restrictive,
until only one interbreeding species is described.
• The five basic processes underlying human biology are osmosis and diffu-
sion, energy transfer and storage, protein functioning, DNA function, and
cellular ­structure and function.
Key Terms
• altruistic 13 • organ system 2
• cell 2 • population 5
• ethical decision 13 • radiation 3
• kingdom 7 • species 7
• organ 2 • statistical significance
Concept Check
1. Do you feel that laws requiring the wearing of a helmet while riding a
motorcycle are altruistic?
2. Why is it important to understand scientific information?
3 Scientists Approach Questions Using the Scientific
Method 9
• Science is more a way of thinking than a body of knowledge.
• The steps of the scientific method include:
• Observation: witnessing an unusual or unexpected phenomenon
• Hypothesis: formulating an educated guess as to why the phenome-
non occurs
• Experiment: designing and running a controlled experiment to test the
validity of the hypothesis
• Collection of results and analysis: recording the results of the exper-
imental procedure and determining the meaning of the results
obtained from the experiment
poster, or speaking about the results of the experiment
4 Scientific Findings Often Lead to Ethical Dilemmas 13
• Science in and of itself is neither inherently good nor bad. It is in the use of
scientific principles that value judgments are made. Science can be used
for either the betterment of society or its destruction.
• Individuals who understand the ramifications of a science are the ones
who should decide about its use. In democratic nations, however, these
ethical decisions are placed in the hands of the voters. In order to make
the right choices, we must all understand at least a little bit about the
functioning of the biological world in which we live. We must become crit-
ical reasoners.
• taxonomy 7
• theory 11
• tissue 2
• variable 9
10 • viable 7
 What is happening in this picture? 15

What is happening in this picture?

What is the Relationship between Exercise and Health
While it is well known that exercise increases muscle tone, the effect of strenu-
ous exercise on other aspects of human physiology is not as clear. Here, scien-
tists collect data on the heart rate, breathing rate, lung volume, and blood pH
of an individual performing strenuous exercise.

Think Critically
1. Devise a plausible hypothesis for the experimental data collection that
you see here.
2. How might the results of the observations listed above (heart rate,
breathing rate, lung volume, and blood pH) provide evidence of
increased or decreased individual health following exercise?

Fuse / Getty Images, Inc.

 CHAPTER 2

Karen Hunt / NG Image Collection

Where Do We Come
CHAPTER OUTLINE

What Are the Origins of Modern Humans? 17

from and Where Do

• The Human Ancestors Are Dead Twigs on the
Family Tree
• Homo sapiens Appears and Starts to Change

We Fit?
Everything
What a Scientist Sees: What Is Your Ethnic
Background?
Ethics and Issues: Are Humans Still Evolving?
I Wonder. . . How Are Fossilized Human Remains
“But Miss, why is human biology taught in the Zoology department? Isn’t zoology
“Interpreted” to Produce Our Family Tree?
the study of ANIMALS?” The student asking this question stood in the lecture hall,
sporting an armload of books and a quizzical expression. Perhaps it had never What Does the Human Body Have in Common
occurred to her to think about humans in this light. We are, in fact, animals. We with the World Around It? 23
are multicellular, we cannot manufacture our own food, we undergo an embryonic
• Energy Flows Between Molecules
developmental stage, and we are mobile. In addition, we require food, shelter, and
the company of others. The environment in which we live shapes our lives, and we • We Are Consumers
in turn have shaped that environment.
We Reflect Our Environment: We Have a Habitat
When we really look at ourselves, we find very little separating us from the
and a Niche 29
chimpanzee. Our DNA, the hereditary molecule, is at least 98% identical to that of
the chimp. Both chimpanzees and humans form cooperative groups for hunting • Habitats Have Limitations
and socializing. Both use tools. Chimps rear their young for at least five years, and • Humans Are Animals
family groups form bonds that remain for lifetimes. Even more basic, humans and
Health, Wellness, and Disease: Environmental
other animals respond to changes in their environment with short- and long-term
adaptations. These adaptations can be changes in behavior, in food choices, or
Illness: Real or Imagined?
even in body form over long periods of time.
We are biological beings, and as such we are subject to the same laws, the-
ories, and ideas as the rest of the biological world. So, while we like to think of
ourselves as above the life struggles of, say, earthworms, it is really not the case.

16
 What Are the Origins of Modern Humans? 17

2.1 What Are the Origins of Modern Humans?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES In Chapter 1, we learned the taxonomic classification of humans: We
belong to the class Mammalia, which also includes whales, dogs,
1. Describe the origins of modern humans. squirrels, and bears. We are further separated into the order Primates,
2. Describe the characteristics of primates. along with lemurs, monkeys, and apes. Primates share a common
ancestor that lived about 60 million years ago. The order is charac-
3. Differentiate Homo habilis, Homo erectus, Homo
terized by five-digit hands with an opposable thumb, fingernails and
neanderthalensis, and Homo sapiens.
toenails rather than claws, and stereoscopic vision with forward-­
4. Appreciate the variety in modern humans. facing eyes. All of these shared characteristics were adaptations to life
5. Discuss the evolutionary forces currently affecting the in the trees. Our opposable thumb was a great evolutionary advance,
human population. allowing us to grasp firmly and with precise control.

FIGURE 2.1 The human family tree The members of the order Primates have diverged relatively recently.
Within the past 10 million years, chimpanzees and modern humans diverged from a common ancestor. Even
more recently, the pathway leading to modern humans produced the now extinct genus Australopithicine.
PROSIMIANS ANTHROPOIDS
PROSIMIANS ANTHROPOIDS
A NEW-WORLD OLD-WORLD APES AND
A NEW-WORLD
MONKEYS OLD-WORLD
MONKEYS APES AND
HUMANS Think Critically
MONKEYS
B MONKEYS
C HUMANS
D Recently researchers conducting fieldwork
Life On White / Digital Vision /

B C D
in Africa studying parasites in gorillas took
Samohin / iStockphoto / precautions to stay at least 35 feet away from
nizha2 / Getty Images

JackF / iStockphoto /

the apes, were vaccinated against diseases

that might be passed to the wild animals, and
Getty Images

Getty Images

Getty Images

even carried their own waste out of the forest.

Using the information in this figure, explain
this precautionary behavior.
Chimpanzees
Orangutans
Mangabeys

Chimpanzees
Marmosets

Capuchins

Macaques
monkeys

monkeys

monkeys
Tarsiers

Orangutans
Guenons

Mangabeys

Baboons
Tarsioids
Marmosets

Gibbons

Humans
Capuchins

Langurs

Macaques
Squirrel
monkeys

monkeys

monkeys

Gorillas

Millions
Tarsiers
Lemurs
Lorises

Guenons
Spider

Baboons
Tarsioids

Gibbons

Humans
Patas
Langurs
Squirrel

Gorillas

Millions
of years
Lemurs
Lorises

Spider

Patas

of years
ago
ago0
0 Australo-
Australo-
pithecines
pithecines
10
10

20
20
EPOCHS

30
EPOCHS

30

40
40

50
50

60
60

70
70

opposable thumb A thumb that can move across the other four digits. stereoscopic vision Three-dimensional vision created by two slightly
different views superimposed on one another.
 18 CHA PT E R 2 Where Do We Come from and Where Do We Fit?

Approximately 30 million years ago, the ancestor of apes and It is worth an aside here to discuss the definition of evolution.
humans diverged from the ancestors of old-world monkeys, as shown When anthropologists say that humans evolved in Africa, what they
in Figure 2.1. Apes and humans are larger and have larger brains and are saying is that the genetic information carried in our ancestors’ DNA
smaller tails than monkeys. Our tails are so small, in fact, that they are not was altered in such a way that a new species came about while our
visible outside the body. Apes and humans are further distinguished by ancestors lived in Africa. DNA, the hereditary material carried in the
their complex social interactions. Comparisons of the structures of mol- nucleus of almost all of our cells, naturally undergoes slight random
ecules such as functional proteins found in all apes and humans indicate modifications. Over time and with selection pressure from the envi-
that gibbons diverged first, followed by orangutans, gorillas, chimpan- ronment, those modifications can lead to new genes or new forms of
zees, and humans. To be clear, we did not develop from a c­ himpanzee, existing genes.
but rather chimpanzees and humans diverged most recently from a com- When new forms of existing genes arise, they direct the creation
mon ancestor that probably slightly resembled both. of proteins with slightly different functions than the original proteins
Continuing with the human taxonomic classification, we belong formed from the original genes. These alternate forms of genes are
to the genus Homo, with the species epithet sapiens. As we noted ear- called alleles. Alleles are genes that code for proteins with similar, but
lier, Homo sapiens are unique in that they possess an upright bipedal not identical, functions. For example, the gene that codes for blood
stance, an opposable thumb, an enlarged brain case, and the capacity type A and the gene that codes for blood type B are alleles – different
for complex speech communication. The fossil record contains many forms of the same basic blood protein gene.
other Homo species, each carrying this unique combination of four Any change in the frequency of genetic alleles is termed evolu-
characteristics with slight modifications. These modifications define tion. Therefore, when the ancestor of modern man was living in Africa,
the various hominid species and allow the different species to thrive new alleles were introduced into the population through random
in the diverse ecosystems of our biosphere. Although scientists are still changes in DNA. Over time, this change in allele frequency, or evolu-
debating the specifics of human evolution, most agree on the basic tion, led to an upright posture, a larger brain case, and eventually the
pathway: that humans evolved in Africa when a primate began to walk organism we know today as Homo sapiens. See Figure 2.2 for more of
upright as its usual form of locomotion. the human family tree.

FIGURE 2.2 A closer look at the human family tree Human evolution is complicated and difficult to
trace. Each fossil that is discovered leads to new questions, rather than clear answers.
Biology: Understanding Life by Sandra and Brian Alters, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

H. sapiens

skull
fragments of arm, fragments H. erectus
thigh, jaw, teeth only H. ergaster
H. habilis
A. A.
O. tugenensis anamensis afarensis

A. africanus

S. tchadensis A. ramidus
skull A. aethiopicus
fragments
only A. robustus
Copyright 2006

A. boisei

7.0 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0
Millions of years ago

bipedal Two-footed rather than four-footed.


The Human Ancestors Are Dead Twigs
on the Family Tree
How long have Homo sapiens walked Earth? In February 2005, new
dating techniques were applied to human fossil remains found in 1967
by Richard Leakey. The critical skull findings are shown in Figure 2.3.
These fossils included some bones and two skulls Leakey uncovered
on opposite sides of the Omo River in Ethiopia. At the time of the find-
ing, the two fossils were dated at 130,000 years old. Recent evidence
suggests that they are in fact much older. Scientists now believe these
two fossils to be the oldest known human remains. Omo I and Omo II,
as the fossils are called, date the emergence of modern humans in
Africa to 195,000 years ago.
The genus Homo was preceded by even earlier
­versions of humans Australopithecus was the first member of
the family Hominidae. This organism walked upright, and its ­cranium
was slightly larger than that of previous, nonhuman primates. Interest-
ingly, the first hominid was an omnivore, eating both plant and animal
foodstuffs, and was relatively small in stature. A second Australopith-
ecine, A. afarensis, was slightly larger and, based on dentition, ate like
a modern vegetarian. These organisms showed social behaviors and
sexual dimorphism similar to that of apes.
About 3 million years ago, Homo habilis appeared to share
the planet with A. afarensis. This organism had a larger brain than
A. ­afarensis, new types of teeth that allowed it to eat a more varied
diet, and perhaps the ability to make and use tools. Homo habilis lit-
erally means “handy man,” and many of the H. habilis fossils are sur-
rounded by stones that could be primitive tools.
FIGURE 2.3 Omo I and Omo II skull fragments
Stephen L. Alvarez / NG Image Collection
cranium Brain case, or skull.
What Are the Origins of Modern Humans? 19
Almost 2 million years ago, another s­ peciation event
produced Homo erectus and Homo ergaster Lighter
and more graceful than H. habilis, these organisms can be classified
as humans, for they had subtle differences from the great apes in
cranial capacity, stature, and gait, as shown in Figure 2.4. Originally,
these two were classified together as H. erectus. H. ergaster was dis-
tinguished in 1994, when scientists discovered that their skulls were
different. H. ergaster has a high skull bone, thin cranial bones, a slim
brow ridge, and a generally lighter skeleton than H. erectus. Both had
a swift gait; long, muscled limbs; narrow hips; and body proportions
like those of modern tropical humans. Sexual dimorphism was effec-
tively lost in this group, indicating that both males and females proba-
bly participated in the same societal activities. Infant development was
extended, allowing a longer family period for passing on learned traits
and culture. These primates continued to make hunting tools and eat-
ing equipment.
Although scientists are not clear on the exact date, it appears
that Homo erectus and H. ergaster migrated out of Africa approxi-
mately 1 million years ago and began to populate other continents.
H. erectus may have left Africa to avoid environmental changes during
an ice age. They remained a part of the biota of Java as recently as
500,000 years ago, making them contemporaries of modern Homo
sapiens.
Neanderthals hold a special fascination for us, perhaps because of
their recent evolution. Some scholars believe these hominids evolved as
a separate species from H. erectus. Others think H. erectus first evolved
into a form that was very close to modern humans, which then gave rise
to both modern humans and Neanderthals. Are Neanderthals and mod-
ern humans related closely enough to be subspecies of Homo sapiens?
In 1964, this was the accepted wisdom, based on anatomical similarities.
A photograph of the Omo fossils as they were discovered.
NG maps
sexual dimorphism Morphological differences between the two genders.
20 CHA PT E R 2 Where Do We Come from and Where Do We Fit?

FIGURE 2.4 A comparison of the skeletons of apes and Homo erectus Note the skeletal similarities
of these two organisms, despite their difference in appearance.

Unbalanced head Balanced head

(long snout) (short snout)

High narrow Low, wide

shoulders shoulders

Wide chest Narrow chest

Tall, narrow waist

Short, wide waist
Short forearm
Long femoral
neck Short femoral neck

Long forearm

Large hip, knee

Small hip, knee & ankle joints
& ankle joints

Short Achilles Long Achilles

tendon tendon
Small heelbone Enlarged heelbone

Long toes Short toes

Partial arch foot Stabilized arch foot

a. Australopithecus afarensis b. Homo erectus

Apparently, the two existed on the Earth at the same time, as indicated
by fossil sites in Israel, where geologic strata indicate that H. sapiens lived
at that location before H. neanderthalensis. Not much is understood of
the interactions between these two species. It may be that they coexisted
peacefully, or even interbred. DNA studies of our current human genome
indicate that up to 20% of the Neanderthal genome is carried in modern
man. These genes can be found throughout our current population, add-
ing evidence to the theory that Neanderthals and modern human spe-
cies coexisted. Even at a glance, Neanderthals and modern humans look
extremely similar (see Figure 2.5). Extrapolating from other animal’s
extinction events, it is possible that the physically weaker genus Homo
may have exploited a slight environmental advantage to outcompete
their larger and stronger but slower Neanderthal peers.
Homo sapiens Appears and Starts
to Change Everything
It is difficult to pinpoint the exact beginning of Homo sapiens. Some
scientists believe that all modern humans came from one small pop-
ulation in Africa that splintered, migrated, and populated the globe.
This splintering must have happened approximately 140,000 to
100,000 years ago. Wherever H. sapiens appeared, they replaced all
other hominids. We cannot be certain why, as the fossil record gives
no indication of violence between species of hominids, nor does it
provide evidence of disease. Did H. sapiens really fight and kill Nean-
derthals? Did ­Neanderthals fall victim to viruses that did not harm H.
sapiens? Did Neanderthals breed with H. sapiens, eventually losing
their characteristics as their genes were diluted in the larger H. ­sapiens
gene pool? The questions are tantalizing, but we may never know
their answers. See the Ethics and Issues: Are Humans Still Evolving? box to
investigate modern human evolution.
Human population differences and ethnicity are
tangled concepts The bottom line on the evolution of humans
is that we are all one species. Do we look different? Yes, we do look a
bit different, as seen in Figure 2.6. Humans have subtle physical dif-
ferences that are heritable and that are usually associated with one
group of people. See What a Scientist Sees: What is Your Ethnic Back-
ground? for information on determining an individual’s ethnicity.
For almost all of our history, human populations were small and
isolated by geographic barriers such as forests, deserts, oceans, riv-
ers, and mountains. During this isolation, natural selection and other
mechanisms of population change, such as sexual selection, favored

natural selection A natural process that favors individuals better adapted

to the environment, ensuring that those traits are passed to the next
generation.
 What Are the Origins of Modern Humans? 21

FIGURE 2.5 Neanderthal versus modern human This image allows a FIGURE 2.6 Human variation This group of ethnically diverse school
direct comparison of the facial features of Neanderthals on the left and mod- children exemplifies the many different phenotypes, or appearances, now
ern Homo sapiens on the right. found in the human population.

FatCamera / Getty Images

different genetic traits in the various populations. These differences
formed what we used to call racial differences, including skin color,
hair color, hair texture, eye shape, and body stature. Some of these
traits developed as selective advantages in local environments. Dark
Bruce Morser / NG Image Collection

skin offers better protection against UV light, and yet it is a disadvan-

tage in northern latitudes because the available sunlight is needed for
the skin’s production of vitamin D. Facial features, hair texture, and
even blood types may have developed in response to environmental
pressures.
However, these subtle differences can be overblown and used as a
tool of oppression rather than of understanding. As a concept, the scien-
tific validity of human races is questionable at best. We now know that

What a Scientist Sees

What Is Your Ethnic Background? 2. Do you know your ethnic background? How well do your physi-
cal traits match up to the groups with which you claim? Would it
Sociologists use physical traits, among other bits of evidence, to cate- be difficult for you to learn that your DNA carried genetic mark-
gorize humans into ethnic groups. DNA carries the instructions for pro- ers of different ethnic groups?
teins in the body, and these proteins help to form our physical traits.
Can we then, use DNA to identify our ethnicity?
Well not exactly, but DNA tests can help narrow it down. These tests
take a sample of your DNA and compare it to the database of human
DNA worldwide. When significant stretches of your DNA match those of
a particular ethnic group, it is assumed that you have a common link –
an ancestor – within that community. The science behind this is sound,
however there are problems. Most importantly, the human DNA data-
base is incomplete leaving many ethnic groups unrepresented. Also,
genetic variability is not a series of discrete points between ethnic ori-
Rawpixel / Shutterstock

gins, but rather a continuum of small changes. Where do scientists draw

the line between ethnic groups?

Think Critically
1. Why is it important to include ALL human genomes in this data-
base before making definitive statements?
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
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Zurich, 1825-1827, 2 vols.
 Johann Jacob Hottinger, born in 1783, professor of Greek at
Zurich, must not be confounded with Jean Jacques Hottinger, also a
professor at Zurich, who died in 1819.
Hug, L., and Stead, P., The story of Switzerland, New York, 1890.
—Hutten, U. von, Œuvres complètes, Berlin, 1822-1825, 5 vols.

Imhof, J. (Bourcard Leu), Die Jesuiten in Luzern.—Istria, Dora d’,

Switzerland, London, 1858, 2 vols.

Jahn, H. A., Chronik des Cantons Bern, Bern, 1857; Der Keltische
Alterthum der Schweiz, Bern, 1860.
Henry Albert Jahn, Swiss historian and archæologist, professor at
Bern, formerly secretary of the department of the interior, was born
at Bern, October 9, 1811.
Johannis, Vitodurani, Chronicon, Zurich, 1856.—Jovii, P.,
Historiæ sui temporis, Bâle, 1567, 2 vols.—Jullien, Histoire de
Genève, 1865.—Jussie, Jeanne de, Levain de calvinisme, 1605.
A religious abbess of the convent of St. Claire, whence she was
driven in 1535, together with the other members of the community, to
seek refuge at Annecy, where she later became abbess. She has
pictured for us in all its crudity the conflict of popular passions in the
most primitive style, and in language, which is in itself an index to the
comedy, the tragedy, and the overwhelmingly gross superstition of
her day and generation.
Justinger, C., Bernerchronik, Bern, 1871.

Keller, A., Die kirchlich politischen Fragen bei der Eidg.

Bundesrevision von 1871.—Klingenberger, Chronik, Gotha, 1861.
—Königshofen, J. von, Chronique helvétique.—Königshoven, von
Strasbourg, J. T., Chronicum latinum, Strasburg, 1678.
Jacques Twinger Königshoven, better known under the name of
Twinger, a celebrated chronicler of the 14th century, was born at
Strasburg in 1346, of rich and influential parents. At the age of thirty-
six he changed his condition of citizen for the ecclesiastical state and
died in 1420, aged seventy-four years.
Kopp, J. E., Urkunden zur Geschichte der Eidgenössischen
Bunde, 1835; Geschichte der Eidgenössischen Bunde, Leipsic and
Berlin, 1844-52, 11 vols.

Laharpe, F. C., Mémoires, Bern, 1864.—Liebenau, T. von, Blicke

in die Geschichte Engelbergs, 1876; Die Schlacht bei Sempach,
Luzern, 1886; Indicateur de l’histoire suisse, 1876; Die Böcke von
Zurich. Stanz., 1876.—Lavater, J. C., Letter to the French Directory,
London, 1799.—Lütolf, Die Glaubensboten der Schweiz, Luzern,
1871.

Mallet, J., Considérations sur la Révolution, Brussels, 1793.—

Mallet-Dupan, J., Mémoires historiques et littéraires, Geneva, 1779-
1782, 5 vols.—Mallet, P. H., Histoire des Suisses ou Helvétiens,
Geneva, 1803, 4 vols.
Paul Henri Mallet, an eminent historian, was born at Geneva in
1730, of a family remarkable for the number of great men it has
produced. He held the position of professor of history in several
universities, and was a member of the academies of Upsal, Lyons,
Cassel, and the Celtic Academy. He died of a paralytic stroke in the
city of his birth, February 8, 1807.
Marsauche, L., La Confédération Helvétique, Neuchâtel, 1890.—
Matile, G. A., Monuments de l’histoire de Neuchâtel, Musée
historique, 3 vols.—May de Romainmotier, E., Histoire militaire des
Suisses, Bern, 1772, 2 vols.
E. M. de Romainmotier was born at Bern in 1734, and became
known to the world chiefly through the military history. This, though a
somewhat mediocre production as a literary work, contains important
facts not to be found elsewhere.
 McCracken, W. D., Rise of the Swiss Republic, New York, 1901.
—Mémoires et Documents publié par la Société de la Suisse
romande, Lausanne.—Meyer von Knonau, Gerold, Eidg.
Abschiede; St. Gallische Geschichtsquellen, St. Gall, 1870-81, 5
vols.; Die Sage von der Befreiung der Waldstätte, Bâle, 1873.—
Meyer, H., Die Denare und Bractealen in der Schweiz, Zurich, 1858-
60; Geschichte der XIᵉ und XXIᵉ Legion, Mittheilungen de Zürich,
Zurich, 1853.—Meyer, J., Geschichte des schweiz. Bundesrechts,
Zurich, 1849-1852, 2 vols.—Meyer von Knonau, Ludwig, Handbuch
der Geschichte der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich,
1843, 2 vols.
Louis Meyer von Knonau was born at Zurich September 12, 1769.
He studied history, law, and philology at Halle, where he became an
ardent disciple of Professor Wolf. He filled various diplomatic offices
with firmness and intelligence, retired to private life in 1839, and died
September 6, 1841. His history of the confederation is one of the
most accurate and complete at the disposition of the student. His
son, Gerold, born March 2, 1804, followed in his father’s footsteps
and devoted himself to public life. The government confided to his
care the archives of Zurich and charged him with the publication of
the documents of the federal diet. He died November 1, 1858.
Miles, H., Chronik, St. Gall., 1902.—Mohr, T. von, Die Regesten
der Benedictiner-Abtei Einsiedeln, Chur., 1848.—Mommsen, T.,
Römische Geschichte, Berlin, 1885, 5 vols.; Inscriptiones
Confœderationes helveticæ, Mitt. d. antiq. Ges., Zurich, vols. 10 and
15.
Theodor Mommsen, an eminent historian, was born Nov. 30,
1817, at Garding, Schleswig, of a Danish family. He was displaced in
1852 from the chair of law at Leipsic for partisanship in political
events, but was immediately called to that of the University of Zurich.
During the Franco-Prussian War he was among the bitterest
enemies of France.
Monnard, C., Histoire de la Confédération suisse, Zurich, 1847-
1853, 5 vols.
 Charles Monnard was born in 1790, and died at Bonn in 1865. His
chief labor was the continuation of the history of Switzerland by J.
von Müller. His classic style is apt to strike us of to-day as too stilted,
but it is easily overlooked in the appreciation due to his solid merit,
his simple modesty, his generous and liberal spirit.
Moor, Theodore, Historisch-chronologischer Wegweiser, Chur.,
1873; Wegweiser durch da Curratien, 1873.—Morel, G., Mémoires
et documents de la Soc. d’histoire de la Suisse romande; Die
Registen der Benedictiner-Abtei Einsiedeln.—Morell, C., Die
helvetische Gesellschaft.—Morin, A., Précis de l’histoire politique de
la Suisse, Geneva and Paris, 1856-75.—Müller, J. von, Der Geist
der Ahnen oder die Einheitsbestrebungen in der Schweiz vor der
helvetischen Revolution, Zurich, 1874; Geschichte der
schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, 1841-1847, 7 vols.; Indicateur
d’antiquités suisses, 1875; Schweizergeschichte, Lausanne, 1795-
1801, 11 vols.; Der Geschichten Schweizerischer
Eidgenossenschaft, Liepsic and Zurich, 1805-16, 5 vols.—Müller-
Friedberg, Schweizerische Annalen, 1830, 6 vols.—Muralt, C.,
Schweizergeschichte mit durchganziger Quellenangabe, Bern, 1885.

Nayler, F. H., History of Helvetia, London, 1801, 2 vols.—Nisard,

M., Études sur la renaissance, Paris, 1855.—Nuscheler, A., Die
Siechenhäuser in der Schweiz, Zurich, 1866.

Ochs, Geschichte der Stadt und Landschaft Basel, Bâle, 1796-

1822, 8 vols.—Ochsenbein, Die Kriegsgründe und Kriegsbilder des
Burgunderkrieges, 1876.—Oe, Die Anfänge der schweizerischen
Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1891.—Oechsli, W., Lehrbuch für den
Geschichtsunterricht, Zurich, 1885; Quellenbuch zur
Schweizergeschichte, Zurich, 1886; Die Anfänge der
schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1891.
William Oechsli, born October 6, 1851, at Riesbach, was destined
by his family to the ministry; but he deserted theology for history, and
after exhaustive study at Heidelberg, Berlin, and Paris, he was called
in 1887 to the professorship of Swiss history in the Zurich
Polytechnical Institute.
Orelli, A. von, Das Staatsrecht der schweizerischen
Eidgenossenschaft, Fribourg, 1885.

Pierrefleur, P. de, Mémoires.

The Memoirs of Pierre de Pierrefleur, grand banneret of Orbe,
present an accurate picture of the progress of the Reformation.
Modestly and without recrimination, though himself an ardent
Catholic, he endeavours accurately to reproduce day by day the
scenes which pass before his eyes—truth without passion, simplicity
without grossness his chief object. Moderation is the keynote of this
recital from the lips of the pious and honourable knight of Orbe.
Unfortunately, the original chronicle having been lost, we are obliged
to content ourselves with extracts.
Peyssonel, C. C. de, Discours sur l’alliance de la France avec les
Suisses et les Grisons, Paris, 1790.—Pfyffr, C., Sammlung kleiner
Schriften, Zurich, 1866.—Pirkheimer, W., Historia belli Suitensis
sive Helvetici, Tiguri, 1735.—Planta, P. C. von, Die Schweiz in ihrer
Entwicklung zum Einheitsstaate.—Pupikofer, Geschichte des
Thurgavs, Bischoffzell, 1830.—Pury, S. de, Chronique des
chanoines de Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, 1839.

Rahn, J. N., Geschichte der bildenden Künste in der Schweiz,

Zurich, 1876.—Rambert, E., Les Alps suisses, Geneva, 1875.
Eugene Rambert, born in 1830, first turned his studies in the
direction of theology, but at twenty-four he was appointed to the chair
of French literature at Lausanne, which he occupied until the
Confederation called him to the Polytechnical School. His sojourn at
Zurich lasted twenty-one years, when, in 1881, he returned to his
own canton. He was not long, however, to breathe his native air, his
laborious career being suddenly cut short in 1886. His works are
numerous and varied, but all are remarkable for great power,
authority, and calm.
 Rauchenstein, H., Der Feldzug Cæsars gegen die Helvetier,
Zurich, 1882.—Relatio Conflictus Laupensis.—Reportorium der
Abschiede der Eidgenössischen Tagsatzungen, 1803-1848, 3 vols.
(Additional reports of the old federal diets).—Rilliet, A., Les Origines
de la Confédération suisse, Geneva, 1868.—Rochholz,
Eidgenössische Liederchronik, Bern, 1835.—Rodt, E. von, Die
Feldzüge der Schweizer gegen Karl den Kühnen. Geschichte des
bernischen Kriegswesens, Schaffhausen, 1843-1844, 2 vols.—
Roget, Amedee, Les Suisses et Genève, Geneva, 1864; Histoire du
peuple de Genève, Geneva, 1870-83, 7 vols.—Rossel, V., Histoire
littéraire de la Suisse romande, Bern, 1887-91, 2 vols.—Rovéréa, F.
de, Mémoires, Bern.—Ruchat, A., Histoire de la Réformation en
Suisse, Lausanne, 1727-28.
Abraham Ruchat, the father of Swiss (French) history, was born in
1678 of a peasant family. Educated in Germany and Holland, he
returned to Switzerland to become professor of history at the
University of Lausanne. The Histoire de la Réformation en Suisse
was but a part of a projected general history of Switzerland which
was never completed. Ruchat says of his labours: “I have been
tempted nine times to give up the enterprise and live in peace; but
the desire to serve my country has ever reinvested me with courage.
I seek not glory, but truth and the public good. I have always
endeavoured to write as though some day I were to be called to
account for the products of my pen.”

Sarnen, Livre blanc de Sarnen, in Les Origines de la

Confédération suisse, by A. Rilliet, Geneva, 1868.—Schilling, D.
(the younger), Luzerner Chronik, Luzern, 1862.—Schreiber, H.,
Loriti Glareanus, Fribourg, 1878.—Schuler, M., Geschichte des
Landes Glarus; Thaten und Sitten der Eidgenossen, Zurich, 1856, 7
vols.—Secrétan, E., Galérie suisse, Biographies Nationales,
Lausanne, 1874.—Seehausen, R., Schweizer Politik während des
dreissigjahrigen Krieges, Halle, 1882.—Segesser, P. von,
Eidgenössische Abschiede Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte von
Luzern, Lucerne, 1839-1856, 17 vols.—Simmler, J., Vom Regiment
der löblichen Eidgenossenschaft, Zurich, 1576.—Steiger, R. de,
Coup d’œil général sur l’histoire militaire des Suisses, Lausanne,
1869.—Steinauer, Geschichte des Freistaates Schwyz, Einsiedeln,
1861.—Stettler, M., Annales oder Beschreibung der vornehmeten
Geschichten, Bern, 1626, 2 vols.—Studer, H., Till-Eulenspiegel im
Lande des Tell, Zurich, 1900.—Strickler, J., Lehrbuch der
Schweizergeschichte, Zurich, 1874; Aktensammlung der
helvetischen Republik, Frauenfeld, 1899; Die Quellen zur
Reformationsgeschichte, 1884.—Stumpf, J., Swiss Chronicle,
Zurich, 1547.

Tageblatt der Gesetze und Dekrete der gesetzgebenden Rathe

der Helvetischen Republik, Bern, 1800, 6 vols.—Tillier, J. A. von,
Geschichte der Eidgenossen während der Zeit des sogeheissenen
Fortschrifts, Bern, 1853-1855, 3 vols.; Geschichte der
Eidgenossenschaft während der sogenannten Restaurationsepoche,
Zurich, 1848-1850, 3 vols.; Geschichte der Eidgenossen während
der Herrschaft der Vermittlungsakte, Zurich, 1845-1846, 2 vols.;
Geschichte des Freistaates Bern, Bern, 1838-1839, 5 vols.;
Geschichte der helvetischen Republik, Bern, 1843, 3 vols.—
Tschudi, A., Chronicon Helveticum, Basel, 1734-1736, 2 vols.
The most complete of the early Swiss chronicles and the basis of
Müller’s history.

Vaucher, P., Esquisses d’histoire Suisse, Lausanne, 1882.—

Vieusseux, A., History of Switzerland, London, 1846.—Vincent, J.
M., State and Federal Government of Switzerland, Baltimore, 1891.
—Vischer, W., Geschichte det Schwäbischen Städtebünde,
Göttingen, 1861.—Vita S. Galli, Translated by A. Potthast in Die
Geschichtschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit, Vol. 1, Berlin, 1857.—
Vögeli, Vaterländische Geschichte, Zurich, 1872.—Vogelin, A. and
Escher, Geschichte der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft,
Zurich, 1854, 4 vols.—Vulliemin, L., Histoire de la Confédération
suisse, Lausanne, 1875-1876, 2 vols.
Louis Vulliemin was the founder of the Société d’histoire de la
Suisse romande, together with Felix Chavannes the poet and F. de
Gingins the historian. Imaginative, ardent, patriotic, variously gifted,
Vulliemin devoted all his talent to his country’s use, and merits the
eternal gratitude of Switzerland.

Wattenwyl, Geschichte der Stadtund Landschaft Bern,

Schaffhausen, 1867-1872, 2 vols.—Weidmann, Father, Geschichte
der Landschaft St. Gallen, St. Gall, 1834.—Wild, K., Auszüge aus
handschriftlichen chroniken und aus den Rathsprotokollen der Stadt
und Republik St. Gallen, St. Gall, 1847.—Wilson, J., History of
Switzerland, London, 1832.—Wintherthur, Morf de, Dittes
Pædagogium, Heft, 1878.—Wirth, Statistik der Schweiz, Zurich,
1871-75, 3 vols.—Wittekind, (monk of Corvey), Chronique.—Wyss,
G. von, Geschichte der Historiographie in der Schweiz, Zurich, 1895.
—Indicateur d’histoire de Soleure, Solothurn, 1866.
J. G. von Wyss, Swiss historian, born at Zurich March 31st, 1816,
is the son of the burgomaster David von Wyss. He was appointed
president of the Société d’histoire suisse in 1854, and is universally
recognised as among the most learned of the historians of the
century.

Zellweger, J. K., Geschichte des Appenzellischen Volkes, Trogen,

1830; Chronologische Uebersicht der Schweizergeschichte, Zurich,
1887; Geschichte der diplomatischen verhältnisse der Schweiz mit
Frankreich, Bern, 1848.—Zschokke, J. H., Histoire de la lutte des
cantons démocratiques, Geneva and Paris 1823; History of the
Invasion of Switzerland by the French, translated by J. Aiken,
London, 1803.
 A CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF THE
HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND
Before the Roman Conquest

Before 3000 b.c. (Stone Age.) The lake-dwellers, the earliest

people of which traces remain in what is now
Switzerland, live in primitive huts built on piles in the
shallow waters of various lakes. They do not know the
use of metal; use stone axe-heads, fixed in stag’s horn
and wood hafts, flint arrow-heads, etc.
3000-1000 b.c. (Bronze Age.) The lakemen learn to
manipulate metal; advance in skill and mental culture;
make artistically shaped bronze spear-heads, swords,
etc.
1000-100 b.c. (Iron Age.) The lakemen substitute iron for
bronze and achieve greater beauty and perfection of
workmanship. Their weapons and implements become
gradually identical with those of historic times. In their
later days they come into contact with Gauls and
Romans.
107 b.c. The Helvetians, one of the chief of the tribes then
inhabiting Switzerland, led by the clan of the Tigurini and
under command of their chief Diviko, joined the Cimbri
and Teutones in a raid into southern Gaul. The allies
defeat the Romans, under the consul Lucius Cassius, at
Agen, and overrun Gaul.
102 b.c. The barbarians are defeated by the Romans under
the consul Marius near Aquæ Sextiæ and one clan of
the Helvetians, that of the Toygeni, is annihilated.
101 b.c. Another division of the invading barbarians is cut to
pieces by the forces of Marius and his colleague
 Catullus, near Vercelli. The Helvetian clan of the Tigurini
alone escapes.
60 b.c. The Helvetians prepare for a second migration into
Gaul. A powerful chief, Orgetorix, promises to secure
free passage through the lands of the Allobroges and
Ædui. He is accused of treason and dies, by suicide or
murder.
58 b.c. The Helvetians, accompanied by the Boii and
neighboring tribes, begin the march. Julius Cæsar
checks the Helvetians at the Rhone, and destroys the
Tigurini at the Arar (Saône). At Bibracte Cæsar defeats
the Helvetians. Their remnants return home.

Under Roman Dominion

57 b.c. Cæsar’s lieutenant, Sergius Galba, subdues the

Helvetian Veragri and Seduni. Helvetia is made a
Roman province.
52 b.c. The Helvetians take part in the revolt of
Vercingetorix.
43 b.c. Romans settle at Noviodunum (Nyon) and in various
other parts of Helvetia.
27 b.c. Helvetia is made part of Belgica, one of the
provinces of Gaul, and comes more directly under
Roman control.
15 b.c. Rhætia (the Grisons) is subjugated by armies under
Drusus and Tiberius Nero and made a Roman province.
a.d. 69 Aulus Cæcina lays waste Helvetia and massacres
large numbers of the inhabitants. Claudius Corius, a
Helvetian deputy, by his eloquence saves the people
from complete destruction. Aventicum (Avenches)
becomes a Roman city of importance. Roman
civilisation makes much progress in Helvetia, especially
 in the western portion. Under the Romans military roads
and fortresses are built.

From the German Invasions through the Carlovingians

260 Hordes of Alamanni devastate Switzerland. They

partially destroy Aventicum.
300 Christianity makes some converts in Switzerland.
305 Alamanni again overrun Switzerland.
406 The Alamanni conquer eastern Switzerland.
409 The Burgundians march toward the Rhine and approach
Switzerland.
443 The Burgundians settle in western Switzerland,
receiving “Sabaudia” (Savoy) from the Romans.
496 The Franks subjugate the Alamanni, acquiring eastern
Switzerland.
493 The Goths conquer Rhætia.
500 King Gondebaud rules in Burgundy. His laws become
part of Swiss institutions.
524 The Franks, under Clodomir, capture Geneva.
534 The Franks subjugate the Burgundians, bringing
western Switzerland into their power.
536 Rhætia is given up to the Franks by the Goths.
570 The Langobardi invade southern Switzerland.
574 The Frankish king Gontran checks the incursions of the
Langobardi.
610 The Culdee monks, led by Columbanus and Gallus,
spread Christianity in Switzerland.
687 The Carlovingians begin their rule over the Franks. They
foster religious establishments in Switzerland.
768 Charlemagne ascends the Frankish throne. He gives an
impetus to religion, education, and industry in
Switzerland; founds schools and churches and
increases their wealth.
774 The Franks gain possession of the Italian valleys of
Switzerland till then held by the Langobardi.
843 By the Treaty of Verdum western or Burgundian
Switzerland falls to Lothair, eastern or German
Switzerland (Alamannia) with Rhætia to Ludwig the
German. Feudalism is becoming well established in
Switzerland. The church owns large estates and the
bishops are powerful. Arts and sciences progress in the
monasteries of St. Gall, Reichenau, and Pfäffers.
853 Ludwig the German founds the Fraumünster at Zurich.

Time of Burgundian and Alamannian Rulers

888 Rudolf I is crowned king of Upper Burgundy and begins

to rule over western Switzerland.
917 Count Burkhard of Rhætia is made duke of Alamannia
(Swabia). He rules over eastern Switzerland.
919 Burkhard I, duke of Alamannia, defeats Rudolf II of
Upper Burgundy at Winterthur.
920 Alamannia is formally incorporated with Germany.
Eastern Switzerland thus becomes a part of Germany.
922 Rudolf II of Upper Burgundy marries Burkhard’s
daughter Bertha who brings to Burgundy the upper
Aargau.
930 Rudolf II acquires Arelat (Cisjurane Burgundy) as the
result of a raid into Italy with Hugo of Provence. Thus
the kingdom of Burgundy is reunited and Switzerland,
as an important part of this kingdom, attains
prominence.
 937 Rudolf II of Burgundy dies. Good Queen Bertha, his
widow, rules beneficently as regent for her son Conrad.
940 Conrad is placed under the guardianship of Otto I of
Germany. Beginning of German influence in western
Switzerland.
950 Conrad defeats the Hungarians that invade Switzerland.
962 Queen Bertha founds a religious house at Payerne.
(Traditional.)
990 Ekkehard II of St. Gall, the most famous man of learning
of his time, dies.
992 The serfs rise against the nobles of Aargau and
Thurgau.
993 Rudolf III of Burgundy. Switzerland is turned over more
and more to the clergy and the great nobles.
1016 Rudolf III abdicates in favor of Henry II of Germany.
Henry is opposed by the nobles of Burgundy in several
battles in Switzerland.
1022 The distinguished scholar Notker III of St. Gall dies.

From the Union of Switzerland under the German

Emperors to the Founding of the Swiss Confederation

1032 Conrad II of Germany defeats the Burgundians at

Morat and Neuchâtel.
1033 He is crowned king of Burgundy and thus adds western
Switzerland to Germany.
1038 Burgundy, Alamannia, and Rhætia fall to Henry III. All
Switzerland is hereby reunited as part of Germany. St.
Gall is a leader in learning. The abbeys of Zurich,
Rheinau, and Einsiedeln and the bishoprics of Coire,
Constance, and Bâle attain great eminence.