1

Engineering Wallah Civil Engineering

Short Notes
Subject : Highway Engineering
Chapter 01: Introduction & Historical Macadam:
Developement Construction: Macadam was first person who suggested
that heavy foundation stone are not require at bottom.
Roman Road: • Thickness= 25 cm
• 0.75 m-1.2 m
• No Cross Slope • Slope = 1 in 36

Tresaguet:
• Total thickness of road = 30 cm
• Cross slope of top layer = 1 in 45
• Side drain Slope =1 in 20 • M.R. Jayakar – Chairman of Jayakar Committee
–1927
• Central Road Fund – 1929
• IRC (Indian Road Congress) – 1934
• Motor Vehicle Act → 1939
• Central Road Research Institute → 1950
Telford: • National Highway Act → 1956
• Total thickness of road = 41 cm
• Cross slope of top layer =1 in 45
• Large foundation stone of size 17 cm-22 cm were used.
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Milestones Expressway → 120 100

NH / SH → 100 80
MDR → 80 65
ODR → 65 50
VR → 50 40
• Longitudinal Coefficient of friction = 0.35 – 0.40
• Lateral Coefficient of friction = 0.15
• Skidding longitudinal movement > Circumferential
Movement
Slipping Circumferential Movement > Longitudinal
• Urban Classification of Road (Plain Design Speed)
• BI (Bump Integrator) used to measure unevenness.
1. Urban Expressway 80 kmph
2. Arterial Road 60 kmph
Uneveneu Index
3. Subartial Road 60 kmph Type of Road
(mm/km)
4. Collector Road 40 kmph
< 1500 Good
5. Local Street 30 kmph
1500-2000 Satisfactory
2500-3500 Bad
• Min width of urban road without kerb shall be 5.5 m
> 3500 Poor/Uncomfortable
including allowance for stalled veh. & pedestrian
• BI (mm/km) = 630 (IRI) 1.12
(m/km)
movement.
• Fourth 20-year road plan also known as vision 2021
(2001-2021)
• NHDP (National Highway Development Programme)
• (Phase I to Phase VII)
• Phase I
Golden Quadriateral (5846 km) → Delhi, Chennai,
Kolkata, Mumbai
• Phase II
North-South Corridor → Srinagar, Kanyakumari Kerb
East-West Corridor → Silchar, Porbandar i. Low Kerb (H = 100 mm)
Engineering Survey for Highway Alignment ii. Semi Barrier (H = 150 mm)
1. Map Study → Provided where pedestrian traffic is high.
2. Reconnaissance iii. Barrier (H = 200 mm)
3. Preliminary → Provided in Built up area where considerable
4. Detailed & Location Survey pedestrian traffic.
iv. Submerged
Chapter 02: Geometric Design fo Highways
→ Provided in rural roads b/w pavements edge and
shoulder to provided lateral stability.
Terrain Cross Slope
Width of Carriageway
Plain 0 − 10%
i. Single Lane (3.75 m)
Rolling 10% − 25%
ii. Two Lane
Mountaneous 25% − 60%
→ 7 m (without kerb)
Steep  60%
→ 7.5 m (with kerb)
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iii. Intermediate →5.5 m ηB = Braking Efficiency

iv. Multi Lane →3.5 m/Lane • SSD (Single Lane One Way) = SSD
Median/Separator • SSD (Single Lane Two Way) = 2SSD
i. Rural 80
Speed 20-30 40 50 60
→ 5m above
→ 3 m (Land Restricted f 0.4 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.35
ii. On Long Bridges should not less than 1.2 m
Speed 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100
iii. Urban Area
SSD 20 25 30 40 60 80 90 120 180
→ 5 m (Desirable)
→ 1.2 m
• Sight distance at intersection
Shoulder
• Min width recommended – 2.5 m

OSD
• OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
d1 = Followed Distance
d2 = Actual Overtake
d3 = Opposite Lane Veh. distance
• Width of Roadway = Carriageway + Median Bottom Width of Cutting
or Formation Width + Shoulder Excluding Side Drains d1 = νtr or 0.278 Vtr (tr = 2 sec)
Roadland/Right of Way/Land Width d2 = b + 2S
• Width of land aquired along centre line of road. S = 0.7 νB + 6 (ν = m/sec) b = νBT or 0.278 VBT
• Expressway – 90 m
NH & SH – 45 m (Open) & 30 m (Built up) S = 0.2 VB + 6 (V = kmph) T = Overtaking Time
• Urban Expressway – 45-75 m 45
• Arterial – 45-66 m T= a = m/sec2
a
(IRC 86:2018)
Sight Distance
SSD
• SSD = Lag Distance + Braking

SSD = tr + 
2
•  in m/s
2 gf
• One way – OSD = d1 + d2
V2 •
• SSD = 0.278Vtr + (V in kmph) Min length of overtaking zone = 3 OSD
254 f
• Desirable length of overtaking zone = 5 OSD
tr = Reaction time (2.5 seconds) • VB = Speed of slow moving veh. (kmph)
→ PIEV Theory VB = (V – 16) kmph or νB = (ν – 4.5) m/sec
→ Perception Intellection Emotion Volition • d3 = νCT or 0.278 VCT
 2 OSD = νBt + (νBT + 2S) + νCT
• SSD = tr +
2 g ( B f  n % ) • ISD (Intermediate Sight Distance)
η% (gradient) → +ve (ascending), –ve (descending) = 2 SSD
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emax
Plain & Rolling and Snow bound area 7%
Mountaneous & Steep; Not bounded snow 10%
H h
Urban/Built up area 4%
SSD 1.2 m 0.15 m
OSD 1.2 m 1.2 m • As per IRC for mixed traffic condition ‘e’ is design for
HSD 1.2 m 1.2 m 75% of design speed.

V2
edesign =
• HSD = SSD (During Night) 225R
• SSD < ISD < OSD V = Speed in kmph
R = Radius
Chapter 03: Horizontal Alignment Speed Restriction V = (e + f )127 R

V2
m 2 • eequilibrium =
• Centrefugal Force P = 127 R
R
R = Radius of Curve ‘e’ at which pressure on both inner and outer wheel is
ν = Speed of Vehicle equal.

P 2 V2
• Centrefugal Ratio = • RBNS =
w gR 225e
• For safety: Radius beyond which no ‘e’ is required (e = Camber)
P • e f
i.  f → No transverse skidding
w
Vehicle can be stopped on curve without sliding.
P b
ii.  → No overtaking E
w 2n • e=
B
b = Width of vehicle, h = C.G from base
Rotating of pavement about inner edge.
• Super elevation/Cant/Banking (e)
E
e = tan  =
B

E
• e=
B/2
Rotating of pavement about centre line
E = height of Raised Portion
B = width of road
General Formula

2 V2
e+ f = or e + f = Note:
gR 127 R
If transition curve cannot be provided 2/3 of
ν = m/sec V = kmph superelevation may be attained at straight before start
of circular curve & Remaining 1/3 at beginning of
curve.
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nl 2 V Curve Resistance = T − Tcos 

• We = +
2 R 9.5 R T = Tractive Force  = Turning Angle

We = Wm + W psy • Vertical curves are provided when change in gradient.

Terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional
V = Speed (kmph)
Plain or
R = Radius (m) 3.3% 5% 6.7%
Rolling
We = Extra Widening (m)
Mountaneous
n = no. of Lanes
& Steep (RL 5% 6% 7%
l = length of wheel base (m)
> 3000 m)
l2 Steep (RL
= Off tracking 6% 7% 8%
2R upto 3000 m)
Wm = Mechanical widening
Wpsy = Psychological widening 30 + R 75
• Grade Compensation (GC) = or
R > 300 m No extra widening R R
R > 50 m 'We ' provided inner side of Road • Compensated Gradient = Ruling Gradient – Grade
Compensation
• Transition curve are provided b/w straight & circular
• According to IRC grade compensation is not necessary
curve.
for gradient flatter than 4%.
• Radius of Transition curve ‘∞’ to ‘R’.
Summit Curve
• Length of Curve
LS > SSD LS < SSD
NS 2 4.4
LS = LS = 25 −
4.4 N
• LS > OSD LS < OSD
NS 2 9.6
LS = LS = 2S −
9.6 N
Type of Transition Curve
• Circular Curve – Ideal Summit
1. Spiral/Clothoid (ideal transistion curve)
L
2. Lemniscate • Rmin =
N
3. Cubic Parabola
• Position of highest point from VPC
n1LS
x=
N

S2 M N = deviation
R= + ( S = SSD)
8M 2 Vertical line passing through VPI will always bisect
S2
M= summit curve.
8R
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Valley Curve • 98th percentile speed – Used for design of NH

• Comfort Condition • 85th percentile speed – Upper/Safe speed limit
1
 N 3  2 • 15th percentile speed – Lower Speed Limit
LVC = 2 
 C 
(v = m/sec)
 
LVC = 0.38 (NV3)½ (V= kmph)
2
NS
• LVC = LVC > HSD
1.5 + 0.035S
1.5 + 0.035S
LVC = 2S − ; LVC < HSD
N
• Cubic Parabola is preferred
L
• Min radius R =
2N
• Lowest Point on Valley curve
1
 n  2
x = L 1 
 2N 
N = Deviation

• Traffic Capacity: Maximum Hourly Volume

Chapter 04: Traffic Engineering
• Basic Capacity: Max passenger can that can pass a
given point on a roadway under most ideal condition.
2
• Braking Test (f) → f = • Possible Capacity: Max Passenger can that pass a
2 gL
given point on road under prevailing condition (vary
ν = Speed of vehicle. zero to basic capacity)
S = Length of skid mark • Practical Capacity: Max passenger can pass during
 one hour without jam, restriction to driver (Design
• If ‘ν’ and ‘t’ known f =
gt capacity)
t = time to stop vehicle • q = k V
2s k = Traffic density (veh/km)
• If ‘s’ and ‘t’ known f = 2
gt  1000 
q=  V
f act  S 
Bearing =  100
f max S = Space Headway = 0.2V + 6 (V = kmph)
 k 
• Greenshield Model V = V f 1 − 
 k j 

Vf k j
qmax =
4
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• Origin and Destination study: to plan road network

• The width of desire line is proportional to no. of trips
of both directions.
• Methods: Road Side Interview, Liscene Plate Method, Traffic Signs
Return Post Card, Tag on Car, Home Interview, Work Regularity/Mandatory:
Spot Interview. • Prohibitory, Speed Limit, Restriction end, Stop
• Parallel Parking: Least vehicle parked per unit length
(Octagon), Giveway
• Angle Parking: 30°, 45°, 60° and 90°
• Max. vehicle parked at 90°, out of various angle 45°
angle parking is considered best all parameter.

Warning
• Cross Road, Narrow Bridge

Informatory
• Parking, Flood Gauge, Facility Information

Traffic Signals
• Simultaneous→ All signal show same indication
• Alternate→ Alternate signal show same indication
• Simple Progressive: Time schedule for continuous Pavement Marking
operation of veh. (Fixed Type Signal) • Longitudinal: Width = 100 m
• Flexible Progressive (Most Efficient): It is possible • Center Line:
to vary length of cycle & time at each intersection. Rural Road: Length = 3m, Gap = 6 m
1.5L + 5 Urban Road: Width = 150 mm
Cycle Length (Webster) =
1− y Length = 3 m & Gap = 4.5 m
L = total lost time  2n + R (n = no. of phase) • Traffic Lanes:
y = Sum of all critical flow ratio Urban = Length = 1.5 m, gap = 3 m
y = y1 + y2 + …. yn Rural  Length = 3 m, gap = 6 m
q • Solid Line: Lane Change is restricted.
y=
s
• Double Solid Yellow line → No Overtaking/Passing
q = Normal Flow Zone
s = Saturation Flow kj
• Green berg Model U = U f ln
Effective Green Time (gi) = G + A – tSL – tCL K
G = Green Time −K /k j
Underwood Model U = U f e
A = Amber Time PCU Values
tSL; tCL = Startup & Clearance Lost Time
Table 1:
• Walking Speed of pedestrian = 1.2 m/sec (IRC)
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Recommended PCU factors for various Types of • Ka = Constant (a = Radius of plate)

Vehicles on Urban Roads.

CBR Test:
Equivalent PCU Factors
• Empirical Method (4 days soaked)
Vehicles Type Percentage composition of Vehicle
• Standard piston dia = 50 mm, Penetration
type in traffic stream
= 1.25 mm/min
5% 10% and above Load applied to soil specimen
Fast Vehicles @ 2.5 mm & 5 mm penetration
• CBR 2.5/5.0 =
1. Two wheelers Standard load on aggregate
motor cycle or 0.5 0.75 @ 2.5 mm & 5.0 penetration
scooter etc.
2. Passenger car, Standard
1.0 1.0 Pressure
Penetration Load
pick-up van kg/cm2
Aggregate
3. Auto-rickshaw 1.2 2.0 2.5 mm 1370 kg 70
4. Light 5.0 mm 2055 kg 105
commercial 1.4 2.0
• Initial concavity in load vs penetration curve may be
vehicle due to: Top soil is to soft, Top surface is uneven,
5. Truck or Bus 2.2 3.7 penetration plunges is not vertical.
6. Agricultural Crushing Test:
4.0 5.0 •Resistance against gradual load (strength)
Tractor Trailor • Load 40 tonne is applied at rate 4 tonne/min.
• Aggregate pass through 2.36 mm sieve.
Table 2: • Base course ACV < 40%; surface course ACV < 30%
Aggregate passing 2.36 mm sieve
Recommended PCU Factor for various types of • ACV =  100
Total weight of aggregate
vehicles on Rural Roads
• Impact Test: Toughness- Resistance against sudden
S.No. Vehicle Type Equivalency load.
Factor • 14 kg Hammer, 38 cm free fall, 15 no. of Blows
Fast Vehicles • Sample passed through 2.36 mm sieve.
• Aggregate impact value (AIV)  30% surface, AIV
1. Motor Cycle or Scooter 0.50
 35% Base Course.
2. Passenger Car, Pick-up Van or
1.00 Abrasion Test:
Auto-rickshaw • Hardness Property: Resistance against wear and tear.
3. Agricultural Tractor, Light • Dovel, Dorry, Los Angeles Abrasion Test
1.50 • Abrasion Machine: Dia = 700 mm, Length = 500 mm,
Commercial Vehicle
Rotation = 30.33 rpm.
4. Truck or Bus 3.00 • Aggregate passing through 1.7 mm sieve.
5. Truck-trailer, Agricultural
4.50 • AAV  30% surface course; AAV  50% Base
Tractor-trailer Course.
Loss in weight
Chapter 04: Highway Materials • Coefficient of hardness = 20 −
3
• Plate load test: To calculate bearing capacity of soil. Soundness Test:
• Plate size: 750, 600, 450, 300 mm (Standard 750 mm) • To check durability & resistance against weathering
P action.
• Modulus of subgrade reaction (K) K =
 • Sample is immersed in sodium sulphate or magnesium
Δ = 0.125 cm sulphate.
P = Pressure
• Load applied until settlement 1.75 mm
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• As per IRC Loss in weight after 5 wet-dry cycle should

not exceed 12% & 18% when tested with sodium
sulphate & magnesium sulphate respectively.

Shape Test: Flaky Aggregate

• Least Lateral dimension < 0.6 Mean dimension
• Thickness Gauge is used.

Elongated Aggregated:
Aggregate whose greatest dimention > 1.8 mean
dimension greatest dimension.
• Length gauge is used.
• Both test not applicable for size smaller than 6.3 mm
• Combine Index = FI + EI of Non Flaky Aggregates
• Angularity or Roundness of aggregate is measured by
‘AN’
Angularity Number = 67% – % of solid or Voids in
excess 33%
AN = 0 to 11
1
AN 
Roundness
AN = 67 − 100W / CG
W = Weight of aggregate in cylinder
C = Weight of water filling cylinder
G = Specific Gravity of aggregate
• Specific Gravity Vary 2.6 to 2.9
• Bitumen adhesion/Stripping Value test to find
adhesion of bitumen to aggregate in pressure of water
(IRC stripping value  5%)

• Marshall Stability Test in use to find optimum

bitumen.
• Thickness of specimen = 63.5 mm, dia = 101.6 mm
• Marshall stability (Max. Load in kg): Max load carry
by specimen at 60°C.
• Marshall flow value (deformation 0.25 mm)
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RF = 1 CP = TP = 7 kg/cm 2
RF < 1 TP > CP; TP > 7 kg/cm 2
RF > 1 TP < CP; TP < 7 kg/cm 2
4
 Axle Load 
• EALF (Equivalent Axle Load Factor) =  
 Std. Axle 
Standard axle = 80 kN
Single axle with dual wheel.
• Lane (Lateral distribution factor)
→ Single Lane = 1
→ Intermediate Lane = 0.75
→ Two Lane (Two way) = 0.5
Wtotal → Four Lane (Single Carriageway) = 0.4
Gm =
VCA + VFA + VFiner + VB + VAir
Design Method
Total weight
Gt = • Empirical Methods: CBR, GI, MC-Lead, Stabilimeter
Volume (Except air)
• Semi-Empirical: Triaxial
• Theoretical: Burmist
Chapter 05: Pavement Design
365 A[(1 + r )n − 1]  VDF  LDF
N=
r  106
N = MSA (Million Standard Axle)
r = Growth Rate, n = design life
VDF = Vehicle Damage Factor
LDF = Lane Distribution Factor
• IRC 37:2018 describe CBR method to Design and
Analysis of flexible Pavement
• Failure Criteria: Fatigue Criteria, Rutting Criteria
Fatigue – If tensile strain at top near to surface or edge
• IRC 37:2018 of wheel & bottom bitumen layer is beyond
• Load transfer grain to grain permissible limit. (Crocodile Cracking)
• Major failure: Rutting & Cracking Rutting Criteria
• Sub base (GSB) – Help in effective drainage Avg Rut depth of 20 mm or more is considered as
• Base Course – Most imp. Component to sustain wheel critical failure if vertical compressive strain at top of
load & distribute is
subgrade is more than permissible limit.
• Binder Course – Provided only on High volume roads.
• Surface Course – Impermeable, Better skid resistance Rigid Pavement
best quality material.

• Contact Pressure = Wheel Load/Contact Area

Contact Pressure
• Rigidity Factor = ;
Type Pressure

• CC layer at top with highest flexural strength.

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• Load transit through slab action 2) Frictional Stresses (Seasonal Variation in

• Bottom deformation not show at top Temperature)
• IRC 58 : 2015
• Joints are present
• Major Failure settlement, Pumping
Design Parameters

P( Kg / cm2 )
K=
0.125 cm
Modulus of subgrade reaction Critical Combination of Stress
1. Summer Mid Day: Total Stress = Load Stress +
• Radius of resisting section (b)
Warping Stress – Frictional Stress
a
b(cm) = 1.6a 2 + h 2 − 0.675h  1.724 2. Winter Mid Day: Total Stress = Load Stress +
h
= a otherwise Warping Stress + Frictional Stress
3. Summer Night (Corner): Total Stress = Load Stress
• Radius of Relative Stiffness
+ Warping Stress
1 h = Thickness
 Eh3  4 Joints In Rigid Pavement
l= 2 
 = Poisson Ratio
12 K (1 −  ) 
E = Modulus of Elasticity CC

Stress
Wheel Load Stress

• As per IRC width of expansion joint  2.5 cm

Temperature Stress • Spacing L  140 m

1) Warping Stress: Daily temperature variation 
• = L  T
Day Time 2
L = Spacing of Expansion Joint
Top: Compression
ΔT = Temperature Difference
Bottom: Tension
Dowel Bar - Min Dia = 25 mm; 200 mm;
Max Dia = 38 mm; 350 mm;
Spacing = 300 mm
• Dowel Bar Transfer Load from one slab to another
Night • Contraction Joints are provided to control cracking of
Top: Tension slab (Slab is weakend at certain interval)
Bottom: Compression • Max. Contraction joint spacing 4.5 m (Unreinforced
Slab)
Construction Joints:
Provided along transverse direction when concreting
cannot done in single stretch.
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These are provided where S.F. and B.M. is small & 6. Upheaval: Localised Upward Movement or Formation
stress are minimum. of Upward Bulge.
Longitudinal Joint: Disintegration: (Breaking of Pavement)
If width of slab more than 3 to 5 m these are provided. 1. Stripping: Separation of bitumen adhering to surface
Length of the bar = 2 Ld + Spacing of aggregate in prescence of moisture.
Diameter of tie bar  Min = 8 mm 2. Ravelling: Progressive distintegration of surface due
Max = 16 mm to bitumen binder fail to bind.
Pavement Evaluation: 3. Edge Breaking/Frayed Surface: Broken Edge if not
• Present Serviceabiltiy Index (PSI) Is use to evaluate repaired on time surface may peel off.
pavement strengthening of pavement can be done by 4. Pot Holes: Bowl shaped holes dive to lack of bond
overlay. B/W bitumen & below layer.
• Flexible overlay over flexible can be done by “Benkle Failure In Rigid Pavement
men Beam Deflection” method. 1. Scaling: Cement mortar detached from CC pavement.
2. Ravelling: Loss of fine aggregate & Hardned cement
Chapter 06: Highway Maintenance paste from surface.
3. Spalling: Pre formed filler material place at joint,
Flexible Pavement
Placement may dislocated faulty alignment of filler
A. Surface Defect
cause more crack.
1. Fatty Surface: Binder Collected on top
4. Mud Pumping: When soil slurry eject out through
2. Smooth Surface: Cause Slippery
3. Streaking: Alternate Dark & Lean Lines joints or cracks of CC pavement during heavy wheel
4. Hungry Surface: Loss of Aggregate on Surface. load downward movement.
B. Cracks Prime Coat:
1. Hair Line Cracks: Short & Fine Cracks • Application of low viscous bitumen over existing
2. Alligator Crack: Inter Connected Crack Forming pavement surface like WBM base course.
Blocks • Main objective to plug capillary voids.
3. Edge Crack: 0.3 m-0.5 m from edge, Parallel to
Tack Coat:
vehicle movement.
• Application of bituminous materials over an existing
4. Longitudinal Crack: Along the road, Either at joint
b/w pavement & shoulder or b/w lanes. pavement surface which is relatively impervious like
5. Reflection Crack: Cracks in pavement below, Crack existing bitumen surface.
over joints. Seal Coat:
Deformations (Change in Shape) • Recommended as top coat over certain bituminous
1. Slippage: Formation of Crescent Shaped Crack pavement which are not impervious.
2. Rutting: Longitudinal Depression Due to Wheels to • Seal surface against water.
Heavy Vehicle
3. Corrugations: Formation of Regular Undulation Note:
4. Shoving: Bulging of Pavement Surface of Crescent • Wet Mix Macadan (WMM): Stone aggregate &
Shape binding material are premixed in batching plant. In this
5. Shallow Depression: Localised Low Area of Limited case water is premixed.
Size. Stone size 4.75mm-20 mm
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• Water Bound Macadam: Water is not premixed. It is • Mastic Asphalt: Mixture of bitumen, Filler and fine
sprinkled on dry mix. aggregate in suitable proportion design to yield void
Stone size (45 mm-90 mm) less compact mass.
• Penetration Macadam: Used as base/Binder course
• During pavement construction compaction of
CA first spread and compacted in dry state then hot
pavement layers.
bitumen binder of relatively high viscosity is sprayed
Done from edge and proceeding toward center. in large quantity at top.

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