(eBook PDF) Human Geography Places

and Regions in Global Context Updated

5th Canadian Edition
Go to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-human-geography-places-and-regions-in-
global-context-updated-5th-canadian-edition/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

(eBook PDF) Human Geography: Places and Regions in

Global Context, Fifth 5th Canadian Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-human-geography-places-
and-regions-in-global-context-fifth-5th-canadian-edition/

(eBook PDF) Human Geography: Places and Regions in

Global Context 7th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-human-geography-places-
and-regions-in-global-context-7th-edition/

(eBook PDF) World Regions in Global Context: Peoples,

Places, and Environments 6th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-world-regions-in-global-
context-peoples-places-and-environments-6th-edition/

World Regions in Global Context: Peoples, Places, and

Environments 6th Edition by Sallie A. Marston (eBook
PDF)

http://ebooksecure.com/product/world-regions-in-global-context-
peoples-places-and-environments-6th-edition-by-sallie-a-marston-
ebook-pdf/
(eBook PDF) The World Today: Concepts and Regions in
Geography, 7th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-the-world-today-
concepts-and-regions-in-geography-7th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts

18th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-geography-realms-
regions-and-concepts-18th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Geography: Realms, Regions, and Concepts,

16th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-geography-realms-
regions-and-concepts-16th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Geosystems An Introduction to Physical

Geography, Updated Fourth Canadian Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-geosystems-an-
introduction-to-physical-geography-updated-fourth-canadian-
edition/

(eBook PDF) Introduction to Geography: People, Places &

Environment 6th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-introduction-to-
geography-people-places-environment-6th-edition/
Brief Contents

1 Geography Matters 2

2 The Changing Global Context 36

3 Population Geography 72

4 People and Nature 112

5 Cultural Geographies 158

6 Interpreting Places and

Landscapes 200

7 G
 eographies of Economic
Development 232

8 Food and Agriculture 276

9 Political Geographies 316

10 Urbanization 362

11 City Spaces: Urban Structure 394

v
xii   Contents

8.1  Window on the World The Green Revolution and Its

Contemporary Challenges 287
Biotechnology and Agriculture 290

8.2  Geography Matters The Blue Revolution and Global

Shrimp 291

Global Change in Food Production and Consumption 295

Forces of Globalization 295
8.3 Geography Matters The Canadian Farm 296
The Organization of the Agro-Food System 300 ■ Food Regimes
and Alternative Food Movements 300
8.4  Visualizing Geography The Growth of Urban
Agriculture 304
Fast Food 306

The Environment and Agricultural Industrialization 308

The Impact of the Environment on Agriculture 308 ■ The Impact of
Agriculture on the Environment 309

Emerging Problems and Opportunities in the Global Food

System 310
Food and Health 310 ■ Genetically Modified Organisms 311

Future Geographies 313 ■ Conclusion 314 ■ Learning Outcomes

Revisited 314 ■ Key Terms 315 ■ Review and Discussion 315

Chapter 9 
Political
Geographies 316

The Development of Political Geography 318

The Geopolitical Model of the State 318 ■ Boundaries and
Frontiers 318

Geopolitics and the World Order 322

States and Nations 322 ■ Russia’s State and National
Transformation 324 ■ Theories and Practices of States 326
9.1 Window on the World The Arab Spring 327
Imperialism and Colonialism 331 ■ Heartland Theory 337 ■ The
East/West Divide and the Domino Theory 340 ■ The New World
Order and Terrorism 341
9.2  Geography Matters From the Cold War to the War on Terror
and the Drone War 342

International and Supranational Organizations and New

Regimes of Global Governance 346
Transnational Political Integration 346 ■ Globalization, Transnational
Governance, and the State 347
 Contents    xiii

The Two-Way Street of Politics and Geography 349

9.3  Visualizing Geography The Palestinian–Israeli

Conflict 350
The Politics of Geography 354 ■ The Geography of Politics and
Geographical Systems of Representation 357
Future Geographies 359 ■ Conclusion 359 ■ Learning Outcomes
Revisited 359 ■ Key Terms 360 ■ Review and Discussion 361

Chapter 10 Urbanization 362

Urban Geography and Urbanization 364

Urbanization and Changing Human Geographies 364 ■ Studying
Urbanization 365
10.1 Geography Matters Cities and Civilization 366

Urban Origins 368

The Roots of European Urban Expansion 369 ■ Industrialization and
Urbanization 375 ■ Imperialism and Peripheral Urbanization 378

Urban Systems 379

City-Size Distributions, Primacy, and Centrality 380 ■ World Cities
and the Global Urban System 382
10.2 Visualizing Geography The World City Network 383

World Urbanization Today 384

The Periphery and Semiperiphery: Overurbanization and
Megacities 385 ■ The Core: Mature Metropolises 386
10.3  Window on the World The Pearl River Delta: An Extended
Metropolis 388
Future Geographies 390 ■ Conclusion 392 ■ Learning Outcomes
Revisited 392 ■ Key Terms 393 ■ Review and Discussion 393

Chapter 11 
City Spaces: Urban
Structure 394

Urban Land Use and Spatial Organization 396

Accessibility and Land Use 396 ■ Territoriality, Congregation, and
Segregation 396

Spatial Patterns and Processes in North American Cities 397

11.1  Visualizing Geography Racial Segregation in the
U.S. 398
Immigration and Neighbourhood Change 399 ■ Industry, Class, and
Spatial Organization 400
xiv   Contents

11.2  Geography Matters Smart Growth versus Sprawl in the

U.S. 402
Canadian Cities 403 ■ Problems of North American Cities 404

European Cities 406

Features of European Cities 406 ■ Urban Design and Planning 408

Islamic Cities 410

11.3  Window on the World Shock City of the 21st Century:

Dubai, United Arab Emirates 413

Cities of the Periphery: Unintended Metropolises 415

The Informal Economy 416 ■ Slums of Hope, Slums
of Despair 417 ■ Transport and Infrastructure
Problems 419 ■ Environmental Degradation 420
Future Geographies 421 ■ Conclusion 422 ■ Learning Outcomes
Revisited 422 ■ Key Terms 423 ■ Review and Discussion 423

Glossary 424

Index 435
List of Maps

1.10 Topographic maps, 11 3.19 African slave trade, seventeenth through nineteenth
1.11 Isoline maps, 12 centuries, 97
1.12 An example of proportional symbols in thematic 3.20 Palestinian refugees in the Middle East, 98
mapping, 12 3.21 Refugee-sending countries, 99
1.13 A map combining located charts with proportional 3.27 The beginnings of West Nile virus in Canada, 106
symbols, 13 3.28 Life expectancy at birth for Canadian males, 2005–2007,
1.14 Comparison of map projections, 14 by health region, 107
1.15 The Robinson projection, 15 3.29 Life expectancies on the island of Montreal, 108
1.16 The Peters projection, 15 4.6 Ecological footprint, 117
1.17 Example of a cartogram, 16 4.7 Electronic waste, 118
1.18 Map of land cover, 17 4.B Lack of access to safe water, 123
1.B The geography of consumer groups in Ottawa, 18 4.15 European voyages of exploration, 129
1.19 Latitude and longitude, 19 4.19 Ecological imperialism, 132
1.20 The importance of site and situation, 20 4.20 World production and consumption
1.21 One person’s cognitive image of Montreal, 20 of energy, 2008, 134
1.22 Topological space, 22 4.21 Wealth of nations and energy consumption, 137
1.25 The Mormon culture region, 26 4.25 Global natural gas reserves, 2016, 139
2.1 Old World hearth areas, 38 4.26 World distribution of nuclear reactors, 2016, 140
2.2 New World hearth areas, 39 4.27 Global consumption of fuelwoods, 2010, 141
2.A(a) The premodern world, 41 4.29 Percentage of hydropower in the electricity supply by
2.5 The precapitalist Old World, circa 1400 c.e., 42 country, 2010, 142
2.6 The Silk Road, 42 4.31 Three Gorges Dam, China, 143
2.B The European Age of Discovery, 44 4.32 Global acid emissions, 147
2.D The spread of industrialization in Europe, 49 4.34 Global deforestation, 149
2.14 The North American core and periphery, 1911, 52 4.37 Global land grab, 151
2.15 Major steamship routes in 1920, 53 4.39 Greening of the Sahel, 152
2.16 The international telegraph network in 1900, 54 5.12 Cultural systems: U.S. religious population distribution
2.17 The British Empire in the late 1800s, 54 by county, 2000, 169
Commodity chain suppliers and manufacturers, 58 5.13 Vernacular architectural regions in Canada, 170
Electronic waste, 58 5.15 World distribution of major religions, 171
2.18 The human “footprint,” 60 5.16 Origin areas and diffusion of four major religions, 172
2.20 Diffusion of the HIV virus, 61 5.17 Muslim world, 173
2.21 Communication flows between major world 5.24 World distribution of major languages and major language
regions, 62 families, 177
2.23 Broadband affordability, 2011, 66 5.26 The language divide in Montreal, 179
2.24 Number of Internet users and Internet penetration 5.27 African countries with extinct and threatened
rates, 2011, 67 languages, 180
3.2 World population density by country, 2011, 76 5.C Geography of support for the Wisconsin
3.3 Population distribution of Egypt, 77 protests, 193
3.4 Population distribution of Canada, 2011, 78 5.40 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 197
3.6 Health care density, 79 6.2 Shepherd’s map, 203
3.10 World crude birth rates, 2013, 85 6.5 Cognitive image of Boston, 206
3.11 World crude death rates, 2013, 87 6.6 Cognitive images of Los Angeles, 207
3.12 World rates of natural increase, 2013, 88 6.7 Preference map of the United States, 208
3.13 World infant mortality rates, 2013, 89 6.14 Toronto’s underground city, 213
3.14 Adults and children living with and dying from 6.17 Sacred sites of Hindu India, 215
HIV/AIDS, 2015, 89 6.18 Source areas for pilgrims to Mecca, 215
3.17 Global voluntary migration, 92 6.A Jerusalem, the Holy City, 216
3.E E Refugees, asylum seekers, and IDPs worldwide, 2015, 95 6.19 Source areas for pilgrims to Lourdes, 217
xv
xvi   List of Maps

6.D The geography of Wikipedia articles, 221 9.16 Countries participating in the League of Nations, 335
6.E The geographically uneven coverage of Wikipedia, 221 9.17 Decolonization of Africa, before and after 1960, 336
7.1 Gross national income (GNI) per capita, 235 9.18 Independent South America, nineteenth century, 337
7.4 Agricultural land cover, 239 9.19 Independence in Asia and the South Pacific, before and
7.7 The geography of primary economic activities, 242 after 1960, 338
7.8 The geography of secondary economic activities, 243 9.20 Territorial divisions of Antarctica, 338
7.10 Emerging growth zones in Pacific Asia, 246 9.21 Mackinder’s map of the heartland theory, 339
7.11 Index of commodity concentration of exports, 2002, 247 9.B Afghanistan and Pakistan, 342
7.12 The international debt crisis, 248 9.C Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Pakistan (FATA), 343
7.17 Average earnings in Canada’s provinces and territories in 9.24 The IS “Caliphate,” 345
2016, 251 9.27 UN member countries, 347
7.23 The town centre of Kitimat, British Columbia, 257 9.28 Membership in the European Union, 348
7.25 Twenty-four-hour trading among major financial 9.F Changing geography of Israel/Palestine, 1923–2011, 353
markets, 259 9.32 Map of the former Yugoslavia, 356
7.27 Toyota’s global assembly line, 262 9.33 Canada’s political geography: provinces and territories,
7.30 Principal maquiladora centres on the United States– 357
Mexico border, 264 9.34 The geography of a federal election, 358
7.E Walmart locations in the Atlanta metropolitan region, 266 10.1 Percentage of population living in urban settlements,
8.2 Global distribution of agriculture, 279 2009, 364
8.3 Areas of plant and animal domestication, 279 10.2 Rates of growth in urbanization, 2000–2010, 365
8.12 Worldwide growth in fertilizer use, 1997–2007, 285 10.5 Major cities in 1000 c.e., 370
8.B Effects of the Green Revolution, 288 10.10 The towns and cities of Europe, ca. 1350, 373
8.15 Biopharma map of the United States, 294 10.11 Gateway cities in the evolving world-system periphery,
8.H The agricultural regions of Canada, 296 374
8.21 Economic costs of obesity in the United States, 2009, 307 10.13 Canada’s transcontinental railroads, 376
9.1 The changing map of Europe: 1924, 1989, 2011, 319 10.15 Growth of Chicago, 377
9.6 Borders between Egypt and Libya and Sudan, 322 10.18 The Spanish urban system, 379
9.7 Nested hierarchy of de jure territories, 323 10.20 Examples of urban centrality, 381
9.9 Successor states of the former Soviet Union, 325 10.D Top 25 cities in the Global Cities Index 2010, 383
9.12 European colonies in Africa, 1496–1912, 332 10.E Pearl River Delta, 388
9.13 Colonization in South America and the Caribbean, 11.A (a) Detroit (b) Washington, D.C. (c) New York City
1496–1667, 333 (d) Long Beach, 398
9.15 The Sykes-Picot agreement, 334 11.9 A typical twentieth-century metropolis, 401
List of Boxes

Geography Matters 9.3 The Palestinian–Israeli Conflict 350

10.2 The World City Network 383
1.1 Geographers at Work 9 11.1 Racial Segregation in the U.S. 398
2.2 Geography and Exploration 44
2.3 The Diffusion of Industrialization in Europe 49
3.1 The Baby Boom and the Aging of the Population 82 Window on the World
3.2 Migrant Farm Workers in Canada 94
1.3 South Beach, Miami Beach 30
4.1 Water Politics 122
2.5 Worlds Apart 64
5.1 The Culture of Hip Hop 162
3.3 Internal Displacement 95
6.1 Jerusalem, the Holy City 216
4.2 Peak Oil 135
7.3 Walmart’s Economic Landscape 266
5.2 Fashionable Veiling 182
8.2 The Blue Revolution and Global Shrimp 291
6.3 Waldkirch, Germany 223
8.3 The Canadian Farm 296
7.2 China’s Economic Development 244
9.2 From the Cold War to the War on Terror and the
8.1 The Green Revolution and Its Contemporary
Drone War 342
Challenges 287
10.1 Cities and Civilization 366
9.1 The Arab Spring 327
11.2 Smart Growth versus Sprawl in the U.S. 402
10.3 The Pearl River Delta: An Extended Metropolis 388
11.3 Shock City of the 21st Century: Dubai, United Arab
Visualizing Geography Emirates 413

1.2 Geodemographic Research 18

2.1 The Legacy of World-Empires 41 Virtual Geographies
2.4 Commodity Chains 58
4.3 Global Climate Change 144 1 Virtual Geographies 4, 16, 17, 19, 23
5.3 Geographies of Protest and Care 192 2 Virtual Geographies 50, 56
6.2 The Cultural Geography of Cyberspace and Social 5 Virtual Geographies 164, 181
Media 220 6 Virtual Geographies 204
6.4 Postmodern Architecture 225 7 Virtual Geographies 238
7.1 Technological Change and Economic Development 236 9 Virtual Geographies 354
8.4 The Growth of Urban Agriculture 304 11 Virtual Geographies 397

xvii
Preface
Welcome to the updated fifth Canadian edition of Human Geography:
Places and Regions in Global Context! What can this resource do for
you? Well, as the authors, we hope that it will guide you in some small
way as you look for your own place in this world—after all, that is what
university really is about. We hope that it will help you answer some of
the questions that every generation has been facing to some degree but
that have become even more pressing as your generation gets ready
to work and live in an increasingly globalized world. How will your
future job be affected by globalization? What role will your country
play in the global competition for power, wealth, and security? Will we
have enough resources for a growing global population? Are we living
in the “Chinese Century”? To answer these and similar questions and
find out what the answers mean for your life, you can do no better than
to start with a solid understanding of the tools and concepts geogra-
phers use to discuss, research, and ultimately affect the world.
This resource introduces you to human geography: the study
of how people and places interact. The idea for this resource
evolved from conversations among the authors and colleagues
about how to teach human geography at the university level. Our
intent is to find a way not only to capture the exciting and troubling
changes that are rewriting the world’s landscapes and reorganiz-
ing the spatial relationships between people, but also to convinc-
ingly demonstrate why the study of geography matters. Our aim is
to show why a geographical imagination is important, how it can
lead to an understanding of the world and its constituent places and
regions, and how it has practical relevance in many realms of life.
Places and Regions in Global Context also insists on interpreting
these aims from an inherently Canadian perspective. Since Euro-
pean contact, the country that we now call Canada has been devel-
oping according to a very different geographical set of principles
than our neighbour to the south, whether we are talking about eco-
nomic, demographic, or cultural development. For example, because
Canada’s population is made up of a far greater proportion of recent
immigrants from a wider range of countries than is the population of
the United States, it can be argued that Canada’s interest in world
affairs is of a far different nature. Many Canadians, for example, view
the geographic processes of globalization through the prism of their
local connections with other parts of the world—and not, as in the
American case, from the geopolitical perspective of a superpower.
the UPDATED Fifth Canadian
Edition
The updated fifth Canadian edition of Places and Regions in Global
Context possesses the dual goals of keeping topics and data current
and improving the clarity of the text and the graphics. We have also
sought to enhance the utility of the resource for both instructors
and students.
■ Chapter-opening vignettes introduce students to the subject
matter with interesting and varied topics.
■ A list of Learning Outcomes in each chapter opener offers stu-
dents a structured learning path that guides them through the
main learning goals for the chapter. These Learning Outcomes are
revisited and expanded upon at the end of each chapter, with sum-
maries of chapter content correlated to the Learning Outcomes.
■ Throughout every chapter, conceptual Apply Your Knowl-
edge questions are integrated within the text, giving students
a chance to pause and apply their understanding for a more
active learning approach.
■ We have increased the focus on basic introductory human
geography content in Chapter 1, allowing the text to be more
accessible to a wide range of introductory courses and students.
■ Material from the final chapter of the fourth Canadian edition, on
Future Geographies, has been updated and integrated into each
chapter, thus placing the “futures” content in thematic context.
■ The boxed feature essays on Visualizing Geography have been
fundamentally redesigned to incorporate edgy, modern appli-
cations and visualizations of geography data.
■ A new boxed feature called Virtual Geographies highlights the
many effects of the new information and communications tech-
nologies on geography at all scales.
■ The updated fifth Canadian edition also incorporates a com-
prehensive updating of all of the data, maps, photographs, and
illustrative examples.
■ We have added or expanded upon quite a few topics, includ-
ing the lingering effects of the global financial crisis; the
acceleration of climate change, the Paris Accord, and the fifth
IPCC assessment; issues of energy and food sustainability;
migration and the global refugee crisis; the effect of the retir-
ing baby boomer cohort on Canada; global food interdepen-
dence and the restructuring of Canadian agriculture; water
supply problems; peak oil, fracking, and renewable energy;
political ecology; religion; virtual social networks and the
increasing importance of Big Data and satellite surveillance;
biotechnology and agricultural systems; fast food and slow
food; geopolitical developments like the Arab Spring, the
rise of Islamism, the emergence of the Islamic State and its
so-called ‘Caliphate’, the renewed Cold War between Russia
and the United States, the regional geopolitical ambitions of
China, and the global spread of terrorism; the social effects
of natural disasters; the globalization of film, music, retailing
and commodity chains; the “experience economy”; and the
landscapes of the polycentric metropolis. These changes are
designed to ensure that we offer the most up-to-date coverage
in the field of human geography. ​
xix
xx   Preface
■ The Mastering | Geographytm platform is linked to the Learning
Outcomes and contains a wide range of resources and activi-
ties designed to reinforce basic concepts in human geography,
including MapMaster tm interactive maps, Google Earth tm
activities, geography videos, and more.
Objective and Approach
The objective of the resource is to introduce the study of human geog-
raphy by presenting not only a body of knowledge about the creation
of places and regions but also fostering an understanding of the inter-
dependence of places and regions in a globalizing world. More pre-
cisely, we hope that you recognize the daily interconnections between
your own life and the lives of people in other parts of the world.
The resource takes a fresh approach to human geography,
reflecting the major changes that have recently been impressed on
global, regional, and local landscapes. These changes include the glo-
balization of industry, the rise of China and India, the upwelling of
ethnic regionalisms on the heels of decolonization and the formation
of new states, the rapid urbanization of the periphery and the physical
restructuring of cities, the transformation of traditional agricultural
practices, the trend toward transnational political and economic orga-
nizations, and the dramatic advances in information and communica-
tion technologies. Human Geography: Places and Regions in Global
Context introduces the many new ideas, concepts, and theories that
address these changes while also teaching the fundamentals of human
geography: the principles, concepts, theoretical frameworks, and
basic knowledge that are necessary to more specialized studies.
The most distinctive feature of this approach is that it emphasizes
the interdependence of places and processes at different geographi-
cal scales. In overall terms, this approach is designed to provide an
understanding of relationships between the global and the local and
the outcomes of these relationships. It follows that one of the chief
organizing principles is how globalization frames the social and cul-
tural construction of particular places and regions at various scales.
This approach has several advantages:
■ It captures aspects of human geography that are among the
most compelling in the contemporary world—the geographical
bases of cultural diversity and their impacts on everyday life,
for example.
■ It encompasses the salient aspects of new emphases in aca-
demic human geography—geography’s new focus on the social
construction of spaces and places, for example.
■ It makes for an easier connection between topical and regional
material by emphasizing how processes link them—techno-
logical innovation and the varying ways in which technology
is adopted and modified by people in particular places, for
example.
■ It facilitates meaningful comparisons between places in differ-
ent parts of the world—how the core-generated industrializa-
tion of agriculture shapes gender relations in households both
in the core and the periphery, for example.
In short, this resource is designed to focus on geographical
processes and to provide an understanding of the interdependence
among places and regions without losing sight of their individuality
and uniqueness.
Several important themes are woven into each chapter, inte-
grating them into the overall approach:
■ the relationships between global processes and their local
manifestations
■ the interdependence of people and places, especially the
interactive relationships between core regions and peripheral
regions
■ the continuing transformation of the political economy of the
world-system, and of nations, regions, cities, and localities
■ the social and cultural differences that are embedded in human
geographies (especially the differences that relate to ethnicity,
gender, age, and class)
Chapter Organization
The organization of the resource is innovative in several ways.
First, the chapters are organized in such a way that the conceptual
framework—why geography matters in a globalizing world—is laid
out in Chapters 1 and 2 and then deployed in thematic chapters
(Chapters 3 through 11). Second, the conceptual framework of the
resource builds on two introductory chapters rather than the usual
one. The first describes the basics of a geographic perspective; the
second explains the value of the globalization approach.
Third, the distinctive chapter ordering within the resource
follows the logic of moving from less complex to more complex
systems of human social and economic organization, always high-
lighting the interaction between people and the world around them.
The first thematic chapter (Chapter 3) focuses on human popula-
tion. Its early placement in the resource reflects the central impor-
tance of people in understanding geography. Chapter 4 deals with
the relationship between people and the environment as it is medi-
ated by technology. This chapter capitalizes on the growing interest
in environmental problems and develops a central theme: all human
geographical issues are about how people negotiate their environ-
ment—whether the natural or the built environment.
The chapter on nature, society, and technology is followed
by Chapter 5 on cultural geographies. The intention in position-
ing the cultural chapter here is to signal that culture is the primary
medium through which people operate and understand their place
in the world. In Chapter 6 the impact of cultural processes on the
landscape is explored, together with the ways in which landscape
shapes cultural processes.
In Chapter 7, the resource begins to move toward more com-
plex concepts and systems of human organization by concentrating
on economic development. The focus of Chapter 8 is agriculture.
The placement of agriculture after economic development reflects
the overall emphasis on globalization. This chapter shows how pro-
cesses of globalization and economic development have led to the
industrialization of agriculture at the expense of more traditional
agricultural systems and practices.
The final three thematic chapters cover political geographies
(Chapter 9), urbanization (Chapter 10), and urban structure
(Chapter 11). Devoting two chapters to urban geography, rather
than a more conventional single chapter, is an important indication

of how globalization increasingly leads to the rapid urbanization of
the world’s people and places.
At the end of each chapter, a section called Future Geographies
projects globalization processes and trends into the future and
speculates how future geographies may unfold.
Features
The resource employs four different boxed features, as well as more
familiar pedagogical devices such as chapter overviews and end-of-
chapter exercises:
Geography Matters boxes examine a key concept of the chap-
ter, providing an extended example of its meaning and implications
through both visual illustration and text. The Geography Matters
features demonstrate that the focus of human geography is on real-
world problems.
Visualizing Geography boxes highlight key concepts
of the chapter with a photographic essay. This feature helps
students recognize that the visual landscape contains readily
accessible evidence about the impact of globalization on people
and places.
The new Virtual Geographies boxes are brief vignettes that
highlight how the new information and communications technolo-
gies are changing geography at all scales.
New Window on the World boxes take a key concept and
explore its application in a particular location. This feature
allows students to appreciate the relevance of geographic con-
cepts to world events and brings far-flung places closer to their
comprehension.
Supplements
The resource includes a complete supplement program for both
students and instructors.
For the Student
Mastering | Geographytm for Human Geography: Places and
Regions in Global Context is the most effective and widely used
tutorial, homework, and assessment system for the sciences.
The Mastering system empowers students to take charge of their
learning through activities aimed at different learning styles, and
engages them in learning science through practice and step-by-
step guidance—at their convenience, 24/7. Mastering | Geography
offers
■ assignable activities that include MapMaster tm interactive
maps, Encounter Human Geography Google Earth Explora-
tions, geography videos, Thinking Spatially and Data Anal-
ysis activities, end-of-chapter questions, reading quizzes,
and more
■ student study area with MapMastertm interactive maps, geog-
raphy videos, Glossary, “In the News” RSS feeds, reference
Preface    xxi
maps, self-quizzing, an optional Pearson eText, and more.
www.masteringgeography.com
We also offer prebuilt assignments for instructors to make it
easy to assign this powerful tutorial and homework system.
The Mastering platform is the only online tutorial/homework
system with research showing that it improves student learning. A
wide variety of published papers based on NSF-sponsored research
and tests illustrate the benefits of the Mastering program. Results
documented in scientifically valid efficacy papers are available at
www.masteringgeography.com/site/results.
For the Instructor
The following instructor supplements are available for download-
ing from a password-protected section of Pearson Canada’s online
catalogue (www.pearsoned.ca/highered). Navigate to the resource’s
catalogue page to view a list of supplements that are available. See
the local sales representative for details and access.
Instructor’s Resource Manual: The Instructor’s Resource
Manual, intended as a resource for both new and experienced
instructors, includes a variety of lecture outlines, additional source
materials, teaching tips, advice on how to integrate visual supple-
ments, answers to the end-of-chapter exercises, and various other
ideas for the classroom.
Activities Manual: This manual contains 20 different activi-
ties, tailored to the needs of individual chapters. Each activity iden-
tifies concepts to be learned and includes instructor’s notes and
assessment options.
Computerized Test Bank: Pearson’s computerized test banks
allow instructors to filter and select questions to create quizzes,
tests, or homework. Instructors can revise questions or add their
own, and may be able to choose print or online options. These
questions are also available in Microsoft Word format.
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides: The PowerPoint lecture slides
include selected illustrations, maps, figures, and tables from the
text.
Image Library: The Image Library includes many of the illus-
trations, maps, figures, and tables from the text.
NEW! Ready To Go Teaching Modules: These modules on
key topics provide instructors with assignments to use before and
after class, as well as in-class activities that use clickers or Learning
Catalytics™ for assessment.
Learning Solutions Managers
Pearson’s Learning Solutions Managers work with faculty and
campus course designers to ensure that Pearson technology prod-
ucts, assessment tools, and online course materials are tailored to
meet your specific needs. This highly qualified team is dedicated
to helping educators take full advantage of a wide range of educa-
tional resources by assisting in the integration of a variety of instruc-
tional materials and media formats. Your local Pearson Canada sales
representative can provide you with more details on this service
program.
xxii   Preface

Acknowledgments Manager), Jordan Nunziato (Associate Content Developer), Audrey

Dorsch (Copy Editor), Leanne Rancourt (Proofreader), and Susan
I want to thank Alan Nash for the solid foundation he built with the Bindernagel (Production Editor) for all their help and support.
first three Canadian editions. It was a pleasure to assist with devel- It is a privilege to record here my indebtedness to the many
oping them, and it is an honour to carry the spirit of his work into people who have helped me with advice, information, under-
future editions. standing, and support. In particular, I thank my colleagues in the
I am indebted to the following professors for their assistance, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies at Wilfrid
advice, and constructive criticism in the course of preparing this Laurier University: Mary-Louise Byrne, Doreen Dassen, Jim
edition: Hamilton, Jo-Anne Horton, Cherie Mongeon, Bob Sharpe, and
Lindsay Woodside. The team in the Dean of Arts Office, especially
Jorge Virchez the indomitable Julie Pong, made sure that every day was filled
Laurentian University with camaraderie and laughter—they did not know it, but in their
Colin Mills own way they were writing this book, too.
Langara College Many able minds have tried to polish the rough diamond of
Heather Nicol my own geographical imagination. It all started in high school
Trent University with Werner Wallert, who made me realize that everything is geog-
Walter Peace raphy, and that geography is everything. At Brock University, the
McMaster University late Alun Hughes introduced me to the joys of methodical learn-
Joshua Evans ing by doing. At Queen’s University, I found magnificent role
Athabasca University models that sustain me to this day: Peter Goheen, Brian Osborne,
Godwin Arku and most of all Anne Godlewska. Thank you for your trust, your
Western University patience, and your challenges. If I am a geographer at all, you have
Similarly, I am grateful to the thousands of undergraduate stu- made me one.
dents who unknowingly tested ideas and the materials included in This updated fifth Canadian edition is dedicated to Maggie,
this updated fifth Canadian edition. who keeps me smiling; my mother, who keeps dancing; and Cathie,
I would like to thank Pearson Canada for its continuing com- who keeps me in her heart. It is from her that I stole many of the
mitment to this project, and especially Cathleen Sullivan (Executive hours it took to conceive and produce what you are now holding in
Acquisitions Editor), Kamilah Reid-Burrell (Program Manager), your hands. Thank you.
Tamara Capar (Developmental Editor), Jessica Mifsud (Project Michael Imort
About the Authors

Paul L. Knox
Paul Knox received his Ph.D. in geography from the University of Sheffield, England. In 1985,
after teaching in the United Kingdom for several years, he moved to the United States to take
up a position as professor of urban affairs and planning at Virginia Tech. His teaching cen-
tres on urban and regional development, with an emphasis on comparative study. In 1989, he
received a university award for teaching excellence. He has written several books on aspects
of economic geography, social geography, and urbanization. He serves on the editorial board
of several scientific journals and is co-editor on a series of books on world cities. In 1996, he
was appointed to the position of University Distinguished Professor at Virginia Tech, where
he currently serves as dean of the College of Architecture and Urban Studies.

Sallie A. Marston
Sallie Marston received her Ph.D. in geography from the University of Colorado, Boulder. She
has been a faculty member at the University of Arizona since 1986. Her teaching focuses on
the historical, social, and cultural aspects of American urbanization, with particular emphasis
on race, class, gender, and ethnicity issues. She received the College of Social and Behavioral
Sciences Outstanding Teaching Award in 1989. She is the author of numerous journal articles
and book chapters and serves on the editorial board of several scientific journals. In 1994
and 1995, she served as Interim Director of Women’s Studies and the Southwest Institute for
Research on Women. She is currently a professor in, and serves as head of, the Department of
Geography and Regional Development.

Michael Imort
Michael Imort received his Ph.D. from Queen’s University in Kingston, Ontario. Ever
the geographer, he took the long way to get there, studying at Brock, York, Waterloo, and
Freiburg, Germany, with stints in the Arctic, Hawaii, Mali, and Zaire (now DRC), and taking
a teaching appointment in an English castle—not to mention the days when he worked as a
lumberjack or ran a bookstore. When the time came to get serious, he joined the Department
of Geography and Environmental Studies at Wilfrid Laurier University, where he currently
is the Associate Dean of Arts. Originally trained as a forest scientist with an interest in fire
ecology, he soon became interested in the human side of environmental problems. Today his
research interests include environmental thought and the many ways in which representations
of landscape are used and abused for political purposes.

xxiii
 1 Geography
Matters
Learning Outcomes
■ Explain how the study of
geography has become
essential for understand-
ing a world that is more
complex, interdepen-
dent, and changing faster
than ever before.
■ Identify four examples
of how places influence
inhabitants’ lives.
■ Distinguish the differ-
ences among major map
projections and describe
their relative strengths
and weaknesses.
■ Explain how geographers
use geographic infor-
mation systems (GIS) to
merge and analyze data.
■ Summarize the five
concepts that are key
to spatial analysis and
describe how they help
geographers analyze
relationships between In early 2011, an unprecedented wave of popular uprisings washed across the Arab
peoples and places. world. Organized through social media and text messaging, the protests drew more and more
■ Describe the importance people into the streets to demand political reforms and improvements to their daily lives.
of distance in shaping Quickly, governments found themselves under increasing pressure. In Tunisia, Egypt, and
human activity. Libya, regimes fell. In Jordan, Morocco, and other countries, governments held on to power by
making concessions. Meanwhile, in Syria the protests morphed into a civil war that rages to this
■ Summarize the three day, creating the greatest humanitarian crisis since the end of World War II. In each country, a
concepts that are key different mix of political, religious, and ethnic tensions had been simmering below the surface,
to regional analysis and but it was the spiking food prices, particularly for bread, that caused open revolts to erupt in so
explain how they help many countries at once. With bread being the staple of poor people’s nutrition across the entire
geographers analyze region, steep increases in its price were the proverbial straw that broke the camel’s back.
relationships between The problem of rising bread prices in the Arab countries and in many other places is a
peoples and places. reflection of the increasing geographic interdependence of the world. The situation is partly
the result of increasing food consumption in other parts of the world, especially in booming
China and India, where many have stopped growing their own food and now have the cash
to buy a lot more of it. Increasing meat consumption helped drive up demand for feed grain,
and this in turn drove up the price of bread everywhere. Sensing an opportunity for easy
 A protester brandishes a baguette as a sign of discontent while facing Tunisian riot police in January 2011. (Source: Martin Bureau/AFP/Getty Images)

profit, speculators in international commodity markets hoarded grain, further accelerating

price hikes.
Energy prices are another key link: the increase in oil prices during the 2000s (itself the result
of China’s ballooning hunger for energy and fears over diminishing global oil reserves) pushed
up fertilizer prices and shipping costs. Meanwhile, in an attempt to reduce their dependence
on oil and become more environmentally friendly, many industrialized countries started to
pay subsidies for the production of biofuels from grain, corn, and soybeans. As these subsi-
dies lured farmers away from growing crops for food, the food supply was further strained:
the grain needed to fill the tank of a car once could feed a person for an entire year! In short,
we begin to see that food shortages are not just local events, but the result of the interaction of
environmental, economic, and political processes in far-flung parts of the world.
Then there is climate change. In 2007–2008, harvests were severely disrupted by pro-
longed droughts in Australia and southern Africa, floods in West Africa, and frost in China.
Another season of extreme weather occurred in 2009–2010: floods in Australia and drought
in Russia caused wheat prices to double, leaving poor people worldwide struggling to pay
for bread. As the bread revolts of the Arab Spring pushed up the oil price, food became
even more expensive—starting yet another feedback loop.

   3
4   h u m a n g e o g r a p h y     Places and Regions in Global Context

Human geography can help us make sense of all of this. As we learn about the world by finding
out where things are, why they are there, and how they affect things elsewhere, we begin to rec-
ognize and understand the interdependence among places and regions. In this book, we will
explore the tools and methods geographers use to study this interdependence and ultimately
understand and explain the world. By the time you read this book, the events described above
will be history already, but with the help of these tools and methods, you will be able to make
sense of your world and the events and processes that are shaping it right now. ■

Why Geography Matters Why Places Matter

The importance of geography as a subject of study is becoming
more widely recognized as people everywhere struggle to under-
stand a world that is increasingly characterized by instant global
communications, rapidly changing international relationships,
unexpected local changes, and growing evidence of environmen-
tal degradation. Geographers learn by finding out where things are
and why they are there. Human geography is about recognizing
and understanding the interdependence among places and regions,
without losing sight of the uniqueness of each specific place. Places
are specific geographic settings with distinctive physical, social, and
cultural attributes. Regions are territories that encompass many
places, all or most of which share attributes different from the attri-
butes of places elsewhere. Through an appreciation of the diversity
and variety of the world’s peoples and places, geography provides
real opportunities not only to contribute to local, national, and
global development but also to understand and promote multicul-
tural, international, and feminist perspectives on the world.
Virtual Geographies
Geographical knowledge and technology are present (if
not always visibly so) in almost every aspect of your life. To
learn how omnipresent geography is, watch the trailer for
the Geospatial Revolution Project launched by Penn State
University: http://geospatialrevolution.psu.edu/trailer.php
Most people want to understand the intrinsic nature of the
world in which we live. Geography enables us to understand where
we are both literally and figuratively. Geography provides knowl-
edge of Earth’s physical and human systems and of the interdepen-
dency of living things and physical environments. That knowledge,
in turn, provides a basis for people to co-operate in the best interests
of our planet. Geography also captures the imagination, stimulating
curiosity about the world and its diverse inhabitants and places. By
obtaining a better understanding of the world, people can overcome
An appreciation of the diversity and variety of peoples and places
is a theme that runs through all of human geography, the study
of the spatial organization of human activity and of people’s rela-
tionships with their environments. This theme is inherently
interesting to nearly all of us. Canadian Geographic is a popular
magazine that literally illustrates the wonder and endless fascination
that Canadians have for this country (Figure 1.1). Similarly, the
National Geographic magazine shows us the seemingly unlimited
variety of people and places around the world. More than 5 million
households in North America, representing more than 20 million
regular readers, subscribe to these magazines, and millions more
read them occasionally in waiting rooms, offices, lobbies, or online.
Yet, at the same time, many surveys show how little we really
know about Canada or the world in general (Figure 1.2). In fact,
a 2005 survey conducted by the Royal Canadian Geographic
Society found that “about one-third of Canadian adults can be
considered geographically illiterate”—and that the rate is even
higher among Canadians aged 18 to 24. 1 How does this com-
pare internationally? In a nine-country survey conducted by the
National Geographic Society in 2002, Canada had the third-lowest
level of geographic literacy, with only the United States and
Mexico faring worse.2
So although most people are fascinated by different places,
relatively few have a systematic knowledge of them. Fewer still
understand how different places came to be the way they are or
Figure 1.1 Geography’s
popularity Canadian
Geographic magazine is avail-
able on newsstands across this
country and is sent across the
world to many subscribers.
Focusing on Canada, it deals
with many geographical issues
that affect Canada. Its popular-
ity reflects Canadians’ interest
in the variety of landscapes and
communities across this country.
(Source: Canadian Geographic, January/

closed-mindedness, prejudice, and discrimination. February 2007)

Apply Your Knowledge List three reasons why

a corporate employer would feel it is important for
prospective employees to have some knowledge of
geography. ■
1
See the results at www.ccge.org/programs/geoliteracy/docs/geoliteracy_survey_
presentation.ppt. You can take the 20-question survey yourself at www.ccge.org/
programs/geoliteracy/survey/q1.asp.
2
www.nationalgeographic.com/geosurvey2002/index.html
 C h a p t e r 1    Geography Matters    5

Figure 1.2 Earthquake damage in

Christchurch, New Zealand Although much
of the international news Canadians hear in
the mainstream media is about disasters, only
a minority of Canadians are able to “place”
these events on a world map, much less under-
stand them in a geographical context. Where
is Christchurch and what triggered the earth-
quake? How badly are its inhabitants affected
by the damage? What effects, if any, did these
events have on globalized resource markets,
supply chains, or food production? (Source: Courtesy
of Michael Imort. Photo on the top has been used by permission of
Christchurch City Council.)

why places matter in the broader scheme of things. This

lack of understanding is problematic because geographic
knowledge is more than a glimpse of the inherently
interesting variety of peoples and places—it is quickly
becoming an indispensable qualification for success in a
globalizing world. As we negotiate our increasingly global-
ized lives, we thus face the task of learning about the world
and interpreting it for ourselves: each of us needs to be a
geographer. The first step on this journey is to understand
the basic geographic concept of “places.”

The Influence of Places

Places are dynamic, with changing properties and fluid
boundaries that are the product of the interplay of a wide variety
of environmental and human factors. This dynamism and com-
plexity is what makes places so fascinating—it is also what makes
places so important in shaping people’s lives and in influencing
the pace and direction of change. Places provide the settings for
people’s daily lives and their social relations (patterns of inter-
action among family members and between genders, at work,
in social life, in leisure activities, or in political activism). It is in
these settings that people learn who and what they are, how they
are expected to think and behave, and what life is likely to hold
for them. Moreover, because different places can foster rather
different values, attitudes, and behaviours, they can also make it
difficult for people raised in different settings to understand and
appreciate one another.
Places thus exert a strong influence, for better or worse, on
people’s physical well-being, opportunities, and lifestyle choices.
For example, living in a small seaside town makes for an unhurried
pace of life, but it also means a limited range of job opportunities
and lifestyle options, dependence on seasonal tourism, and a lack
of amenities such as theatres, specialized stores and restaurants, Figure 1.3 Smalltown life in Atlantic Canada Life in small
and recreational facilities (Figure 1.3). Living in a central neigh- Canadian towns often unfolds at a slower pace, offers more oppor-
bourhood of a large metropolitan area, on the other hand, usually tunities for informal meetings with neighbours throughout the day,
means having a wider range of job opportunities, lifestyle options, and is less focused on material wealth. (Source: Courtesy of Michael Imort)
6   h u m a n g e o g r a p h y     Places and Regions in Global Context

and amenities accessible within a short distance (Figure 1.4).

But it also means generally living a more hectic, louder, and rela-
tively anonymous life.

The Meaning of Places

Places also contribute to people’s collective memory and become
powerful emotional and cultural symbols that can evoke patriotic
feelings, for example (Figure 1.5). On the other hand, seemingly
ordinary places (a childhood neighbourhood, a hockey arena, or
a family vacation spot) can have very special meaning for some
people. Such places exist, and are constructed by their inhabit-
ants, from a subjective point of view. We are also influenced in these
assessments by our wider social and cultural frames of reference.
This layering of meanings reflects the way that places are socially
constructed—given different meanings by different groups for differ-
ent purposes.
At times, the meanings given to a place may be so strong that
they become a central part of the identity of the people experi-
encing them. Your identity is the sense that you make of yourself
through your subjective feelings based on your everyday experi-
ences and social relations. Your own neighbourhood, for example,
centred on yourself and your home, is probably heavily laden with
personal meaning and sentiment. However, your neighbourhood Figure 1.4 Downtown life in Toronto Compared to small-
may well be viewed very differently, and perhaps unsympathetically, town life, Canada’s large cities offer more diverse opportunities
from an outsider’s perspective (including geographers). for employment, entertainment, and the pursuit of non-conformist
It is in specific locales that important events happen, and it lifestyles. On the other hand, large cities are often perceived as
is from them that significant changes spread around the world anonymous. (Source: Bert Hoferichter/Alamy Stock Photo)

Figure 1.5 The power of place Some places acquire a strong symbolic value because of the buildings, events,
people, histories, myths, and images with which they are associated. For example, for many Canadians, the Peace
Tower on Parliament Hill in Ottawa is a place that draws its meaning from its associations with important events in this
country’s political life, whether they be patriotic commemorations or political protests. Other places in Canada evoke
more general, but no less powerful, symbolic associations. For example, this picture of a canoe trip (on the Bloodvein
River in Manitoba) has a much wider symbolic meaning because of its connotations with our idea of a vast northern
landscape and all the cultural values we associate with such a landscape. Indeed, for many people, especially those
outside this country, such pictures are iconic of Canada as a whole and serve as a shorthand for “everything Canadian”
in promotional tourist literature. (Source: Library of Parliament - Tom Littlemore [left]. Photography by Rolf and Debra Kraiker [right])
 C h a p t e r 1    Geography Matters    7

Figure 1.6 Argentine dance spreads to China Popular

Figure 1.7 Tahrir Square, Cairo, Egypt Egyptian anti-
trends are easily spread around the world. Here, tango danc-
government demonstrators flood Cairo’s landmark Tahrir Square on
ers practise on a public square in Beijing. Tango originated in
February 11, 2011, the eighteenth day of protests against President
Argentina at the end of the nineteenth century as a mixture of
Hosni Mubarak, who subsequently resigned. In 2013, the army
Argentine, Cuban, and African music played on European folk
staged a counter-revolution. Knowing that control of this iconic place
instruments. (Source: Paul Chesley/The Image Bank/Getty Images)
would be crucial to the success of their coup d’etat, the generals
were quick to restrict access to Tahrir Square. (Source: STR/UPI/Newscom)

(Figure 1.6). For instance, the unique characteristics of specific
places can provide the preconditions for new modes of economic
organization (such as the digital revolution that spread from Silicon
Valley near San Francisco) or for new cultural practices (the hipster
lifestyle that emerged in Brooklyn). Finally, places are sites not only of
innovation and change, but also of resistance and conflict: controlling
an iconic place such as a central square can be crucial for maintaining
or challenging political power over an entire region (Figure 1.7).
Nevertheless, the influence of places is by no means limited to
the occasional change or innovation. Because of their distinctive char-
acteristics, places always modify and sometimes resist the imprint of
even the broadest economic, cultural, and political trends. Consider,
for example, the way that a global cultural trend—rock ’n’ roll—was
modified in Jamaica to produce reggae. And how in Iran and
North Korea rock ’n’ roll has been condemned by the authorities,
with the result that it has acquired an altogether different kind of
value and meaning for the citizens of those countries.
To consider a different illustration, think of the ways some
communities have declared themselves “nuclear-free” zones: places
where nuclear weapons and nuclear reactors are unwelcome or even
banned by local laws. By establishing such zones, individual com-
munities are seeking to challenge trends toward using nuclear energy
and maintaining nuclear arms. They are, to borrow a phrase, “think-
ing globally and acting locally.” Similarly, some communities have
established “GMO-free” zones, taking a stance against genetically
modified crops and food. In adopting such strategies, they hope to
influence thinking in other communities so that eventually their chal-
lenge could result in a reversal of established trends (Figure 1.8).

Figure 1.8 Acting locally The town of Überlingen, Germany, has established itself as a “GMO-free” zone.
Shown here is Cornelia Wiethaler, who initiated the movement to ban genetically modified crops and food from
the town. The photo on the delivery truck encourages customers to buy “meat from here.” The example shows
how individual action in one place can cause local change and, through the very fact that you are reading this,
foster global awareness. (Source: Photo on the left courtesy of Paul L. Knox. Photo on the right used by permission of Farber.)
8   h u m a n g e o g r a p h y     Places and Regions in Global Context
In summary, places are settings for social interaction that,
among other things,
■ structure the daily routines of people’s economic and social
life.
■ provide both opportunities and constraints in terms of people’s
long-term social well-being.
■ provide a context in which everyday, common-sense knowledge
and experience are gathered.
■ provide a setting for processes of socialization.
■ provide an arena for contesting social norms.
Apply Your Knowledge Explain how and why a
particular place has mattered to you. How might oth-
ers’ experience or perception of that same place dif-
fer from yours? How does your place influence your
health or job prospects? ■
Studying Human Geography
The study of geography involves the study of Earth as created by
natural forces and modified by human action. This, of course,
covers an enormous range of subject matter. There are two main
branches of geography: physical and human. Physical geogra-
phy deals with Earth’s natural processes and their outcomes. It is
concerned, for example, with climate, weather patterns, landforms,
soil formation, and plant and animal ecology. As we said earlier,
human geography deals with the spatial organization of human
activities and with people’s relationships to their environments.
This involves looking at natural physical environments insofar as
they influence, and are influenced by, human activity. To that end,
the study of human geography must cover a wide variety of phe-
nomena. These include, for example, agricultural production and
food security, population change, the ecology of human diseases,
resource management, environmental pollution, regional planning,
and the symbolism of places and landscapes.
Regional geography combines elements of both physical and
human geography. Regional geography is concerned with the
way that unique combinations of environmental and human fac-
tors produce territories with distinctive landscapes and cultural
attributes. As we said earlier, the concept of region is applied
by geographers to larger-sized territories that encompass many
places, all or most of which have similar attributes that are distinct
from the attributes of other places.
What is distinctive about the study of human geography is
not so much the phenomena that are studied as the way they are
approached. The contribution of human geography is to reveal
how and why geographical relationships are important, in rela-
tion to a wide spectrum of natural, social, economic, political, and
cultural phenomena. Thus, for example, human geographers are
interested not only in patterns of agricultural production but also
in the geographical relationships and interdependencies that are
both causes and effects of such patterns. To put it in concrete terms,
geographers are interested not only in what a specialized agricul-
tural subregion is like (for example, how the dairy farming area of
Quebec produces its agricultural output, what makes its landscapes
and culture distinctive, and so on) but also in its role in national
and international agro-food systems (e.g., its interdependence with
producers, distributors, consumers, taxes, tariffs, and subsidies in
other places and regions—see Chapter 8).
Geography is thus very much an applied discipline as well as a
means of understanding the world. Geographers are trained to use
geographic theories and techniques to understand and solve a vari-
ety of specific problems in the real world. Employers in business,
industry, and government value this broad expertise (See Box 1.1,
“Geography Matters: Geographers at Work.”)
The Basic Tools and Methods
of Human Geographers
In general terms, the basic tools employed in geography are simi-
lar to those in other disciplines. Like other social scientists, human
geographers usually begin with observation. Information must
be collected and data recorded. This can involve many different
methods and tools. Fieldwork (surveying, asking questions, using
scientific instruments to measure and record things), laboratory
experiments, and archival searches all are used by human geog-
raphers to gather information about geographical relationships.
Geographers also use remote sensing, the collection of information
about parts of Earth’s surface by means of aerial photography or
satellite imagery designed to record data on visible, infrared, and
microwave sensor systems (Figure 1.9 on page 10). For example,
agricultural productivity can be monitored by remotely sensed
images of crops, and energy efficiency can be monitored by
remotely sensed levels of heat loss from buildings.
Once data have been obtained through some form of obser-
vation, the next important step is to portray and describe them
through visualization or representation. This can involve a variety
of tools, including written descriptions, charts, diagrams, tables,
mathematical formulas, and maps. Visualization and representation
are important activities because they allow large amounts of infor-
mation to be explored, summarized, and presented to others. They
are nearly always a first step in the analysis of geographical relation-
ships, and they are important in conveying the findings and conclu-
sions of geographic research.
At the heart of geographic research, as with other kinds of
research, is the analysis of data. The goal of analysis, whether of
quantitative or qualitative data, is to better understand reality, and
to that goal geographers often use models (abstractions of reality)
that help explain the real world. Once again, we find that geogra-
phers are like other social scientists in that they use a wide range of
analytical tools, including conceptual and linguistic devices, maps,
charts, and mathematical equations in their models.
In many ways, therefore, the tools and methods of human
geographers are parallel to those used in other sciences, especially
the social sciences. In addition, geographers increasingly use some
of the tools and methods of the humanities—interpretive analysis
and inductive reasoning, for example—together with ethnographic
research (the systematic recording of human cultures) and textual
analysis. There are, however, two distinctive tools in the geogra-
pher’s kit bag that we will look at in more detail: maps and geo-
graphic information systems (GIS).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
employing the syncopated form, the triple rhythm clashes with the
dual rhythm, require assurance, which can be given by easy means.
The uncertainty occasioned them by the sudden appearance of the
unexpected rhythm, contradicted by the rest of the orchestra, always
leads the performers to cast an instinctive glance towards the
conductor, as if seeking his assistance. He should look at them,
turning somewhat towards them, and marking the triple rhythm by
very slight gestures, as if the time were really three in a bar, but in
such a way that the violins and other instruments playing in dual
rhythm may not observe the change, which would quite put them out.
From this compromise it results that the new rhythm of three-time,
being marked furtively by the conductor, is executed with steadiness;
while the two-time rhythm already firmly established, continues
without difficulty, although no longer indicated by the conductor. On
the other hand, nothing, in my opinion can be more blamable, or
more contrary to musical good sense, than the application of this
procedure to passages where two rhythms of opposite nature do not
co-exist, and where merely syncopations are introduced. The
conductor, dividing the bar by the number of accents he finds
contained in it, then destroys (for all the auditors who see him) the
effect of syncopation; and substitutes a mere change of time for a
play of rhythm of the most bewitching interest. If the accents are
marked, instead of the beats, in the following passage from
Beethoven’s Pastoral Symphony, we have the subjoined:—

[Listen]

whereas the four previously maintained display the syncopation and

make it better felt:—
 [Listen]

This voluntary submission to a rhythmical form which the author

intended to thwart is one of the gravest faults in style that a beater of
the time can commit.
There is another dilemma, extremely troublesome for a
conductor, and demanding all his presence of mind. It is that
presented by the super-addition of different bars. It is easy to
conduct a bar in dual time placed above or beneath another bar in
triple time, if both have the same kind of movement. Their chief
divisions are then equal in duration, and one needs only to divide
them in half, marking the two principal beats:—

[Listen]

But if, in the middle of a piece slow in movement, there is

introduced a new form brisk in movement, and if the composer
(either for the sake of facilitating the execution of the quick
movement, or because it was impossible to write otherwise) has
adopted for this new movement the short bar which corresponds with
it, there may then occur two, or even three short bars super-added to
a slow bar:—
 [Listen]

The conductor’s task is to guide and keep together these different

bars of unequal number and dissimilar movement. He attains this by
dividing the beats in the Andante bar, No. 1, which precedes the
entrance of the Allegro in 6/8, and by continuing to divide them; but
taking care to mark the division more decidedly. The players of the
Allegro in 6/8 then comprehend that the two gestures of the
conductor represent the two beats of their short bar, while the
players of the Andante take these same gestures merely for a
divided beat of their long bar.
 Bar No. 1

Bars Nos. 2, 3,
and so on.
 It will be seen that this is really quite simple, because the division
of the short bar, and the subdivisions of the long one, mutually
correspond. The following example, where a slow bar is super-added
to the short ones, without this correspondence existing, is more
awkward:—
 [Listen]

Here, the three bars Allegro-assai preceding the Allegretto are

beaten in simple two-time, as usual. At the moment when the
Allegretto begins, the bar of which is double that of the preceding,
and of the one maintained by the violas, the conductor marks two
divided beats for the long bar, by two equal gestures down, and two
others up:—

The two large gestures divide the long bar in half, and explain its
value to the hautboys, without perplexing the violas, who maintain
the brisk movement, on account of the little gesture which also
divides in half their short bar.
From bar No. 3, the conductor ceases to divide thus the long bar
by 4, on account of the triple rhythm of the melody in 6/8, which this
gesture interferes with. He then confines himself to marking the two
beats of the long bar; while the violas, already launched in their rapid
rhythm, continue it without difficulty, comprehending exactly that
each stroke of the conductor’s stick marks merely the
commencement of their short bar.
This last observation shows with what care dividing the beats of a
bar should be avoided when a portion of the instruments or voices
has to execute triplets upon these beats. The division, by cutting in
half the second note of the triplet, renders its execution uncertain. It
is even necessary to abstain from this division of the beats of a bar
just before the moment when the rhythmical or melodic design is
divided by three, in order not to give to the players the impression of
a rhythm contrary to that which they are about to hear:—
 [Listen]

In this example, the subdivision of the bar into six, or the division
of beats into two, is useful; and offers no inconvenience during bar
No. 1 when the following gesture is made:—

But from the beginning of bar No. 2 it is necessary to make only

the simple gestures:—
on account of the triplet on the third beat, and on account of the one
following it which the double gesture would much interfere with.
In the famous ball-scene of Mozart’s Don Giovanni, the difficulty
of keeping together the three orchestras, written in three different
measures, is less than might be thought. It is sufficient to mark
downwards each beat of the tempo di minuetto:—

[Listen]

Once entered upon the combination, the little allegro in 3/8, of

which a whole bar represents one-third, or one beat of that of the
minuetto, and the other allegro in 2/4, of which a whole bar
represents two-thirds, or two beats, correspond with each other and
with the principal theme; while the whole proceeds without the
slightest confusion. All that is requisite is to make them come in
properly.
 CHAPTER VI.
How To Prepare a Score

Methodical mastery of the full score, mental

reading, use of piano. Preparing a score for
rehearsal and performance.

To the average layman and even a great many musicians, an

orchestral score appears to be about as intricate in appearance as a
blue print of a complicated engine. The simile of the blue print and
the score is not inapt inasmuch as the blue print represents on paper
every detail of the mechanical construction of the engine, and,
likewise, the musical score is an exact description on paper of every
detail of the musical composition.
No attempt will be made in this book to describe the development
of the core from the days of the early Italian opera composers who
did not even write out parts for the players, to our own time when
hardly anything is left to the imagination of the musician, and
everything is written in the music. Likewise, the aesthetic
interpretation and evaluation of the musical content of the score will
be left undiscussed, to make way for the presentation of the practical
aspect of a methodical system of learning to read quickly and
accurately the mere notes of the score.
It is related that a celebrated professional magician, in order to
train his sense of vision, quickness of mental perception and
memory, used to practice looking at a show window for exactly one
minute and then writing down from memory the name of every article
he saw therein. By practice he was enabled to increase the number
of articles remembered from a relatively small number to a total
which included everything in the window. Now, what the magician did
with his sense of vision, quickness of mental perception, and
memory is precisely what the musician must do in learning to read
the full score.
Possibly the most confusing thing to the beginner in score
reading is the increased demands made upon his vision.
Accustomed to reading music in one or two staves, the eye is now
called upon to comprehend as many as 24 to 30 staves in a glance.
At first this seems an impossible task but like many other seemingly
impossible tasks it can be accomplished by patient and systematic
practice. Of course, every conductor has his own way of mastering a
score and the author can only give his personal method. However,
this method has been followed successfully by students, and in
practically every case has been found successful.
It is assumed that the conductor has some ability in piano-
playing. Naturally, the more the better, although it is not necessary to
be equipped with the highest virtuoso technic. A knowledge of the
scales and arpeggios, the ability to play Bach’s Two and Three Part
Inventions and Well-Tempered Clavichord might be considered a
working equipment for the conductor. Let it be explained here, that
while the ideal of score reading is to be able to read and hear every
note of the partitur without the aid of the piano, the value of the use
of the instrument in the process of developing this ability and as a
constant means of checking and proving one’s capacity is
unquestioned.
The best exercise for widening or broadening the sense of vision
is to practice the playing of three or more part vocal scores. A
collection of early church music such as “Musica Sacra,” published
by Peters, contains the most practical material. Herein are to be
found in two, three, four, five, six, eight, ten and twelve parts and
staves, the lovely old polyphonic works of the early Italian masters
and the patient practice on these, always adding one more part, will
do much toward the spreading of a sense of vision that has become
limited by the habitual perusal of just one or two lines. The absolute
independence of each individual part makes these polyphonic
choruses highly valuable as practice material.
 The second difficulty of the full score is the fact that not all of the
instruments are written in the familiar clefs and many of them are
transposed into different keys because of their peculiar mechanical
construction.
Following the method employed in the conducting classes of the
High School for Music in Berlin, the author has found the use of
Bach’s chorales with each of the four parts written in a different clef,
most effective in imparting the ability to transpose. These chorales
should be taken from the various two-line editions (Peters, Breitkopf
& Härtel, C. C. Birchard) and copied by the student on four separate
lines, using the Soprano, Alto, Tenor and Bass clefs for the
respective parts.

The Soprano clef,

Alto clef,

and the Tenor clef,

are C clefs, i.e., the note on the staff indicated by the clef is

middle C;
with the Soprano clef this is the first line, with the Alto clef the third,
and with the Tenor clef, the fourth. Knowing the position of middle C
it should not be difficult to trace the position of the other notes of the
scales. The following is an example of the old and new vocal scores:

Passion Chorale (Bach)

[Listen]
 For variety, the student might make use of ordinary four part
hymn tunes in the same manner. These chorales and hymn tunes in
the old clefs must not be merely played through a few times, but are
to be practiced daily until the process of playing the old clefs has
become as automatic as playing in the treble and bass clefs. This
will give the student the necessary mental gymnastics and make the
reading and playing of the various transposing instrumental parts
comparatively easy.
So much for the purely technical preparation in the process of
learning to read and transcribe scores.
The following headings are descriptive of a method of score
preparation generally used by modern conductors:
1. The Architectural or General Impression.
2. Detailed study of the individual parts.
3. Detailed study of individual sections (strings,
woodwinds, brass, and percussion).
4. Mental hearing of the composition in parts
and as a whole.
5. Piano transcription as a means of checking
up and ratifying the mental concept.
When a building is viewed for the first time hardly anything more
than a general impression of the type of architecture, size, symmetry,
and color is made upon the mind. The details of construction,
materials used, number of floors, style of windows and doors are
only comprehended after closer study.
At the first perusal of a score, which should always be away from
the piano, the impression made is just as general as in viewing the
building. Hardly more than the contour of the melody and bass,
outstanding climaxes and general character can be grasped at the
first reading.
Next, a reading through either with or without piano, of each
individual part reveals the details of construction, and the playing on
the piano of the various sections gives the harmonic and polyphonic
content of the work. A practical knowledge of Instrumentation is most
helpful at this stage of the work.
After this detailed study, the work should be read through
mentally at about the speed of actual performance, the climaxes
noted, the emotional content determined, and a diagram of the form
fixed in the mind. There is always a danger of losing the perspective
of the work as a whole if too much detailed study is indulged in. The
ability to read and hear music without the aid of an instrument is
absolutely essential for the conductor. It can be acquired to a degree
by proper study. Such works as Wedge’s “Sight Singing and Ear
Training” (G. Schirmer) and Robinson’s “Aural Harmony” (G.
Schirmer) are invaluable helps. “Musical Form” by H. Anger
(Augener) is a most practical treatise on the subject and contains
clear instructions for analyzing the piano Sonatas of Beethoven and
the Fugues in Bach’s “Well-tempered Clavichord.”
Upon being questioned as to his opinion of the importance of the
conductor’s “ears” or hearing, Wilhelm Furtwängler, the eminent
German conductor, made the following reply: “Generally considered,
there is no such thing among conductors as a good or bad ‘ear.’
There is only a greater or lesser mastery of the material, that is, the
score and its every detail. One can only hear individual mistakes in
the complicated mass of sound when one knows completely just
what the composer wanted.” (Pult and Takstock, Dec., 1925).
Of course there are conductors who learn the content of a score
quickly from listening to the orchestra as they rehearse. But, it
matters not how clever the conductor is, his orchestra always senses
when it is being used as the means of their leader’s learning the
score and their respect for him is lowered. There is a fable of a
young conductor who wished to impress himself on his men by a
display of sharp hearing. He secretly wrote in a false F ♯ in the
second bassoon part of a particularly loud and boisterous passage.
At the rehearsal in the midst of the orchestral rumpus he suddenly
stopped the orchestra and cried out impatiently, “F sharp, F sharp in
the second bassoon is wrong,” only to be answered by the first
player, “Beg pardon, Sir, the second bassoon is absent today.”
 To play a full score accurately and fluently on the piano, is an art
in itself and in the course of musical history we hear of only a few
musicians who really could do this. Saint-Saëns, Liszt, and Von
Buelow were said to be proficient in this difficult art, and undoubtedly
their marvelous piano technique was a most important factor in their
prima-vista score transcriptions. To fluently play a printed pianoforte
arrangement of a Beethoven Symphony takes as much technique as
to play one of his sonatas. We must not forget the comparative
simplicity of even a Wagner score when compared with such a work
as Varese’s “L’Amériques” or “The Rites of Spring” by Stravinsky,
and it is just likely that any of the three masters just mentioned would
have great difficulty in reading Honegger’s “Pacific 231” at the piano.
For the average conductor then, the piano does not become the
supreme channel for expressing the score, but is used merely as an
aid to his mental and spiritual master of its intricacies.
There still remains for discussion one phase in the work of score
preparation, and that is—memory. Just as among concert players
the old custom of playing from the printed page has given way to the
one of playing and singing everything from memory, so have modern
conductors taken to dispensing with their scores in performance.
The increased amount of preparatory work involved in
memorizing a score certainly gives one an increased insight into the
composition and to be freed from the necessity of reading the printed
page gives a much greater authority and command in the whole
attitude of the conductor at the performance. We never read of any
great military commander leading his troops to battle with his eyes
glued on the map, and we have all heard of the conductors who
have their heads in the score when they should have the score in
their heads. Arturo Toscanini memorizes every detail of the score
before the first rehearsal and conducts even the rehearsals from
memory. This, of course, is such miraculous achievement in the
mastery of the purely technical that it ceases to be technique and
becomes an integral part of the conductor’s being.
The improved gramophone with the new process records of the
great orchestral, choral and operatic masterworks can be put to
splendid use by the student of conducting. Score in hand, these
records should be listened to until completely absorbed and then
they should be conducted. The operatic arias are particularly good
practice for practising the art of conducting accompaniments.
In concluding this chapter the following paragraph from Adrian
Boult’s “Handbook on the Technique of Conducting” is most fitting.
He says, “In conducting there is a double mental process. There is
the process of thinking ahead and preparing the orchestra for what is
to come, that is to say, of driving it like a locomotive. There is also
the process of listening and noting difficulties and points that must be
altered, in fact of watching the music, as a guard watches his train.
At rehearsal the second of these is the more important. Occasionally
one must take hold and drive one’s forces to the top of a climax, just
as a boat’s crew on the day before the race does one minute of its
hardest racing, but takes it pretty easy otherwise. The main thing at
a rehearsal is to watch results and to act on them. At a performance
it is the other way about—the conductor must take the lead. It is then
too late to alter things like faulty balance or wrong expression, but
the structure and balance of the work as a whole and the right spirit
are the two things of paramount importance.”
 CHAPTER VII
The Technic of the Baton
in Choral Conducting

There seems to be in the minds of some musicians an idea that a vast

difference exists between chorus conducting and orchestra conducting. In fact, it
is a very common fact that there are many fine musicians who obtain excellent
results from their choruses but who are completely at a loss when it comes to
conducting even the orchestral accompaniment of the choral works they are
presenting. The tales told by sophisticated orchestral players on their return from
music festivals in the provinces about the antics of many choral conductors
would be funny if they were not tragic.
Usually, the choral conductor is a good musician and knows his musical
subject matter thoroughly. Through the process of much careful rehearsing and
teaching, he succeeds in imparting his ideas of interpretation to his chorus,
which in turn comes to understand the meaning of his gestures. Up until the first
orchestral rehearsal, which is usually the only one, everything goes smoothly;
but as soon as the highly trained and sensitive orchestra tries to follow the
conductor’s beat, a state of utter chaos ensues. Much time is wasted, the
conductor becomes irritable, the chorus demoralized, the orchestra scornful, and
in general the outlook for a successful concert begins to look very black. Finally,
the more practical side of the orchestra rises above the disgruntled and
disillusioned attitude and it rescues the situation by playing more in spite of the
conductor rather than because of him. This picture is not exaggerated and has
almost a universal application. The author, in his orchestral playing days, has
witnessed such scenes not only in the United States but also in France and
Germany, and has been told by competent authorities that the same conditions
exist in England. In fact, this little tale is one that will be verified by almost every
experienced orchestral musician.
The cause of much of this ineffective conducting is a profusion of vague,
meaningless (to the orchestral player) gestures on the part of the choral
conductor, who has gotten into the habit of making many motions because of
certain conditions peculiar to choruses and choral music. First of these
conditions is the average chorus member’s rather low standard of musical ability,
(in comparison with the professional orchestra) which causes the conductor to
lead his charges through intricate rhythmical mazes by indicating every 32d note
and beating out the melodic contour rather than giving the basic beats and
subdivision of the beats. Secondly, the conductor usually has the assistance of a
good accompanist who plays the piano arrangement of the orchestral score so
efficiently that the conductor ceases to even think about it, and who provides a
firm rhythmical background by crisp and incisive marking of the main beats of
the measure. Naturally, the conductor cannot change the habits acquired during
many weeks of rehearsal and when he finally finds himself in front of the critical
professional orchestra, he is confronted with the task of leading this complicated
organization with gestures engendered by the peculiar weaknesses of his choral
body and which are totally confusing to the strange orchestra.
There is only one remedy for this condition. Directors of choruses must
remember that essentially there is no difference between orchestral conducting
and choral conducting, although there is a vast difference between orchestral
and choral training and rehearsing. It is not necessary to give the chorus a
special gesture for each 32d note of the melodic line. Chorus members will give
a rhythmical performance of a work only when they are made to feel the main
pulsations of the movement, and this can be accomplished only by using such
established gestures which clearly mark the fundamental rhythm. Naturally, such
gestures will easily be understood by the orchestral musicians as well as by the
chorus singers. Of course, this refers definitely to the conducting of combined
orchestral and choral forces. The conducting of part songs accompanied or
unaccompanied calls for a somewhat different treatment.
In A Capella music, the conductor usually dispenses with the baton in order
to gain more expressive freedom of both hands. In comparison with a choral-
orchestral composition, these part songs and polyphonic choruses have but few
individual parts and the conductor is not so much concerned with the actual
beating of time as with the subtle indication of interpretative shades and
meaning. Nevertheless, the author believes that the fundamental gestures are a
sufficiently comprehensive basis for the most expressive type of conducting.
It is not the purpose of this chapter to enter into the details of choral training
and interpretation. Those subjects have been admirably treated by other writers
and for the chorus master seeking truly authoritative advice in these matters, the
following books are recommended:

Coward—Choral Technic and Interpretation (Novello)

Russell—English Diction (Ditson)
Henderson—The Singer’s Art.
Mees—Choirs and Choir Music
Schweitzer—Bach
Newman Flower—Handel